Meal intake similarly reduces circulating concentrations of octanoyl and total ghrelin in humans

ABSTRACT. Several data show that meal intake and nutritional status regulate circulating ghrelin concentrations in humans. Ghrelin mainly circulates in two different forms: octanoyl and des-octanoyl ghrelin. Most circulating ghrelin is des-octanoyl ghrelin which is considered inactive because it lacks endocrine activity. However, recent evidence suggests that des-octanoyl ghrelin exerts biological activity such as stimulation of adipogenesis, cardiovascular effects and control of cell growth. In healthy humans, although the total ghrelin concentration is known to peak before meals and to be reduced by food intake, no data are available about the octanoyl ghrelin response in the absorptive state. Therefore, after an overnight fast, we compared the effects of a mixed meal ingestion (meal study) or of additional 240 min fasting (control study) on plasma concentrations of octanoyl and total ghrelin in 6 healthy subjects (body mass index: 23 +/- 0.7). At baseline, octanoyl-ghrelin accounted for 3.15 +/- 0.2% of total circulating ghrelin without differences between the two sessions. A similar ratio was maintained in the absorptive state with no differences between the studies and basal values. Compared with control, meal intake significantly suppressed (nadir at 90 min) octanoyl and total ghrelin by 38 +/- 3 and 40 +/- 3% of basal values, respectively. In the meal study, multivariate analysis of variance showed that serum insulin best predicted plasma octanoyl-ghrelin concentrations accounting for 97% of its variation (r2 = -0.97,p = 0.0016).

IN CONCLUSION

in healthy humans, octanoyl-ghrelin represents about 3-4% of total circula-ting ghrelin and this ratio is closely maintained in post-absorptive and absorptive states.

Effects of whole-body vibration exercise on the endocrine system of healthy men

Whole-body vibration is reported to increase muscle performance, bone mineral density and stimulate the secretion of lipolytic and protein anabolic hormones, such as GH and testosterone, that might be used for the treatment of obesity. To date, as no controlled trial has examined the effects of vibration exercise on the human endocrine system, we performed a randomized controlled study, to establish whether the circulating concentrations of glucose and hormones (insulin, glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, GH, IGF-1, free and total testosterone) are affected by vibration in 10 healthy men [age 39 +/- 3, body mass index (BMI) of 23.5 +/- 0.5 kg/m2, mean +/- SEM]. Volunteers were studied on two occasions before and after standing for 25 min on a ground plate in the absence (control) or in the presence (vibration) of 30 Hz whole body vibration. Vibration slightly reduced plasma glucose (30 min: vibration 4.59 +/- 0.21, control 4.74 +/- 0.22 mM, p=0.049) and increased plasma norepinephrine concentrations (60 min: vibration 1.29 +/- 0.18, control 1.01 +/- 0.07 nM, p=0.038), but did not change the circulating concentrations of other hormones. These results demonstrate that vibration exercise transiently reduces plasma glucose, possibly by increasing glucose utilization by contracting muscles. Since hormonal responses, with the exception of norepinephrine, are not affected by acute vibration exposure, this type of exercise is not expected to reduce fat mass in obese subjects.

Metabolic response to exercise

At the beginning, the survival of humans was strictly related to their physical capacity. There was the need to resist predators and to provide food and water for life. Achieving these goals required a prompt and efficient energy system capable of sustaining either high intensity or maintaining prolonged physical activity. Energy for skeletal muscle contraction is supplied by anaerobic and aerobic metabolic pathways. The former can allow short bursts of intense physical activity (60-90 sec) and utilizes as energetic source the phosphocreatine shuttle and anaerobic glycolysis. The aerobic system is the most efficient ATP source for skeletal muscle. The oxidative phosporylation of carbohydrates, fats and, to a minor extent, proteins, can sustain physical activity for many hours. Carbohydrates are the most efficient fuel for working muscle and their contribution to total fuel oxidation is positively related to the intensity of exercise. The first metabolic pathways of carbohydrate metabolism to be involved are skeletal muscle glycogenolysis and glycolysis. Later circulating glucose, formed through activated gluconeogenesis, becomes an important energetic source. Among glucose metabolites, lactate plays a primary role as either direct or indirect (gluconeogenesis) energy source for contracting skeletal muscle. Fat oxidation plays a primary role during either low-moderate intensity exercise or protracted physical activity (over 90-120 min). Severe muscle glycogen depletion results in increased rates of muscle proteolysis and branched chain amino acid oxidation. Endurance training ameliorates physical performance by improving cardiopulmonary efficiency and optimizing skeletal muscle supply and oxidation of substrates.

Diabetes and exercise

Physical activity has acute and chronic effects on glucose, lipid and protein metabolism. Long-term effects of regular exercise are particularly advantageous for Type 2 diabetic patients. Regular aerobic exercise reduces visceral fat mass and body weight without decreasing lean body mass, ameliorates insulin sensitivity, glucose and BP control, lipid profile and reduces the cardiovascular risk. For these reasons, regular aerobic physical activity must be considered as an essential component of the cure of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. In this regard, individual behavioral strategies have been documented to be effective in motivating sedentary Type 2 diabetic subjects to the adoption and the maintenance of regular physical activity. In Type 1 diabetic subjects, the lack of the physiological inhibition of insulin secretion during exercise results in a potential risk of hypoglycemia. On the other hand, exercise-induced activation of counter-regulatory hormones might trigger an acute metabolic derangement in severe insulin-deficient subjects. Thus, diabetic patients, before starting exercise sessions, must be carefully educated about the consequences of physical activity on their blood glucose and the appropriate modifications of diet and insulin therapy.

Circulating ghrelin levels of visceral obese men are not modified by a short-term treatment with very low doses of GH replacement

Ghrelin, the endogenous ligand for the GH secretagogue-receptor (GHS-R), in addition to its GH-releasing action, has orexigenic and adipogenic properties. These characteristics make ghrelin a potential hormone involved in the pathogenesis of obesity. Ghrelin levels are decreased in obese humans and it is unknown whether this decrease is responsible for the blunted GH secretion reported in visceral obesity. Since only few data are available on the potential feedback regulation by GH on systemic ghrelin concentrations, it remains to be established whether the correction of circulating GH concentrations in obese individuals affects ghrelin concentrations. To answer this question, we measured plasma ghrelin levels after a week of administration of low doses of recombinant human GH (rhGH) in a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PL)-controlled trial. This study was originally designed to evaluate the effects of GH replacement on lipid kinetics in visceral obese men. Six adult men with abdominal/visceral obesity (age 42+/-3 yr, body weight 107 +/- 10 kg, BMI 33 +/- 1 kg/m2, waist circumference 111 +/- 3 cm, mean +/- SE) were evaluated in the basal state (BS) and after one week of treatment with subcutaneous bedtime injections of either PL, 2.5 (GH2.5) or 3.3 (GH3.3) pg/kg/die of rhGH. In comparison to BS either PL, GH2.5 or GH3.3 did not significantly modify circulating ghrelin concentrations (p = 0.77). In contrast, a significant increase of serum GH (p = 0.0028), IGF-I (p = 0.0033) and whole body rate of lipolysis (p = 0.038, GH2.5; p = 0.009, GH3.3) occurred, in comparison to BS or PL, after GH2.5 and GH3.3, without differences between the two treatments. These data demonstrate that in abdominal/visceral obese men a short-term treatment with very low doses of rhGH replacement, sufficient to augment the rate of lipolysis, do not modify circulating ghrelin levels.