Genetic Diversity and Natural Selection in 42 kDa Region of Plasmodium vivax Merozoite Surface Protein-1 from China-Myanmar Endemic Border

Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein-1 (PvMSP1) gene codes for a major malaria vaccine candidate antigen. However, its polymorphic nature represents an obstacle to the design of a protective vaccine. In this study, we analyzed the genetic polymorphism and natural selection of the C-terminal 42 kDa fragment within PvMSP1 gene (Pv MSP142) from 77 P. vivax isolates, collected from imported cases of China-Myanmar border (CMB) areas in Yunnan province and the inland cases from Anhui, Yunnan, and Zhejiang province in China during 2009-2012. Totally, 41 haplotypes were identified and 30 of them were new haplotypes. The differences between the rates of non-synonymous and synonymous mutations suggest that PvMSP142 has evolved under natural selection, and a high selective pressure preferentially acted on regions identified of PvMSP133. Our results also demonstrated that PvMSP142 of P. vivax isolates collected on China-Myanmar border areas display higher genetic polymorphisms than those collected from inland of China. Such results have significant implications for understanding the dynamic of the P. vivax population and may be useful information towards China malaria elimination campaign strategies.

Genetic diversity and natural selection of three blood-stage 6-Cys proteins in Plasmodium vivax populations from the China-Myanmar endemic border

Pv12, Pv38 and Pv41, the three 6-Cys family proteins which are expressed in the blood-stage of vivax malaria, might be involved in merozoite invasion activity and thus be potential vaccine candidate antigens of Plasmodium vivax. However, little information is available concerning the genetic diversity and natural selection of these three proteins. In the present study, we analyzed the amino acid sequences of P. vivax blood-stage 6-Cys family proteins in comparison with the homologue proteins of Plasmodium cynomolgi strain B using bioinformatic methods. We also investigated genetic polymorphisms and natural selection of these three genes in P. vivax populations from the China-Myanmar endemic border. The three P. vivax blood-stage 6-Cys proteins were shown to possess a signal peptide at the N-terminus, containing two s48/45 domains, and Pv12 and Pv38 have a GPI-anchor motif at the C-terminus. Then, 22, 21 and 29 haplotypes of pv12, pv38 and pv41 were identified out of 45, 38 and 40 isolates, respectively. The dN/dS values for Domain II of pv38 and pv41 were 3.33880 and 5.99829, respectively, suggesting positive balancing selection for these regions. Meanwhile, the C-terminus of pv41 showed high nucleotide diversity, and Tajima's D test suggested that this fragment could be under positive balancing selection. Overall, our results have significant implications, providing a genetic basis for blood-stage malaria vaccine development based on these three 6-Cys proteins.

[Genetic variations of the elastase gene among eight populations of Schistosoma japonicum]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate genetic diversity in the elastase gene among eight Schistosoma japonicum populations, and whether natural selection occur.

METHODS

S. japonicum populations were collected from the provinces of Anhui (Tongling and Guichi), Hunan (Yueyang), Hubei (Shashi), Sichuan (Xichang), Yunnan (Eryuan), Taiwan (Puye) in China, and the Philippines. The elastase gene from different populations was amplified by PCR and then sequenced. Watterson's theta, Tajima's pi, dN/dS ratio, Tajima's D and fixation index (F(st)) of each population were calculated. The phylogenetic networks based on the elastase gene were constructed by median-joining algorithm.

RESULTS

A total of 73 elestase gene sequences (GenBank No. KF297654-KF297681) were obtained from 8 populations. The sequence analysis indicated that higher genetic diversity was found in the populations from the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (i.e. Tongling City of Anhui, Yueyang City of Hunan), while there was no genetic variations in Hubei or Philippines populations. The value of Tajima's D was positive in Hunan population, while negative in the other populations. The dN/dS ratio was higher than 1 in Tongling population, whereas lower than 1 in Taiwan population. Significant genetic differentiations were observed between Taiwan population and other populations.

CONCLUSION

The genetic diversity of the elastase gene among S. japonicum populations is very high, and a high level of gene flow has been detected among the populations from the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The S.japonicum elastase gene might have been under a positive selection. The level of genetic divergence is the highest between Taiwan population and others.

[New polymorphic microsatellite loci identified using genomic resource for Schistosoma japonicum]

OBJECTIVE

To identify new microsatellite loci from genome sequence database for the study of polymorphism of Schistosoma japonicum.

METHODS

Schistosoma japonicum isolates were obtained from seven endemic sites in China: Tongling and Guichi counties of Anhui Province, Duchang county of Jiangxi Province, Changde and Yueyang Cities of Hunan Province, Shashi City of Hubei Province, Xichang City of Sichuan Province. In order to study the genetic variance, genomic DNAs of 96 individual adult worms were screened against 17 new Schistosoma japonicum microsatellites and the raw data were analyzed by GenMapper 4.0. Furthermore, the varieties of alleles were inverstigated using GenA1Ex 6 and genetic distances within a subpopulation (GenClone) and among populations(UPGMA, MEGA 3.1) were analyzed.

RESULTS

High levels of polymorphism were found between and within population samples, and significant genetic diversity was observed among the seven subpopulations. Within Jiangxi population, most genetic distances (17 loci) among samples range from 25 to 32, indicating a significant genetic diversity. There are three clusters among the seven populations: Jiangxi, Tonglin, Shashi and Changde population, with the genetics distances ranging from 0.0178 to 0.0363; Guichi and Yueyang population belong to another cluster, with the genetic distance of 0.0247; However, Xichang population is an unique group. Its genetic distances to other populations are notable with a range from 0.019 2 to 0.069 3.

CONCLUSION

The 17 new polymorphic microsatellites identified may be used as suitable markers for the study on population genetics of Schistosoma japonicum and the genetic variance of the worms seems to be complicated.

Targeting molecular signals in chk1 pathways as a new approach for overcoming drug resistance

The common clinical problem in the successful treatment of cancer is the resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs. Chemotherapy kills drug-sensitive cells, but leaves behind a higher proportion of drug-resistant cells. The resistance can be due to altered drug accumulation, retention, metabolism and distribution, or to reduced drug-target interaction. More recently, cell cycle progression, DNA mismatch repair (MMR) and cell death have been shown to play an important role in the regulation of cell resistance to anticancer drugs. Chkl regulation pathways, DNA MMR and p73, as well as altered apoptotic cell death involved in the cell resistance toward DNA damaging agents will be reviewed in this article.

Characterization of protein kinase chk1 essential for the cell cycle checkpoint after exposure of human head and neck carcinoma A253 cells to a novel topoisomerase I inhibitor BNP1350

Cellular topoisomerase I is an important target in cancer chemotherapy. A novel karenitecin, BNP1350, is a topoisomerase I-targeting anticancer agent with significant antitumor activity against human head and neck carcinoma A253 cells in vitro. As a basis for future clinical trials of BNP1350 in human head and neck carcinoma, in vitro studies were carried out to investigate its effect on DNA damage and cell cycle checkpoint response. The treatment of A253 cells with BNP1350 caused biphasic profiles of DNA fragmentation displayed from 0 to 48 h after 2-h exposure. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis demonstrated that the first wave of DNA damage was mainly megabase DNA fragmentation, but the second wave of DNA damage was 50- to 300-kb DNA fragmentation in addition to megabase DNA damage. The cell cycle checkpoint response was characterized after exposure to 0.07 and 0.7 microM concentrations of BNP1350, the IC(50) and IC(90) values, respectively. After exposure to a low concentration of BNP1350 (IC(50)), A253 cells accumulated primarily in G(2) phase. In contrast, treatment with a high concentration of BNP1350 (IC(90)) resulted in S phase accumulation. The concentration-associated cell cycle perturbation by BNP1350 was correlated with different profiles of cell cycle-regulatory protein expression. When treated with the low concentration of BNP1350, cyclin B/cdc2 protein expression was up-regulated, whereas with the high concentration, no significant change was observed at 24 and 48 h. In addition, increased phosphorylation of a G(2) checkpoint kinase chk1 was observed when cells were treated with a low concentration of BNP1350, whereas only slight inhibition of chk1 activity was found in the cells treated with the higher concentration. Altered chk1 phosphorylation after DNA damage appears to be associated with specific phases of cell cycle arrest induced by BNP1350. Because A253 cells do not express the p53 protein, the drug-induced alterations of the G(2) checkpoint kinase chk1 are not p53-dependent.

Involvement of cyclin D1-cdk5 overexpression and MCM3 cleavage in bax-associated spontaneous apoptosis and differentiation in an A253 human head and neck carcinoma xenograft model

Time-dependent ladder-type DNA fragmentation and morphological alterations consistent with apoptosis were observed among A253 human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells in nude mice from 15 to 18 days after transplantation, without any drug treatment. No evidence of ladder-type DNA fragmentation was detected in A253 cells in vitro or in normal nude mouse tissues (skin and muscle). Our aim was to explore molecular factors associated with such spontaneous apoptosis. Bcl-2 protein expression decreased, while bax protein expression increased from day 9 after transplantation. Moreover, altered expression of bcl-2 and bax was accompanied by the increased proteolytic cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Time-dependent dephosphorylation of Rb, followed by proteolytic cleavage, was also observed from day 9 after transplantation. The data indicate that the caspase-3 activation and cleavage of Rb protein may represent important steps in the regulation pathway of bax-mediated spontaneous apoptosis. Interestingly, the time-dependent activation of spontaneous apoptosis was almost simultaneous with the induction of differentiation and increased expression of several differentiation-associated regulatory proteins. An increased expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinase-5 (cdk5) was observed from day 9 after transplantation, whereas only slight alteration of cdk4 expression was found. The time-dependent activation of cyclin D1 and cdk5 preceded both the induction of ladder-type DNA fragmentation and increased keratin pearl formation. Furthermore, MCM3 was cleaved early in spontaneous apoptosis and differentiation. Our observations suggest the involvement of cyclin D1-cdk5 overexpression and MCM3 cleavage in bax-mediated spontaneous apoptosis and differentiation in A253 xenografts. P53 and WAF1 proteins were not expressed in the xenografts, indicating that the changes in the regulatory proteins during apoptosis and differentiation were not p53 or WAF1 dependent.

Dimerization of mitochondrial Bax is associated with increased drug response in Bax-transfected A253 cells

Human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma A253 cells, which do not express p53 and p21 proteins, were engineered to stably express about 50-fold higher level of Bax protein (A253/Bax) than the mock-transfected (A253/vec) or parental cells. Using these cell lines, studies were carried out to evaluate the role of Bax in response to anticancer drugs and to study the associated mechanisms. A253/Bax cells exhibited a significant increase in in vitro sensitivity to various anticancer drugs, including tomudex (9.5-fold), SN-38 (13.8-fold), doxorubicin (7.9-fold), taxol (3.1-fold), 5-FU (2.7-fold), and 5-FU/LV (4.5-fold). Increased level of drug-induced apoptosis was observed in A253/Bax cells in a drug concentration-dependent manner. In untreated A253/Bax cells, Bax was expressed in a monomeric state. Treatment with tomudex induced the formation of Bax dimer in a drug concentration-dependent manner. Dimerization of Bax occurred only in mitochondria, while the cytosolic Bax was retained in the monomeric state. Low level of Bax dimerization was also detected in parental A253 cells following tomudex exposure. In addition, Bax dimer formation was associated with mitochondrial cytochrome c release and activation of caspases in A253/Bax cells. The data suggest that Bax overexpression increases drug response by enhancing drug-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, dimerization of mitochondrial Bax and downstream mechanisms are associated with drug-induced apoptotic cell death and increased drug sensitivity.

Cyclin E-cdk2 activation is associated with cell cycle arrest and inhibition of DNA replication induced by the thymidylate synthase inhibitor Tomudex

Tomudex (ZD1694) is a specific antifolate-based thymidylate synthase inhibitor active in a variety of solid tumor malignancies. Studies were carried out in vitro to evaluate downstream molecular alterations induced as a consequence of the potent and sustained inhibition of thymidylate synthase by Tomudex. Twenty-four hours following the initial 2-h treatment with Tomudex, human A253 head and neck squamous carcinoma cells, not expressing p53 and p21(WAF1), were accumulated with DNA content characteristic of early S phase of the cell cycle with a concomitant reduction of cells in G1 and G2/M phases. The changes in cyclin and cdk protein expression and their kinase activities were examined in control and drug-treated A253 cells. Tomudex treatment resulted in the decrease in p27(kip1) expression, with an increase in cyclin E and cdk2 protein expression and kinase activities 24 h after a 2-h exposure. Although cyclin A protein expression was markedly increased, cyclin A kinase activity was only slightly increased. Cyclin D1, cyclin B, cdk4, and cdc2 protein expression and kinase activities remain constant. Lack of activation of cyclin A- and B-cdc2 was associated with a reduced proportion of cells in G2/M phases. Increased cyclin E-cdk2 protein expression was accompanied by the inhibition of DNA synthesis, with a decrease in E2F-1 expression. These results propose that cyclin E-cdk2 kinase can negatively regulate DNA replication. The studies with dThyd rescue from cyclin E-cdk2 protein overexpression and growth inhibition by Tomudex indicate that increased cyclin E-cdk2 protein expression is associated with effective inhibition of thymidylate synthase and resultant dNTP pool imbalance. Provision of dThyd more than 24 h after exposure to Tomudex allowed cells to replicate DNA for a single cycle back to G1, but did not prevent the profound growth-inhibitory effect manifested in the following 5 days. Tomudex treatment resulted in a time-dependent induction of the megabase DNA fragments, followed by secondary 50- to 300-kb DNA fragmentation. The 50- to 300-kb DNA fragmentation may be derived from the inhibition of DNA synthesis associated with cyclin E-cdk2 activation. These results suggest that the megabase DNA fragmentation is induced as a consequence of inhibition of thymidylate synthase by Tomudex and kilobase DNA fragmentation may correlate with the reduction of p27(kip1) expression and the increase in cyclin E and cdk2 kinase activities. Activation of cyclin E and cdk2 kinases allows cells to transit from G1 to S phase accompanied by the inhibition of DNA synthesis. The changes in cell cycle regulatory proteins associated with growth inhibition and DNA damage by Tomudex are not p53 dependent.

Topoisomerase-I inhibitor SN-38 can induce DNA damage and chromosomal aberrations independent from DNA synthesis

BACKGROUND

SN-38 is the active metabolite of the topoisomerase-I (topo-I) inhibitor Irinotecan (CPT-11). Generally, topo-I inhibitors stabilize the complex between topo-I and DNA which collide with moving DNA replication forks, eventually leading to double stranded DNA damage. Therefore, topo-I inhibitors are regarded as S-phase specific. The present study investigated S-phase dependent and independent effects of SN-38.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effects of exposure of A2780 cells to SN-38 (2 hours) were studied by assessing DNA/protein crosslinks, DNA damage and cytogenetic aberrations.

RESULTS

A close correlation (r2 = 0.97) was established between drug-induced DNA/protein crosslinks and double stranded DNA breaks. Cytogenetic analysis revealed near maximum clastogenic effects already evident immediately following 2 hours drug exposure. However, qualitatively, chromatid breaks at 24 hours were different from those at 0 hours, in that at 24 hours they were associated with radial chromosome configurations and sister chromatid exchanges.

CONCLUSION

The data corroborate that the S-phase dependent mechanism of action of topo-I inhibitors is also applicable to SN-38. The cytogenetic data indicate two distinct interactions of SN-38 with DNA: immediate induction of chromatid breaks independent from DNA synthesis, and induction of chromatid breaks associated with radial chromosome configurations dependent on DNA synthesis.

Cellular determinants of resistance to indolocarbazole analogue 6-N-formylamino-12,13-dihydro-1,11-dihydroxy-13(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)- 5H-indolo[2,3-alpha]pyrrolo[3,4-c]carbazole-5,7(6H)-dione (NB-506), a novel potent topoisomerase I inhibitor, in multidrug-resistant human tumor cells

Membrane protein-associated alterations in cellular drug accumulation have been recently implicated in resistance to topoisomerase I (TOP-I)-interactive drugs. The present study investigated the cellular determinants of resistance to the indolocarbazole compound NB-506 [6-N-formylamino-12,13-dihydro-1,11-dihydroxy-13(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)- 5H-indolo[2,3-alpha]pyrrolo[3,4-c]carbazole-5,7(6H)-dione], a structurally novel TOP-I-interactive drug, in parental and multidrug-resistant tumor cells expressing either the P-170 glycoprotein (Pgp170) or multidrug resistance protein (MRP). MRP-expressing 250-fold doxorubicin-resistant human fibrosarcoma HT1080/DR4 tumor cells were drug sensitive to NB-506 and camptothecin (CPT) (resistance factor: 0.7 and 0.8, respectively) with no alterations of TOP-I parameters including DNA relaxation, expression of TOP-I protein and mRNA. In contrast, doxorubicin-resistant human ovarian A2780/Dx5 tumor cells [pgp170 phenotype] were 6.2-fold resistant to NB-506, whereas resistance to CPT was 2.6-fold. HPLC analysis of cellular NB-506 accumulation showed no significant differences between A2780 and A2780/Dx5 cells (peak intracellular concentrations after 120-min exposure to 10 microM NB-506: 400+/-85.0 and 352+/-95.1 nmol NB-506/mg protein, respectively). However, resistant A2780/Dx5 cells expressed a lower amount of TOP-I mRNA and 29% protein levels of TOP-I compared to parental A2780 cells, resulting in decreased TOP-I catalytic activity (3.17+/-0.02 vs. 1.16+/-0.15 rel.U/microg nuclear protein) and reduced induction of NB-506-mediated cleavable complex formation in A2780/Dx5 cells. Furthermore, the lower induction of NB-506-induced protein-linked DNA breaks (PLDB) in A2780/Dx5 cells correlated with significantly decreased DNA 12.2-440 kb size fragmentation in these cells. The present study demonstrates that expression of MRP and Pgp170 does not confer resistance to NB-506. Resistance to indolocarbazole substance NB-506 in A2780/Dx5 cells was only related to downregulation of TOP-I associated with lower induction of cleavable complex formation and DNA fragmentation. The data reported herein may indicate that the new indolocarbazole compound NB-506 has potent antitumor efficacy in membrane-associated multidrug resistance.

Novel cellular determinants for reversal of multidrug resistance in cells expressing P170-glycoprotein

The newly synthesized calcium channel blocker, Ro44-5912, significantly potentiates doxorubicin (Dox)-induced cytotoxicity at non-cytotoxic concentrations in Dox-resistant human ovarian cell line, A2780/DX5, overexpressing P170-glycoprotein (Pgp). Induction of DNA single- and double-strand breaks (ssbs and dsbs) was measured using alkaline elution and constant-field gel electrophoresis (CFGE) assays. The results indicate that potentiation of the cytotoxicity of Dox by Ro44-5912 was accompanied by significant increases in both, Dox-induced DNA ssbs and dsbs in the resistant cells. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis showed that Dox induced DNA fragments in the 50-800 kilobase (kb) and 0.8-5.7 megabase (Mb) ranges. The majority of the newly synthesized DNA fragments were in the 50-800 kb range. Ro44-5912 treatment resulted in significant potentiation of DNA fragmentation in the 50-800 kb range with a minor increase in 0.8-5.7 Mb DNA fragments, suggesting that the modulator functions by potentiating nascent DNA fragmentation in the resistant cells. Exposure to Dox with Ro44-5912 was associated with a prolonged blockage of cells in the S-phase. In contrast, exposure to Dox alone resulted in temporary blockage of cells in G2/M phase (approximately 24 h) followed by restoration of cell proliferation and normal DNA histograms at 48 h after 2 h drug exposure. Incorporation of BrdUrd by flow cytometric analysis was inhibited by Dox in the presence of Ro44-5912, showing that there is a block of DNA replication. An increased damage in newly synthesized DNA could concur with a blocked DNA replication. Moreover, slowing progression through the S-phase in cells exposed to Dox in combination with Ro44-5912 is accompanied by increased sensitivity of Dox poisons, indicating a correlation of specific S-phase perturbation with the reversal of Dox resistance by Ro44-5912 in cells expressing Pgp. The results suggest that drug-induced augmentation of nascent DNA fragmentation and specific cell-cycle perturbation are potentially important molecular determinants for reversal of multidrug resistance in addition to restoration of intracellular drug retention.

Recent advances in the study of rTS proteins. rTS expression during growth and in response to thymidylate synthase inhibitors in human tumor cells

The rTS proteins have now been shown to be expressed in a variety of cell lines, with expression of rTS beta being found elevated in three cell lines which are resistant to TS inhibitors (3, 4) (Figure 1). In one of these cell lines (K562 B1A), the cells were selected for resistance to MTX, which has a primary site of action on DHFR, but was found to be cross-resistant to FUdR (4). The other two cell lines were selected for resistance to either 5-fluorouracil (H630-1) or a combination of ZD1694 and FU. In each case, elevation of rTS beta appears to be a selected response to thymidylate stress. In HCT-8 and HCT-8/DF2 cells, treatment of cells for a short period of time (2 hr) resulted in the elevation of rTS beta levels, again suggestive that expression of rTS beta is a response to thymidylate stress. rTS beta appears to be regulated with cell growth, its levels increasing at mid-log and at late-log/saturation phase in H630 and H630-1 cells (Fig. 2), and increasing with late-log in several other cell lines as well (Fig. 3). The increase in rTS beta is suggestive of a cellular function associated with a state where growth is no longer desirable, reminiscent of the starvation-sensing protein homolog RSPA in E. coli (22). While this relationship would not explain the spike in rTS beta levels in mid-log H630 and H630-1 cells, it does make sense if the rTS proteins (particularly rTS beta) are involved in down-regulating thymidylate biosynthesis. The potential mechanism of this down-regulation may be speculated to be the catabolism of some precursor for thymidylate biosynthesis or some direct effect upon TS through modulation by some other ligand, either a metabolite or another protein. Studies on the expression of rTS proteins in clinical specimens indicate that rTS beta is expressed at high levels in kidney and kidney tumor (Dolnick, unpublished results). Given the physiologic role of the kidney, high level expression of rTS in this organ is consistent with a role in a catabolic pathway. Since down-regulation of TS activity is expected to increase sensitivity to TS inhibitors, a role for rTS beta in directly down-regulating TS activity in the biochemical sense would seem unlikely. However, the manner of biochemical TS down-regulation may make a difference. In the TS- Cl/Cl cell line, there are two mutations in TS which likely reduce affinity for N-5,10-methylene tetrahydrofolates (23). This cell line is highly resistant to MTX, yet is still tumorigenic in vivo (24), and supplying the cells with high levels of exogenous folate can restore TS function (23). Thus in TS- Cl/Cl cells, the TS phenotype is conditionally dependent upon the presence of high levels of exogenous folate. This suggests that a role of rTS proteins as conditional down-regulators of TS, perhaps through modulating folate binding, may be possible. Two cell lines (K562 B1A and H630-1) that overproduce rTS beta have altered sensitivity to TS inhibitors that differ depending upon the nature of the inhibitor. The K562 B1A cell line was found to be approximately 2000-fold resistant to ZD1694 and BW1843U89 (120 hr exposures), but only three-fold resistant to AG331. The H630-1 cell line is approximately 30-fold resistant to BW1843U89 (120 hr exposure) and 40-fold resistant to ZD1694 (120 hr exposure), but only eight-fold resistant to AG331. Since K562 B1A cells overproduce rTS beta (2), but have no significant alterations in FPGS activity, the possibility that rTS may affect folate binding remains a hypothesis worth examining. The recent discovery that TS is a phosphoprotein and that it is nuclear as well as cytoplasmic (21) raises the possibility that the phosphorylation state of TS may regulate one of its cellular functions, and that the subcellular localization of this enzyme is regulated as well. Since rTS proteins have HSP with proteins that participate in kinase/phosphatase reactions, this also seems to be an avenue worthy of future investigation. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED

Evaluation of topoisomerase I catalytic activity as determinant of drug response in human cancer cell lines

The prognostic value of topoisomerase I (Topo I) catalytic activity and expression of the multidrug resistance (MDR) marker P-glycoprotein (Pgp) and multidrug resistance protein (MRP) for in vitro sensitivity to Topo I interactive agents were evaluated. The efficacy of short term (2 h) and long term (24 h) exposures of camptothecin (CPT), two CPT derivatives (SN-22, SN-38) and the indolocarbazole compound NB-506, was determined against human ovarian carcinoma (A2780 and A2780 DX5), human fibrosarcoma (HT1080 and IIT1080/DR4) and human ileocecal carcinoma (HCT-8). For each cell line the Topo I protein levels and catalytic activity were determined and correlated with drug-induced cytotoxicity. In general, the Topo I protein levels correlated with Topo I catalytic activity. Drug-induced cytotoxicity increased significantly with prolongation of the exposure time. With the 2 h exposure, the multidrug resistant A2780 DX5 cell line (Pgp+, MRP-) was moderately resistant to all four drugs compared to its parental cell line. In case of CPT and SN-22 but not for SN-38 and NB-506, this resistance was no longer detectable following 24 h drug exposure. No resistance was detectable for the multidrug resistant HT1080/DR4 (Pgp-, MRP+) cell line when compared to its parental cell line. With short term exposures a strong trend was observed toward increased cytotoxicity with increased Topo I catalytic activity, especially if this correlation was studied between derivative cell lines (A2780 vs. A2780 DX5 and HT1080 vs. HT1080/DR4). This correlation weakened when all 5 cell lines and both exposure conditions were considered. Thus, although overall the correlation between Topo I catalytic activity and sensitivity to Topo I interactive drugs between different cell lines is weak, this correlation may be stronger when comparing derivative cell lines. For CPT and SN-22 but not for SN-38 and NB-506, the moderate resistance levels observed in the Pgp-expressing cell line could be negated by prolongation of exposure duration. MRP expression did not effect drug efficacy. The data demonstrate that the importance of Topo I catalytic activity as single prognostic factor for drug response to Topo I interactive agents is weak and that additional mechanisms affecting drug response have to be taken into consideration.

p53 and WAF1 are induced and Rb protein is hypophosphorylated during cell growth inhibition by the thymidylate synthase inhibitor ZD1694 (Tomudex)

In a previous study, we found that treatment of HCT-8 cells with ZD1694, a specific antifolate-based thymidylate synthase inhibitor, resulted in DNA fragmentation. In this study, we have demonstrated the dose- and time-dependent induction of DNA fragmentation accompanied by elevation of p53 and WAF1 protein expression by ZD1694. WAF1 mRNA showed a time-dependent increase, whereas p53 mRNA was not found to be significantly overexpressed. The initial increase in WAF1 mRNA was detected at 4 hr, but increased WAF1 protein expression was detected 8-24 hr after a 2-hr exposure. The amount of total and hypophosphorylated pRb seems to be rising greatly after ZD1694 exposure. The effects of ZD1694 on the expression of E2F1 and formation of the E2F1-Rb complex were investigated after a 2-hr drug exposure (IC90). The results showed a time-dependent decrease in E2F1 mRNA and protein expression; an increase in the abundance of the E2F-Rb complex could be demonstrated beginning 4 hr after drug exposure by a gel shift assay. Kinetic analysis showed increased availability of hypophosphorylated pRb for inhibition of E2F, which could indirectly result from WAF1-induced inhibition cyclin-dependent kinase activity. Whereas thymidylate synthase inhibition by ZD1694 was rapid in onset and maintained for at least 24 hr after drug treatment, drug-induced cellular growth inhibition was significant 24 hr after drug exposure. The increased abundance of hypophosphorylated pRb and binding to transcription factor E2F-1 is consistent with ZD1694-induced cell growth inhibition in HCT-8 cells. Therefore, the observed effect on downstream events after effective inhibition of thymidylate synthase may offer the critical determinants of response to ZD1694.

Carbamoylation of glutathione reductase by N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)-N- nitrosourea associated with inhibition of multidrug resistance protein (MRP) function

Intracellular glutathione (GSH) concentrations have been implicated recently as a regulatory determinant of multidrug resistance protein (MRP)-mediated drug efflux. Inhibition of glutathione reductase (GR) activity of N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)-N-nitrosourea (BCNU) has been employed extensively to investigate the role of GSH redox cycle in cellular function. The present study examined the effect of BCNU on the MRP-mediated efflux of doxorubicin in the multidrug-resistant human fibrosarcoma cell line HT1080/DR4 overexpressing MRP. No significant difference in GR activity between HT1080 (parental) and multidrug-resistant HT1080/DR4 cells was detected (38.6 +/- 2.2 and 37.8 +/- 5.28 nmol/min/10(6) cells, respectively). Exposure of HT1080 and HT1080/DR4 cells to 100-500 microM BCNU decreased GR activity concentration dependently with subsequent reduction in cellular GSH pools in both cell lines. Inhibition of GSH biosynthesis by D,L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (D,L-BSO), a specific inhibitor of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase, significantly reduced MRP-mediated drug efflux and potentiated the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin in MRP-expressing HT1080/DR4 cells (dose modifying factor 20.8). While equally effective inhibition of GR activity by BCNU was observed in parental and resistant cells, a significant increase in intracellular retention of doxorubicin was only achieved in MRP-expressing HT1080/DR4 cells. Furthermore, inhibition of MRP function following treatment with BCNU or D,L-BSO was directly related to the degree of GSH depletion in MRP-expressing tumor cells [r = 0.94 (P < 0.001) and 0.99 (P < 0.001), respectively]. Based on northern blot analysis of MRP mRNA levels, exposure of HT1080/DR4 cells to BCNU did not produce down-regulation of MRP gene expression. The results reported herein indicate that derivatives of nitrosourea with carbamoylating properties are potent inhibitors of MRP function. Depletion of intracellular GSH pools by inhibition of the GSH redox cycle or GSH de novo biosynthesis significantly inhibited MRP-mediated doxorubicin transport and restored intracellular drug concentrations in vitro.

Thymidylate synthase inhibitors in cancer therapy: direct and indirect inhibitors

PURPOSE AND METHODS

Although fluoropyrimidines, in particular, fluorouracil (5-FU) and fluorodeoxyuridine (FdUrd), are active alone and in combination with other agents in a variety of human malignancies, therapeutic selectivity, resistance, and efficacy have been a major limitation in cancer therapy. Preclinical and clinical results in advanced and adjuvant colorectal cancers confirmed that the therapeutic efficacy of fluoropyrimidines, with thymidylate synthase (TS) as a primary target, can be improved significantly with leucovorin (LV) modulation. With the recognition that TS is an important therapeutic target, direct and specific inhibitors have been developed and are under intensive preclinical and clinical evaluation, primarily in patients with colorectal cancer, with demonstrable activity. The direct TS inhibitors have been shown to be potent, with a high level of specificity under therapeutic conditions for TS. This includes ZD1694, AG337, and LY231514. To date, although the therapeutic activity of both direct and indirect inhibitors of TS is similar, differences in the magnitude and profile of toxicity have been observed. A phase III comparative evaluation of a direct inhibitor of TS (ZD1694) with an indirect inhibitor (5-FU/LV) has been completed and showed similar activity but reduced toxicity in favor of ZD1694.

RESULTS

Recognition that greater than 95% of the injected dose of 5-FU is rapidly inactivated by dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) to therapeutically inactive products, but with toxicity to normal tissues, led to the development of inhibitors of this enzyme with the aim to modify the therapeutic index of 5-FU. Several inhibitors in combination with 5-FU are under preclinical and clinical evaluation, including uracil and 5-chloro-2,4-dihydroxy pyridine, as modulators of 5-FU derived from its prodrug tegafur and 5-ethynyluracil as a modulator of 5-FU.

CONCLUSION

In this review, an update of the present status of direct and indirect inhibitors of TS is discussed, as well as the future prospect for new drugs alone and in combination.

DiOC2(3) is not a substrate for multidrug resistance protein (MRP)-mediated drug efflux

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is often related to expression of P-glycoprotein (Pgp) or Multidrug Resistance Protein (MRP). Pgp-mediated MDR can be evaluated by determining cellular retention of fluorescent substrates by flow cytometry. This study determined if agents used to evaluate Pgp function also can be used to evaluate MRP function. Cellular retention of doxorubicin (Dox), Rhodamine-123 (Rh-123), and 3,3'-diethyloxacarbocyanine iodide (DiOC2(3)) were studied in MRP-expressing cell lines (HL60/Adr and HT1080/DR4), whereas a Pgp expressing cell line (A2780/Dx5) served as a positive control. Overexpression of Pgp correlated inversely with retention of Dox, Rh-123, and DiOC2(3); however, under identical experimental conditions (1 h reincubation in drug-free medium), no retention difference of the three agents was detected between parental and MRP-expressing resistant cells. Upon extending the reincubation time to 4 h, an efflux of Rh-123 and Dox in the resistant lines became apparent and even more pronounced after 24h; however, still no efflux was detectable for DiOC2(3). Incubation of the cells with a modulator of MDR, PAK-104P, negated the observed drug efflux in Pgp and MRP expressing cells, which correlated with increased sensitivity of the MDR lines to doxorubicin. Thus both Dox and Rh-123 can be used to evaluate MRP-function, but DiOC2(3) can not.

Mechanisms of resistance to N-[5-[N-(3,4-dihydro-2-methyl-4- oxoquinazolin-6-ylmethyl)-N-methylamino]-2-thenoyl]-L-glutamic acid (ZD1694), a folate-based thymidylate synthase inhibitor, in the HCT-8 human ileocecal adenocarcinoma cell line

N-[5-[N-(3,4-Dihydro-2-methyl-4-oxoquinazolin-6-ylmethyl)-N- methylamino]-2-thenoyl]-L-glutamic acid (ZD1694) is a folate-based thymidylate synthase (TS; EC 2.1.1.45) inhibitor. Metabolism to higher chain length polyglutamates is essential for its optimal cytotoxic effect. A ZD1694-resistant (300-fold) human ileocecal carcinoma cell line (HCT-8/DW2) was developed, and its mechanism of resistance was evaluated. TS activities in situ and TS protein levels in the HCT-8 parental line and HCT-8/DW2 were similar (168 +/- 47 vs 137 +/- 25 pmol/hr/10(6) cells and 2.05 +/- 0.28 vs 2.07 +/- 0.19 pmol/mg protein, respectively). The IC50 values of ZD1694 for TS inhibition in cell-free extracts were similar in both lines, but the IC50 of ZD1694 for TS inhibition in situ in HCT-8/DW2 cells was 27- and 268-fold higher than that in HCT-8 cells at 0 and 24 hr, respectively, after a 2-hr drug exposure. Folylpolyglutamate synthetase (FPGS; EC6.3.2.17) activity was significantly lower in resistant HCT-8/DW2 cells as compared with parental HCT-8 cells (88 +/- 40 vs 1065 +/- 438 pmol/hr/mg protein when ZD1694 was used as substrate). The combined endogenous pool of methylenetetrahydrofolate and tetrahydrofolate in HCT-8/DW2 cells was also decreased. In addition, HCT-8/DW2 cells accumulated lower levels of methotrexate (MTX) in a 2-hr period, although the initial velocity of MTX transport was similar to that in parental HCT-8 cells. The lower level of FPGS activity and the lower level of (anti)folate accumulation in HCT-8/DW2 correlated with drug resistance and with the higher IC50 of ZD1694 for in situ TS inhibition. In addition, drug resistance was also correlated with the rapid recovery of in situ TS activity after drug treatment. In brief, in this highly ZD1694-resistant HCT-8 cell line, resistance is associated with decreased FPGS activity, which, in turn, affects the metabolism of ZD1694 and consequently the extent and duration of in situ TS inhibition by the drug.

Cellular heterogeneity in DNA damage and growth inhibition induced by ICI D1694, thymidylate synthase inhibitor, using single cell assays

Heterogeneity in the response of the HCT-8 (human ileocecal adenocarcinoma) tumor cell line to a new thymidylate synthase inhibitor, ICI D1694, was investigated in terms of induction of DNA single-strand breaks and cytotoxicity, applying the single cell alkaline gel (SCG) electrophoresis assay and the individual colony formation assay (iCFA), respectively. ICI D1694 induced maximal total DNA single-strand breaks 24 hr after a 2-hr drug exposure with incomplete repair by 72 hr. The level of DNA damage was concentration dependent and paralleled cellular growth inhibition in vitro. The proportion of cells with DNA damage and the extent of DNA single-strand breaks increased with drug concentration. At 1 microM ICI D1694 (IC95), a significant level of DNA damage was detected in 58% of the cells; however, 25% of the cells had little or no damage. Using the iCFA system, it was observed that with 1 microM ICI D1694, only 2.6% of the seeded cells maintained a colony growth rate similar to that of the control colonies, and 22% of the cells were growing significantly more slowly. In conclusion, the SCG assay and the iCFA identified subpopulations of cells that were unaffected by ICI D1694. Although these cells represented only a small proportion of the total cell population, this phenomenon of heterogeneity in response to ICI D1694 might limit its therapeutic efficacy.

Down-regulation of c-myc gene expression with induction of high molecular weight DNA fragments by fluorodeoxyuridine

5-Fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (FdUrd), a potent inhibitor of thymidylate synthase, induces extensive bulk DNA damage at drug concentrations that produce significant in vitro growth inhibition of human ileocecal carcinoma (HCT-8) cells. Constant- and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (CFGE and PFGE), to detect size distribution of DNA double-strand breaks and repair kinetics, in parallel with northern and western blot analyses, to quantitate c-myc gene and protein expression, were utilized to analyze drug effects. At 24-hr post in vitro drug treatment, when maximum bulk DNA damage was detected, FdUrd produced a broad range of high molecular weight DNA fragments, clustering between 0.1 and 5.7 megabases in size, and resulted in a decrease in the level of c-myc transcripts and protein with no significant effect on the level of v-myc and H-ras. These effects preceded the observed cellular growth inhibition. Addition of the reduced folate leucovorin potentiated the effects induced by FdUrd, indicating that thymidylate synthase inhibition is an important initial step in drug effect followed by DNA fragmentation and suppression of c-myc expression. Changes in the integrity of the genetic materials and regulatory genes occurred prior to the observed cell growth inhibition by FdUrd, suggesting that these molecular alterations by FdUrd may be associated with subsequent FdUrd-induced cell growth inhibition.

Modulation of target enzyme associated with the action of antifolates

The cytotoxicity and molecular effects of antifolate thymidylate synthase inhibitor, ICI-D1694, against human ileocecal carcinoma, were evaluated. The drug concentration for 50% inhibition of cell growth by ICI-D1694 is 73 nM and 3 nM following 2 hr and 72 hr exposure, respectively. The drug induces high level of DNA single strand breaks in a time dependent manner, but subsequent to maximum inhibition of thymidylate synthase. Drug effects can be reversed by thymidine and leucovorin at > 1 microM concentrations. Leucovorin action is primarily at the cell membrane level, competing with the transport and activation of ICI-D1694. Thymidine, however, exerts its competitive effect primarily at the level of thymidylate synthase.

Isolation and characterization of a human ileocecal carcinoma cell line (HCT-8) subclone resistant to fluorodeoxyuridine

A 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (FdUrd)-resistant subclone (Fd9XR) of HCT-8 (human ileocecal carcinoma) cells was established by two schedules of drug exposure. Initially, cells were exposed to short-term (3 hr) 100 nM FdUrd repeatedly (9 cycles over 8 months), and cells were then exposed to 10 nM FdUrd continuously. During this latter stage, a colony (Fd9XR) with fast growth rate was isolated, expanded, and characterized with respect to mechanisms of resistance to FdUrd and cross-resistance to other chemotherapeutic agents. Fd9XR cells were 1000-fold resistant to FdURD, but 3-fold more sensitive to 5-fluorouracil (FUra) than HCT-8 cells. After a 3-hr treatment with FdUrd, Fd9XR cells accumulated 6630-, 69-, and 3.7-fold less fluorodeoxyuridylate (FdUMP), fluorouridine triphosphate (FUTP) and acid-insoluble materials, respectively, than HCT-8 cells. However, when FUra was substituted for FdUrd, Fd9XR cells accumulated 9.2-, 3.1-, and 2.3-fold more FdUMP, FUTP and acid-insoluble materials, respectively, than HCT-8 cells. Fd9XR and HCT-8 were similar in their growth rates, combined pools of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolates (5,10-CH2H4PteGlun) and tetrahydrofolates (H4PTeGlun), thymidine phosphorylase (TP) activity, and level and activity of thymidylate synthase (TS). In contrast, thymidine kinase (TK) activity of Fd9XR was 0.23 and 0.35% of that of HCT-8, for thymidine (dThd) and FdUrd as substrates, respectively. Furthermore, Fd9XR cells exhibited greater sensitivity to the antifolate TS inhibitor ICI D1694 and to methotrexate (MTX) than HCT-8 cells. In addition, dThd alone and in combination with hypoxanthine did not offer any protection against the cytotoxic effect of ICI D1694 in Fd9XR cells. These results indicate that in Fd9XR cells (1) TK deficiency is the primary mechanism of resistance to FdUrd; (2) the greater sensitivity to FUra was associated with higher pools of FdUMP and FUTP with a subsequently higher level of incorporation into cellular RNA; and (3) antifolate compounds, e.g. ICI D1694 and MTX, could be useful agents in the treatment of FdUrd-resistant tumors associated with decreased TK activity and decreased capacity of utilizing dThd.

Time dependence of DNA lesions and growth inhibition by ICI D1694, a new quinazoline antifolate thymidylate synthase inhibitor

DNA single-strand breaks and associated growth inhibition induced by the thymidylate synthase inhibitor N-(5-[N-(3,4-dihydro-2-methyl-4-oxoquinazoline-6-ylmethyl)-N -methylamino]-2 - thenoyl)-L-glutamic acid (ICI D1694) were quantitated using the human ileocecal adenocarcinoma cell line, HCT-8. The effects of different concentrations and schedules of [6R,S]-5-formyltetrahydrofolate ([6RS]LV) and 2'-deoxy-thymidine (dThd) on drug growth inhibition and DNA damage were also evaluated. The drug concentrations for 50% inhibition of cell growth in culture following 2-h and 72-h exposures were 0.073 and 0.003 microM, respectively. After a 2-h drug exposure, the occurrence of DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs) was time dependent. It was detectable at 8 h and reached a maximum at about 24 h, 34 +/- 3 (SD) and 305 +/- 34 rad equivalents with 0.1 microM (50% inhibition concentration) and 1.0 microM (90% inhibition concentration) ICI D1694, respectively. A significant level of DNA SSBs (101 +/- 13 rad equivalents) was still detectable at 72 h after the 2-h treatment with 1 microM ICI D1694. No significant level of DNA SSBs was detected when cells were exposed simultaneously to ICI D1694 and 20 microM [6RS]LV. Complete rescue of drug-induced DNA SSBs could be achieved when cells were exposed to 10 microM dThd starting no later than 4 h after drug treatment. The growth inhibition of ICI D1694 was abrogated by [6RS]LV in a concentration-dependent manner. Complete protection was achieved when cells were exposed simultaneously to 1 microM ICI D1694 and 5 microMs [6RS]LV or to 3 microMs dThd immediately after drug treatment. The results demonstrate that: (a) the growth inhibition of ICI D1694 is a function of time and schedule; (b) the growth inhibition is accompanied by extensive DNA single-strand breaks and slow repair; (c) at 1 microM ICI D1694, 3 microMs dThd and 5 microMs [6RS]LV can completely rescue cells from drug effects when dThd is added up to 4 h following drug treatment or when [6RS]LV is given in combination with the drug; (d) interference of [6RS]LV with ICI D1694 action may be occurring at the level of drug uptake and at intracellular targets, while dThd interferes with the drug action at intracellular targets.

Comparative DNA strand breakage induced by FUra and FdUrd in human ileocecal adenocarcinoma (HCT-8) cells: relevance to cell growth inhibition

Although several mechanisms of 5-fluorouracil (FUra) and 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (FdUrd) cytotoxicity have been postulated, their effects on cellular DNA integrity have not been fully investigated. Cytotoxicity and the induction of DNA single and double strand breaks (SSB and DSB) were evaluated in the human ileocecal adenocarcinoma cell line, HCT-8, following 2 hr of exposure to these agents. Alkaline and neutral elution techniques were utilized to quantitate the amounts of DNA SSB and DSB induced by FdUrd and FUra. FdUrd, but not FUra, induced a high level of DNA SSB and DSB. These effects were concentration and time dependent, reaching a maximum at 10 microM FdUrd and at 12 hr post-treatment. Minimal amounts of DNA damage were observed in HCT-8 cells exposed to FUra, even at a concentration of 300 microM that produced greater than 99% inhibition of cell growth. In order to delineate the mechanisms associated with the effects observed following FUra and FdUrd treatment of HCT-8 cells, the effects of thymidine and leucovorin were evaluated. DNA SSB and DSB induced by FdUrd were reversed by thymidine. The effects of thymidine were time dependent. Complete reversal of DNA damage and cytotoxicity was achieved when 10 microM thymidine was added at up to 12 hr after treatment, the time of appearance of maximum DNA damage. These results suggest that the extensive DNA damage induced by FdUrd (but not by FUra) was an important determinant of FdUrd cytotoxicity in HCT-8 cells.

Modulation of doxorubicin-induced DNA lesions by verapamil, DMDP and dipyridamole in resistant P388 cell lines

Lymphoid cell lines resistant to doxorubicin, P388/R, were characterized by: 1) decreased intracellular acumulatin and retention of DOX; 2) decreased amount of DOX-induced DNA lesions; and 3) rapid repair of DOX-induced DNA lesions. Using the highest noncytotoxic concentrations of three modulators; 2 calcium channel blockers, Verapamil (VEP) and DMDP and a nucleoside transport inhibitor, Dipyridamole (DIP), restoration of Doxorubicin (DOX) sensitivity in vitro against P388/R cells was partial; resistance was reduced from approximately 200 to 10 fold, although DOX accumulation in the resistant cells in the presence of the modulators was completely restored. The DNA single-strand break (SSB) level induced by DOX in P388/S cells (1371 +/- 144 rad equivalents) was significantly higher than in P388/R cells (74 +/- 17 rad equivalents). The effects of VEP, DMDP and DIP on the induction of DNA SSBs by DOX in P388/R were different. DMDP and DIP potentiated the DOX-induced DNA SSBs by 30% each and VEP by 15%. Furthermore, while VEP and DIP had no significant effects on the rapid repair of DOX-induced SSBs, no significant repair of DNA lesion was observed in P388/R treated with DMDP at 1.2 microM, a non-cytotoxic concentration. These data indicate that although these modulators can effectively restore the intracellular accumulation and retention of DOX, these conditions although essential are not sufficient for the complete restoration of DOX sensitivity in this highly resistant cll line. The ability of a calcium antagonist, DMDP, to circumvent DOX resistance might be related not only to the modulation of drug retention, but also to the ability to retard the repair of DOX-induced DNA SSBs.

Cytotoxicity and DNA damaging effects of a new nitrosourea, fotemustine, diethyl- 1-(3-(2-chloroethyl)-3-nitrosoureido) ethylphosphonate-S10036

Fotemustine is a new chloroethylnitrosourea which has recently entered a Phase II clinical trial. Using standard cytotoxicity analyses, Fotemustine was shown to be preferentially active in two Mer- cell lines, human colon BE and human lung A427. Comparative cell kill in the Mer+ counterparts HT29 and A549 (respectively) was significantly lower. In a mouse cell line, P388, alkaline elution studies showed that Fotemustine caused fewer DNA strand breaks and total crosslinks (including DNA-protein) than either BCNU or MeCCNU at equivalent cytotoxic concentrations. In addition, the removal of DNA damage caused by Fotemustine was more rapid than of damage, three times as much Fotemustine was required. These data suggest that the cytotoxic mechanism of Fotemustine, although subject to the same repair mechanisms as other nitrosoureas, may not be entirely dependent upon DNA as the sole drug target. The previously reported reduced mutagenicity of this agent may also be a function of the less extensive nucleic acid damage. The encouraging early clinical trial results with this drug may reflect its improved pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, rather than any significant modification in its cellular pharmacology when compared to other nitrosoureas.

Mechanisms of the in vivo resistance to adriamycin and modulation by calcium channel blockers in mice

A sensitive fluorometric assay using Hoechst 33258 and a modified alkaline elution procedure were used to quantitate DNA single-strand breaks following an in vivo drug treatment of mice bearing P-388/S and P-388/R cells. After an i.p. treatment of mice with 1 to 20 mg/kg Adriamycin (DOX), the following differences between sensitive and resistant P-388 cells were observed: (a) at 2 h following drug treatment the net intracellular accumulation of Adriamycin in sensitive cells was 2- to 3-fold higher than resistant cells at all doses tested; (b) utilizing a therapeutic dose of DOX (10 mg/kg), the amount of single-strand breaks of DNA in sensitive and resistant cells was significantly different, K x 10(2) = 13.6 +/- 1.1 (SD) versus 3.6 +/- 0.9, respectively; (c) the 10 and 50% lethal doses for verapamil (VEP) were 10 and 23 mg/kg and for a tiapamil analogue, N-(3,4-dimethoxyphenethyl)-N-methyl-2-(2-naphthyl)-m-dithiane-2-propylam ine hydrochloride (DMDP), were 107 and 126 mg/kg, respectively; (d) while the in vivo intracellular accumulation and retention of DOX in sensitive cells were not affected by DMDP or VEP treatment, complete restoration of DOX accumulation and retention was achieved in resistant cells treated with well-tolerated doses of DMDP of 30 and 60 mg/kg. In contrast, utilizing the optimally tolerated dose of VEP (5 mg/kg), only partial restoration of DOX accumulation and retention in resistant cells was achieved; (e) DMDP or VEP did not alter the high level of DNA single-strand breaks induced by DOX in sensitive cells; in resistant cells, however, an increase in single-strand breaks of DNA was observed following treatment with DOX in combination with DMDP and to a lesser extent with VEP; and (f) the rapid DNA repair in resistant cells was inhibited by DMDP but not by VEP. These data demonstrate that DMDP but not VEP can effectively restore the in vivo intracellular accumulation of DOX in resistant cells at achievable nontoxic plasma concentrations. Previous studies have demonstrated that the in vitro intracellular concentrations and retention of DOX by resistant cells can be restored by VEP. The results reported herein demonstrated that similar effects can be achieved, however, in vivo by using a new calcium channel blocker, DMDP, with less in vivo toxicity and more efficacy than VEP in restoring cellular drug concentration, retention, and repair of DNA damage in the resistant cells.

Enhancement of adriamycin-induced cytotoxicity by increasing retention and inhibition of DNA repair in DOX-resistant P388 cell lines with new calcium channel blocker, DMDP

The effect of DMDP, N-(3,4-dimethoxyphenethyl)-N-methyl-2-(2-naphthyl)-m-dithiane-2-propylam ine hydrochloride, on DOX-induced cytotoxicity, drug uptake, DNA damage and repair was investigated in adriamycin sensitive and resistant P388 cell lines. In vitro, the DOX-resistant P388 cells used are about 300-fold more resistant than the sensitive cells. Resistant cells were characterized by lower DOX accumulation, rapid drug efflux, significant decrease of DNA single and double strand breaks and rapid repair of the induced single strand breaks. DMDP, a calcium channel blocker, is an effective modulator of DOX resistance in P388 cells. This modulation was found to be highly dependent of the concentration of the modulators, optimal at the maximally moncytotoxic concentrations of 1-4 microM, and the duration of exposure to the modulator, optimal under conditions of continuous exposure to the modulator. Under the optimal conditions in the presence of the modulator, DMDP, both intracellular concentration and retention of DOX were restored in the resistant P388 cells to the value comparable to those found in DOX sensitive P388 cells. Even though DOX accumulation and retention were at a comparable level in both the sensitive and resistant cells in the presence of DMDP, the amount of DNA single strand breaks achieved in the resistant cells was only about 30% of the amount of damage observed in the sensitive cells. The data indicate that if P388/R cells were only exposed to DOX for about 2 h, the induced DNA single strand breaks were repaired rapidly within 8 h thereafter, while no significant repair was seen in the resistant cells exposed to DOX in combination with DMDP. In contrast, the repair of the extensive DNA single strand breaks induced by DOX in P388/S cells was not effected by DMDP. These data clearly demonstrated that resistance to DOX in P388 cells are multifactorial. Restoration of intracellular accumulation and retention of DOX by DMDP in the resistant cells are although necessary but not sufficient for complete restoration of the sensitivity of the highly resistant cells.

Relationship between cytotoxicity, drug accumulation, DNA damage and repair of human ovarian cancer cells treated with doxorubicin: modulation by the tiapamil analog RO11-2933

The effect of N-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) N-methyl-2-(naphthyl)-m-dithiane-2-propylamine hydrochloride (RO11-2933), an analog of the calcium channel blocker tiapamil, on doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage in human ovarian cancer cells sensitive and resistant to DOX was investigated. A2780-DX2, A2780-DX3, and A2780-DX6 cell sublines were characterized by 7-, 26-, and 48-fold resistance after 2 h DOX exposure and 30-, 50-, and 500-fold resistance after 72 h DOX exposure, respectively. Increased drug efflux resulting in a lower intracellular drug accumulation, decreased DOX-induced DNA single-strand breaks (DNA SSBs), and rapid DNA repair correlated with the degree of resistance. In addition, DNA SSBs were rapidly repaired within 8 h in A2780-DX3 cells, whereas no significant repair of DNA SSBs was observed in sensitive cells. In comparison with verapamil, RO11-2933 was found to reverse DOX resistance at lower and nontoxic concentrations (2 microM as compared with 10 microM verapamil). This reversion was complete in cells with a low degree of resistance (A2780-DX1 and A2780-DX2) but partial in highly resistant cells (A2780-DX3 and A2780-DX6), and continuous exposure to RO11-2933 was essential for optimal reversal of drug resistance. Interestingly, RO11-2933 was found to inhibit the repair of DNA SSBs induced by DOX but not those induced by X-ray. These results suggest that the potentiation of DNA SSBs and the specific inhibition of DNA repair by RO11-2933 in multidrug-resistant cells could be of particular value in overcoming MDR in the clinic.

[Detection of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA sequence in biopsy samples of cervical cancer]

Biopsy samples of the cervical cancer and cervicitis were analysed by HCMV-DNA hybridization method. The results indicated that HCMV-DNA was detected in 21 (36%) of 59 cervical cancer and 6 (21%) of 28 cervicitis specimens, using 32P-DNA probe containing transformation gene (14% of total genome) to hybridize. None of 25 cervical cancer and 19 cervicitis samples showed positive HCMV-DNA, using 32P-DNA probe without transformation gene (76% of total genome). The preliminary results show that the sequence of CMV transformation gene is present in about one third of cervical cancer and one fifth of cervicitis biopsy samples tested. This detection rate is lower than that of Taiwan Province and Africa, and slightly higher than that of the USA and Finland. The relation between the HCMV and cervical cancer is being further studied.