Restoration of SIRT3 gene expression by airway delivery resolves age-associated persistent lung fibrosis in mice

Aging is a risk factor for progressive fibrotic disorders involving diverse organ systems, including the lung. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, an age-associated degenerative lung disorder, is characterized by persistence of apoptosis-resistant myofibroblasts. In this report, we demonstrate that sirtuin-3 (SIRT3), a mitochondrial deacetylase, is downregulated in lungs of IPF human subjects and in mice subjected to lung injury. Over-expression of the SIRT3 cDNA via airway delivery restored capacity for fibrosis resolution in aged mice, in association with activation of the forkhead box transcription factor, FoxO3a, in fibroblasts, upregulation of pro-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family, and recovery of apoptosis susceptibility. While transforming growth factor-β1 reduced levels of SIRT3 and FoxO3a in lung fibroblasts, cell non-autonomous effects involving macrophage secreted products were necessary for SIRT3-mediated activation of FoxO3a. Together, these findings reveal a novel role of SIRT3 in pro-resolution macrophage functions that restore susceptibility to apoptosis in fibroblasts via a FoxO3a-dependent mechanism.

Impaired Myofibroblast Dedifferentiation Contributes to Nonresolving Fibrosis in Aging

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal age-associated disease with no cure. Although IPF is widely regarded as a disease of aging, the cellular mechanisms that contribute to this age-associated predilection remain elusive. In this study, we sought to evaluate the consequences of senescence on myofibroblast cell fate and fibrotic responses to lung injury in the context of aging. We demonstrated that nonsenescent lung myofibroblasts maintained the capacity for dedifferentiation, whereas senescent/IPF myofibroblasts exhibited an impaired capacity for dedifferentiation. We previously demonstrated that the transcription factor MyoD acts as a critical switch in the differentiation and dedifferentiation of myofibroblasts. Here, we demonstrate that decreased levels of MyoD preceded myofibroblast dedifferentiation and apoptosis susceptibility in nonsenescent cells, whereas MyoD expression remained elevated in senescent/IPF myofibroblasts, which failed to undergo dedifferentiation and demonstrated resistance to apoptosis. Genetic strategies to silence MyoD restored the susceptibility of IPF myofibroblasts to undergo apoptosis and led to a partial reversal of age-associated persistent fibrosis in vivo. The capacity for myofibroblast dedifferentiation and subsequent apoptosis may be critical for normal physiologic responses to tissue injury, whereas restricted dedifferentiation and apoptosis resistance in senescent cells may underlie the progressive nature of age-associated human fibrotic disorders. These studies support the concept that senescence may promote profibrotic effects via impaired myofibroblast dedifferentiation and apoptosis resistance, which contributes to myofibroblast accumulation and ultimately persistent fibrosis in aging.

Role of fibroblast growth factor 23 and klotho cross talk in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive fibrosing interstitial pneumonia that mainly affects the elderly. Several reports have demonstrated that aging is involved in the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of IPF. α-Klotho (KL) has been well characterized as an "age-suppressing" hormone and can provide protection against cellular senescence and oxidative stress. In this study, KL levels were assessed in human plasma and primary lung fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF-FB) and in lung tissue from mice exposed to bleomycin, which showed significant downregulation when compared with controls. Conversely, transgenic mice overexpressing KL were protected against bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis. Treatment of human lung fibroblasts with recombinant KL alone was not sufficient to inhibit transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-induced collagen deposition and inflammatory marker expression. Interestingly, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), a proinflammatory circulating protein for which KL is a coreceptor, was upregulated in IPF and bleomycin lungs. To our surprise, FGF23 and KL coadministration led to a significant reduction in fibrosis and inflammation in IPF-FB; FGF23 administration alone or in combination with KL stimulated KL upregulation. We conclude that in IPF downregulation of KL may contribute to fibrosis and inflammation and FGF23 may act as a compensatory antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory mediator via inhibition of TGF-β signaling. Upon restoration of KL levels, the combination of FGF23 and KL leads to resolution of inflammation and fibrosis. Altogether, these data provide novel insight into the FGF23/KL axis and its antifibrotic/anti-inflammatory properties, which opens new avenues for potential therapies in aging-related diseases like IPF.

Glutaminolysis is required for transforming growth factor-β1-induced myofibroblast differentiation and activation

Myofibroblasts participate in physiological wound healing and pathological fibrosis. Myofibroblast differentiation is characterized by the expression of α-smooth muscle actin and extracellular matrix proteins and is dependent on metabolic reprogramming. In this study, we explored the role of glutaminolysis and metabolites of TCA in supporting myofibroblast differentiation. Glutaminolysis converts Gln into α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), a critical intermediate in the TCA cycle. Increases in the steady-state concentrations of TCA cycle metabolites including α-KG, succinate, fumarate, malate, and citrate were observed in TGF-β1-differentiated myofibroblasts. The concentration of glutamate was also increased in TGF-β1-differentiated myofibroblasts compared with controls, whereas glutamine levels were decreased, suggesting enhanced glutaminolysis. This was associated with TGF-β1-induced expression of the glutaminase (GLS) isoform, GLS1, which converts Gln into glutamate, at both the mRNA and protein levels. The stimulation of GLS1 expression by TGF-β1 was dependent on both SMAD3 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Depletion of extracellular Gln prevented TGF-β1-induced myofibroblast differentiation. The removal of extracellular Gln postmyofibroblast differentiation decreased the expression of the profibrotic markers fibronectin and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and reversed TGF-β1-induced metabolic reprogramming. Silencing of GLS1 expression, in the presence of Gln, abrogated TGF-β1-induced expression of profibrotic markers. Treatment of GLS1-deficient myofibroblasts with exogenous glutamate or α-KG restored TGF-β1-induced expression of profibrotic markers in GLS1-deficient myofibroblasts. Together, these data demonstrate that glutaminolysis is a critical component of myofibroblast metabolic reprogramming that regulates myofibroblast differentiation.

NADPH Oxidase 4 (Nox4) Suppresses Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Bioenergetics in Lung Fibroblasts via a Nuclear Factor Erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2)-dependent Pathway

Mitochondrial bioenergetics are critical for cellular homeostasis and stress responses. The reactive oxygen species-generating enzyme, NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4), regulates a number of physiological and pathological processes, including cellular differentiation, host defense, and tissue fibrosis. In this study we explored the role of constitutive Nox4 activity in regulating mitochondrial function. An increase in mitochondrial oxygen consumption and reserve capacity was observed in murine and human lung fibroblasts with genetic deficiency (or silencing) of Nox4. Inhibition of Nox4 expression/activity by genetic or pharmacological approaches resulted in stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis, as evidenced by elevated mitochondrial-to-nuclear DNA ratio and increased expression of the mitochondrial markers transcription factor A (TFAM), citrate synthase, voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 4 (COX IV). Induction of mitochondrial biogenesis was dependent on TFAM up-regulation but was independent of the activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α). The enhancement of mitochondrial bioenergetics as well as the increase in mitochondrial proteins in Nox4-deficient lung fibroblasts is inhibited by silencing of nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2), supporting a key role for Nrf2 in control of mitochondrial biogenesis. Together, these results indicate a critical role for both Nox4 and Nrf2 in counter-regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolism.

Developmental Reprogramming in Mesenchymal Stromal Cells of Human Subjects with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Cellular plasticity and de-differentiation are hallmarks of tissue/organ regenerative capacity in diverse species. Despite a more restricted capacity for regeneration, humans with age-related chronic diseases, such as cancer and fibrosis, show evidence of a recapitulation of developmental gene programs. We have previously identified a resident population of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in the terminal airways-alveoli by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of human adult lungs. In this study, we characterized MSCs from BAL of patients with stable and progressive idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), defined as <5% and ≥10% decline, respectively, in forced vital capacity over the preceding 6-month period. Gene expression profiles of MSCs from IPF subjects with progressive disease were enriched for genes regulating lung development. Most notably, genes regulating early tissue patterning and branching morphogenesis were differentially regulated. Network interactive modeling of a set of these genes indicated central roles for TGF-β and SHH signaling. Importantly, fibroblast growth factor-10 (FGF-10) was markedly suppressed in IPF subjects with progressive disease, and both TGF-β1 and SHH signaling were identified as critical mediators of this effect in MSCs. These findings support the concept of developmental gene re-activation in IPF, and FGF-10 deficiency as a potentially critical factor in disease progression.

Metabolic Reprogramming Is Required for Myofibroblast Contractility and Differentiation

Contraction is crucial in maintaining the differentiated phenotype of myofibroblasts. Contraction is an energy-dependent mechanism that relies on the production of ATP by mitochondria and/or glycolysis. Although the role of mitochondrial biogenesis in the adaptive responses of skeletal muscle to exercise is well appreciated, mechanisms governing energetic adaptation of myofibroblasts are not well understood. Our study demonstrates induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and aerobic glycolysis in response to the differentiation-inducing factor transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1). This metabolic reprogramming is linked to the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Inhibition of p38 MAPK decreased accumulation of active peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α in the nucleus and altered the translocation of mitochondrial transcription factor A to the mitochondria. Genetic or pharmacologic approaches that block mitochondrial biogenesis or glycolysis resulted in decreased contraction and reduced expression of TGF-β1-induced α-smooth muscle actin and collagen α-2(I) but not of fibronectin or collagen α-1(I). These data indicate a critical role for TGF-β1-induced metabolic reprogramming in regulating myofibroblast-specific contractile signaling and support the concept of integrating bioenergetics with cellular differentiation.

Reversal of persistent fibrosis in aging by targeting Nox4-Nrf2 redox imbalance

The incidence and prevalence of pathological fibrosis increase with advancing age, although mechanisms for this association are unclear. We assessed the capacity for repair of lung injury in young (2 months) and aged (18 months) mice. Whereas the severity of fibrosis was not different between these groups, aged mice demonstrated an impaired capacity for fibrosis resolution. Persistent fibrosis in lungs of aged mice was characterized by the accumulation of senescent and apoptosis-resistant myofibroblasts. These cellular phenotypes were sustained by alterations in cellular redox homeostasis resulting from elevated expression of the reactive oxygen species-generating enzyme Nox4 [NADPH (reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) oxidase-4] and an impaired capacity to induce the Nrf2 (NFE2-related factor 2) antioxidant response. Lung tissues from human subjects with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), a progressive and fatal lung disease, also demonstrated this Nox4-Nrf2 imbalance. Nox4 mediated senescence and apoptosis resistance in IPF fibroblasts. Genetic and pharmacological targeting of Nox4 in aged mice with established fibrosis attenuated the senescent, antiapoptotic myofibroblast phenotype and led to a reversal of persistent fibrosis. These studies suggest that loss of cellular redox homeostasis promotes profibrotic myofibroblast phenotypes that result in persistent fibrosis associated with aging. Our studies suggest that restoration of Nox4-Nrf2 redox balance in myofibroblasts may be a therapeutic strategy in age-associated fibrotic disorders, potentially able to resolve persistent fibrosis or even reverse its progression.

Epstein-Barr virus IL-10 engages IL-10R1 by a two-step mechanism leading to altered signaling properties

Human interleukin-10 (hIL-10) is a pleiotropic cytokine that is able to suppress or activate cellular immune responses to protect the host from invading pathogens. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encodes a viral IL-10 (ebvIL-10) in its genome that has retained the immunosuppressive activities of hIL-10 but lost the ability to induce immunostimulatory activities on some cells. These functional differences are at least partially due to the ∼1000-fold difference in hIL-10 and ebvIL-10 binding affinity for the IL-10R1·IL-10R2 cell surface receptors. Despite weaker binding to IL-10R1, ebvIL-10 is more active than hIL-10 in inducing B-cell proliferation. To explore this counterintuitive observation further, a series of monomeric and dimeric ebvIL-10·hIL-10 chimeric proteins were produced and characterized for receptor binding and cellular proliferation on TF-1/hIL-10R1 cells that express high levels of the IL-10R1 chain. On this cell line, monomeric chimeras elicited cell proliferation in accordance with how tightly they bound to the IL-10R1 chain. In contrast, dimeric chimeras exhibiting the highest affinity for IL-10R1 exhibited reduced proliferative activity. These distinct activity profiles are correlated with kinetic analyses that reveal that the ebvIL-10 dimer is impaired in its ability to form a 1:2 ebvIL-10·IL-10R1 complex. As a result, the ebvIL-10 dimer functions like a monomer at low IL-10R1 levels, which prevents efficient signaling. At high IL-10R1 levels, the ebvIL-10 dimer is able to induce signaling responses greater than hIL-10. Thus, the ebvIL-10 dimer scaffold is essential to prevent activation of cells with low IL-10R1 levels but to maintain or enhance activity on cells with high IL-10R1 levels.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the IL-20-IL-20R1-IL-20R2 complex

Interleukin-20 (IL-20) is an IL-10-family cytokine that regulates innate and adaptive immunity in skin and other tissues. In addition to protecting the host from various external pathogens, dysregulated IL-20 signaling has been shown to contribute to the pathogenesis of human psoriasis. IL-20 signals through two cell-surface receptor heterodimers, IL-20R1-IL-20R2 and IL-22R1-IL-20R2. In this report, crystals of the IL-20-IL-20R1-IL-20R2 ternary complex have been grown from polyethylene glycol solutions. The crystals belonged to space group P4(1)2(1)2 or P4(3)2(1)2, with unit-cell parameters a = 111, c = 135 Å, and diffracted X-rays to 3 Å resolution. The crystallographic asymmetric unit contains one IL-20-IL-20R1-IL-20R2 complex, corresponding to a solvent content of approximately 54%.

Inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-B signaling reduces growth in medulloblastoma in vivo

Background

Medulloblastoma is a highly malignant pediatric brain tumor that requires surgery, whole brain and spine irradiation, and intense chemotherapy for treatment. A more sophisticated understanding of the pathophysiology of medulloblastoma is needed to successfully reduce the intensity of treatment and improve outcomes. Nuclear factor kappa-B (NFκB) is a signaling pathway that controls transcriptional activation of genes important for tight regulation of many cellular processes and is aberrantly expressed in many types of cancer.

Methods

To test the importance of NFκB to medulloblastoma cell growth, the effects of multiple drugs that inhibit NFκB, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, diethyldithiocarbamate, sulfasalazine, curcumin and bortezomib, were studied in medulloblastoma cell lines compared to a malignant glioma cell line and normal neurons. Expression of endogenous NFκB was investigated in cultured cells, xenograft flank tumors, and primary human tumor samples. A dominant negative construct for the endogenous inhibitor of NFκB, IκB, was prepared from medulloblastoma cell lines and flank tumors were established to allow specific pathway inhibition.

Results

We report high constitutive activity of the canonical NFκB pathway, as seen by Western analysis of the NFκB subunit p65, in medulloblastoma tumors compared to normal brain. The p65 subunit of NFκB is extremely highly expressed in xenograft tumors from human medulloblastoma cell lines; though, conversely, the same cells in culture have minimal expression without specific stimulation. We demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition of NFκB in cell lines halts proliferation and leads to apoptosis. We show by immunohistochemical stain that phosphorylated p65 is found in the majority of primary tumor cells examined. Finally, expression of a dominant negative form of the endogenous inhibitor of NFκB, dnIκB, resulted in poor xenograft tumor growth, with average tumor volumes 40% smaller than controls.

Conclusions

These data collectively demonstrate that NFκB signaling is important for medulloblastoma tumor growth, and that inhibition can reduce tumor size and viability in vivo. We discuss the implications of NFκB signaling on the approach to managing patients with medulloblastoma in order to improve clinical outcomes.

Biophysical properties of human medulloblastoma cells

Medulloblastoma is a pediatric high-grade cerebellar malignancy derived from neuronal precursors. Although electrophysiologic characteristics of cerebellar granule neurons at all stages of cell development have been well described, such characterization has not been reported for medulloblastoma. In this study we attempt to characterize important electrophysiologic features of medulloblastoma that may distinguish it from the surrounding cerebellum. Using patient-derived cell lines and tumor tissues, we show that medulloblastoma cells have no inward Na+ current or transient K+ current involved in action potential generation and propagation, typically seen in granule neurons. Expression and function of calcium-activated, large-conductance K+ channels are diminished in medulloblastoma, judged by electrophysiology and Western analysis. The resting membrane potential of medulloblastoma cells in culture is quite depolarized compared to granule neurons. Interestingly, medulloblastoma cells express small, fast-inactivating calcium currents consistent with T-type calcium channels, but these channels are activated only from hyperpolarized potentials, which are unlikely to occur. Additionally, a background acid-sensitive K+ current is present with features characteristic of TASK1 or TASK3 channels, such as inhibition by ruthenium red. Western analysis confirms expression of TASK1 and TASK3. In describing the electrophysiologic characteristics of medulloblastoma, one can see features that resemble other high-grade malignancies as opposed to normal cerebellar granule neurons. This supports the notion that the malignant phenotype of medulloblastoma is characterized by unique changes in ion channel expression.

Structure and mechanism of receptor sharing by the IL-10R2 common chain

IL-10R2 is a shared cell surface receptor required for the activation of five class 2 cytokines (IL-10, IL-22, IL-26, IL-28, and IL-29) that play critical roles in host defense. To define the molecular mechanisms that regulate its promiscuous binding, we have determined the crystal structure of the IL-10R2 ectodomain at 2.14 A resolution. IL-10R2 residues required for binding were identified by alanine scanning and used to derive computational models of IL-10/IL-10R1/IL-10R2 and IL-22/IL-22R1/IL-10R2 ternary complexes. The models reveal a conserved binding epitope that is surrounded by two clefts that accommodate the structural and chemical diversity of the cytokines. These results provide a structural framework for interpreting IL-10R2 single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with human disease.

Structure of IL-22 bound to its high-affinity IL-22R1 chain

IL-22 is an IL-10 family cytokine that initiates innate immune responses against bacterial pathogens and contributes to immune disease. IL-22 biological activity is initiated by binding to a cell-surface complex composed of IL-22R1 and IL-10R2 receptor chains and further regulated by interactions with a soluble binding protein, IL-22BP, which shares sequence similarity with an extracellular region of IL-22R1 (sIL-22R1). IL-22R1 also pairs with the IL-20R2 chain to induce IL-20 and IL-24 signaling. To define the molecular basis of these diverse interactions, we have determined the structure of the IL-22/sIL-22R1 complex. The structure, combined with homology modeling and surface plasmon resonance studies, defines the molecular basis for the distinct affinities and specificities of IL-22 and IL-10 receptor chains that regulate cellular targeting and signal transduction to elicit effective immune responses.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of human IL-22 bound to the extracellular IL-22R1 chain

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is a potent mediator of cellular inflammatory responses. Crystals of IL-22 bound to the extracellular high-affinity cell-surface receptor sIL-22R1 have been grown from polyethylene glycol solutions. Crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction analysis were only obtained with mutants of IL-22 and sIL-22R1 that removed the N-linked glycosylation sites found in the wild-type amino-acid sequences. The crystals belonged to space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 50.43, b = 76.33, c = 114.92 A, beta = 92.45 degrees , and diffracted X-rays to 3.2 A resolution. The crystallographic asymmetric unit contained two IL-22-sIL-22R1 complexes, corresponding to a solvent content of approximately 52%.

Conformational changes mediate interleukin-10 receptor 2 (IL-10R2) binding to IL-10 and assembly of the signaling complex

Interleukin-10 receptor 2 (IL-10R2) is a critical component of the IL-10.IL-10R1.IL-10R2 complex which regulates IL-10-mediated immunomodulatory responses. The ternary IL-10 signaling complex is assembled in a sequential order with the IL-10.IL-10R1 interaction occurring first followed by engagement of the IL-10R2 chain. In this study we map the IL-10R2 binding site on IL-10 using surface plasmon resonance and cell-based assays. Critical IL-10R2 binding residues are located in helix A adjacent to the previously identified IL-10R1 recognition surface. Interestingly, IL-10R2 binding residues located in the N-terminal end of helix A exhibit large structural differences between unbound cIL-10 and cIL-10.IL-10R1 crystal structures. This suggests IL-10R1-induced conformational changes regulate IL-10R2 binding and assembly of the ternary IL-10.IL-10R1.IL-10R2 complex. The basic mechanistic features of the assembly process are likely shared by six additional class-2 cytokines (viral IL-10s, IL-22, IL-26, IL-28A, IL28B, and IL-29) to promote IL-10R2 binding to six additional receptor complexes. These studies highlight the importance of structure in regulating low affinity protein-protein interactions and IL-10 signal transduction.

Structure of insect-cell-derived IL-22

The crystal structure of interleukin-22 expressed in Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells (IL-22(Dm)) has been determined at 2.6 A resolution. IL-22(Dm) crystals contain six molecules in the asymmetric unit. Comparison of IL-22(Dm) and IL-22(Ec) (interleukin-22 produced in Escherichia coli) structures reveals that N-linked glycosylation causes only minor structural changes to the cytokine. However, 1-4 A main-chain differences are observed between the six IL-22(Dm) monomers at regions corresponding to the IL-22R1 and IL-10R2 binding sites. The structure of the carbohydrate and the conformational variation of IL22(Dm) provide new insights into IL-22 receptor recognition.

Same structure, different function crystal structure of the Epstein-Barr virus IL-10 bound to the soluble IL-10R1 chain

Human IL-10 (hIL-10) is a cytokine that modulates diverse immune responses. The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome contains an IL-10 homolog (vIL-10) that shares high sequence and structural similarity with hIL-10. Although vIL-10 suppresses inflammatory responses like hIL-10, it cannot activate many other immunostimulatory functions performed by the cellular cytokine. These functional differences have been correlated with the approximately 1000-fold lower affinity of vIL-10, compared to hIL-10, for the IL-10R1 receptor chain. To define the structural basis for these observations, crystal structures of vIL-10 and a vIL-10 point mutant were determined bound to the soluble IL-10R1 receptor fragment (sIL-10R1) at 2.8 and 2.7 A resolution, respectively. The structures reveal that subtle changes in the conformation and dynamics of the vIL-10 AB and CD loops and an orientation change of vIL-10 on sIL-10R1 are the main factors responsible for vIL-10's reduced affinity for sIL-10R1 and its distinct biological profile.

The IL-10R2 binding hot spot on IL-22 is located on the N-terminal helix and is dependent on N-linked glycosylation

IL-22 is a class 2 alpha-helical cytokine involved in the generation of inflammatory responses. These activities require IL-22 to engage the cell surface receptors IL-22R1 and the low-affinity signaling molecule IL-10R2. IL-10R2 also interacts with five other class 2 cytokines: IL-10, IL-26, and the interferon-like cytokines IL-28A, IL-28B, and IL-29. Here, we define the IL-10R2 binding site on IL-22 using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and site-directed mutagenesis. Surprisingly, the binding hot spot on IL-22 includes asparagine 54 (N54), which is post-translationally modified by N-linked glycosylation. Further characterization of the glycosylation reveals that only a single fucosylated N-acetyl glucosamine on N54 is required for maximal IL-10R2 binding. Biological responses of IL-22 mutants measured in cell-based luciferase assays correlate with the in vitro SPR studies. Together, these data suggest that IL-22 activity may be modulated via changes in the glycosylation state of the ligand during inflammation.

Crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis of insect-cell-derived IL-22

Interleukin-22 is a potent mediator of cellular inflammatory responses. Crystals of interleukin-22 expressed in Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells (IL-22Dm) have been grown from polyethylene glycol solutions. To obtain crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction analysis required the separation of different IL-22Dm glycosylation variants and the inclusion of the detergent cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) in the crystallization experiments. The crystals belong to space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 64.88, b = 62.23, c = 139.524 A, beta = 91.35 degrees, and diffract X-rays to 2.6 A resolution. The crystallographic asymmetric unit contains six IL-22Dm molecules, corresponding to a solvent content of approximately 49%.

Comparison of interleukin-22 and interleukin-10 soluble receptor complexes

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is a cellular homolog of IL-10 that stimulates the production of acute-phase reactants. IL-22 and IL-10 require different ligand-specific receptor chains (IL-22R and IL-10R1) but share a second receptor chain (IL-10R2) to initiate cellular responses. The quaternary structures and the ability of IL-22 and IL-10 to engage soluble (s) IL-10R1, IL-22R, IL-10R2 receptor chains were analyzed using size exclusion chromatography and surface plasmon resonance techniques. In contrast to IL-10, which is a homodimer, IL-22 is a monomer in solution that forms a 1:1 interaction with sIL-22R. Kinetic binding data reveal sIL-22R and sIL-10R1 exhibit specific nanomolar binding constants for IL-22 (k(on)/k(off) = 14.9 nM) and a monomeric isomer of IL-10 (IL-10M1) (k(on)/k(off) = 0.7 nM), respectively. In contrast, IL-10R2 exhibits essentially no affinity for IL-22 (K(eq) approximately 1 mM) or IL-10M1 (K(eq) approximately 2 mM) alone but displays a substantial increase in affinity for the IL-10/sIL-10R1 (K(eq) approximately 350 microM) and IL-22/sIL-22R (K(eq) approximately 45 microM) complexes. Three-dimensional models of IL-22 and IL-10 receptor complexes suggest two receptor residues (Gly-44 and Arg-96) are largely responsible for the marked differences in ligand affinity observed for sIL-10R1 and sIL-22R vs. sIL-10R2.

Crystal structure of human cytomegalovirus IL-10 bound to soluble human IL-10R1

Human IL-10 (hIL-10) modulates critical immune and inflammatory responses by way of interactions with its high- (IL-10R1) and low-affinity (IL-10R2) cell surface receptors. Human cytomegalovirus exploits the IL-10 signaling pathway by expressing a functional viral IL-10 homolog (cmvIL-10), which shares only 27% sequence identity with hIL-10 yet signals through IL-10R1 and IL-10R2. To define the molecular basis of this virus-host interaction, we determined the 2.7-A crystal structure of cmvIL-10 bound to the extracellular fragment of IL-10R1 (sIL-10R1). The structure reveals cmvIL-10 forms a disulfide-linked homodimer that binds two sIL-10R1 molecules. Although cmvIL-10 and hIL-10 share similar intertwined topologies and sIL-10R1 binding sites, their respective interdomain angles differ by approximately 40 degrees. This difference results in a striking re-organization of the IL-10R1s in the putative cell surface complex. Solution binding studies show cmvIL-10 and hIL-10 share essentially identical affinities for sIL-10R1 whereas the Epstein-Barr virus IL-10 homolog (ebvIL-10), whose structure is highly similar to hIL-10, exhibits a approximately 20-fold reduction in sIL-10R1 affinity. Our results suggest cmvIL-10 and ebvIL-10 have evolved different molecular mechanisms to engage the IL-10 receptors that ultimately enhance the respective ability of their virus to escape immune detection.

Crystal structure of the IL-10/IL-10R1 complex reveals a shared receptor binding site

Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is a dimeric cytokine that plays a central role in suppressing inflammatory responses. These activities are dependent on the interaction of IL-10 with its high-affinity receptor (IL-10R1). This intermediate complex must subsequently recruit the low-affinity IL-10R2 chain before cell signaling can occur. Here we report the 2.9 A crystal structure of IL-10 bound to a soluble form of IL-10R1 (sIL-10R1). The complex consists of two IL-10s and four sIL-10R1 molecules. Several residues in the IL-10/sIL-10R1 interface are conserved in all IL-10 homologs and their receptors. The data suggests that formation of the active IL-10 signaling complex occurs by a novel molecular recognition paradigm where IL-10R1 and IL-10R2 both recognize the same binding site on IL-10.

Molecular cloning of the guinea-pig IL-5 receptor alpha and beta subunits and reconstitution of a high affinity receptor

The functional IL-5 receptor is a heteromeric complex consisting of an alpha and beta subunit. The cloning, sequencing and expression of guinea-pig IL-5Ralpha and beta subunits is described. The guinea-pig IL-5Ralpha subunit cDNA encodes a protein of M(r)47 kDa, which is 72 and 66% homologous to the human and murine orthologs, respectively. Three guinea-pig IL-5Rbeta subunit cDNA clones were isolated, which differ in the N-terminus and are 56-64% homologous to the human and murine IL-5Rbeta subunits. Expressing human IL-5Ralphabeta and guinea-pig IL-5Ralphabeta(1)in the baculovirus-insect cell system resulted in recombinant receptors which bound hIL-5 with high affinity (K(d)=0.19 and 0.11 nM, respectively). Expressing just gpIL-5Ralpha was not sufficient to demonstrate binding. This contrasts with the human receptor, where hIL-5Ralpha alone can bind hIL-5 with high affinity. gpIL-5Ralphabeta(1)bound both hIL-5 and mIL-5 with comparable affinity (K(i)=0.10 and 0.06 nM), similar to that seen with hIL-5Ralphabeta. Thus, both the heteromeric hIL-5R and gpIL-5Ralphabeta(1)can bind multiple IL-5 orthologs with high affinity whereas the murine IL-5R is selective for the murine ligand.

Calmodulin mediates calcium-dependent activation of the intermediate conductance KCa channel, IKCa1

Small and intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels play a crucial role in hyperpolarizing the membrane potential of excitable and nonexcitable cells. These channels are exquisitely sensitive to cytoplasmic Ca2+, yet their protein-coding regions do not contain consensus Ca2+-binding motifs. We investigated the involvement of an accessory protein in the Ca2+-dependent gating of hIKCa1, a human intermediate conductance channel expressed in peripheral tissues. Cal- modulin was found to interact strongly with the cytoplasmic carboxyl (C)-tail of hIKCa1 in a yeast two-hybrid system. Deletion analyses defined a requirement for the first 62 amino acids of the C-tail, and the binding of calmodulin to this region did not require Ca2+. The C-tail of hSKCa3, a human neuronal small conductance channel, also bound calmodulin, whereas that of a voltage-gated K+ channel, mKv1.3, did not. Calmodulin co-precipitated with the channel in cell lines transfected with hIKCa1, but not with mKv1. 3-transfected lines. A mutant calmodulin, defective in Ca2+ sensing but retaining binding to the channel, dramatically reduced current amplitudes when co-expressed with hIKCa1 in mammalian cells. Co-expression with varying amounts of wild-type and mutant calmodulin resulted in a dominant-negative suppression of current, consistent with four calmodulin molecules being associated with the channel. Taken together, our results suggest that Ca2+-calmodulin-induced conformational changes in all four subunits are necessary for the channel to open.

A novel gene, hKCa4, encodes the calcium-activated potassium channel in human T lymphocytes

We have isolated a novel gene, hKCa4, encoding an intermediate conductance, calcium-activated potassium channel from a human lymph node library. The translated protein comprises 427 amino acids, has six transmembrane segments, S1-S6, and a pore motif between S5 and S6. hKCa4 shares 41-42% similarity at the amino acid level with three small conductance calcium-activated potassium channels cloned from brain. Northern blot analysis of primary human T lymphocytes reveals a 2.2-kilobase transcript that is highly up-regulated in activated compared with resting cells, concomitant with an increase in KCa current. hKCa4 transcript is also detected by Northern blots or by polymerase chain reaction in placenta, prostate, thymus, spleen, colon, and many cell lines of hematopoietic origin. Patch-clamp recordings of hKCa4-transfected HEK 293 cells reveal a large voltage-independent, inwardly rectifying potassium current that is blocked by externally applied tetraethylammonium (Kd = 30 +/- 7 mM), charybdotoxin (Kd = 10 +/- 1 nM), and clotrimazole (Kd = 387 +/- 34 nM), but is resistant to apamin, iberiotoxin, kaliotoxin, scyllatoxin (Kd > 1 microM), and margatoxin (Kd > 100 nM). Single hKCa4 channels have a conductance of 33 +/- 2 picosiemens in symmetrical potassium solutions. The channel is activated by intracellular calcium (Kd = 270 +/- 8 nM) with a highly cooperative interaction of approximately three calcium ions per channel. These properties of the cloned channel are very similar to those reported for the native KCa channel in activated human T lymphocytes, indicating that hKCa4 encodes this channel type.

Refolded HIV-1 tat protein protects both bulge and loop nucleotides in TAR RNA from ribonucleolytic cleavage

Substantial evidence indicates that HIV-1 trans-activation by tat protein is mediated through the TAR RNA element. This RNA forms a stem-loop structure containing a three-nucleotide bulge and a six-nucleotide loop. Previous mutagenic analysis of TAR indicates that the bulge residues and a 4 bp segment of the stem constitute, in part, the tat binding site. However, there appears to be no sequence-specific contribution of the six-base loop. We have employed a ribonuclease protection technique to explore the interaction of tat with single-stranded regions of TAR. The results indicate that tat interacts with both the bulge and loop regions of TAR. Treatment of TAR RNA with RNase A results in cleavage at U23 and U31, located in the bulge and loop regions, respectively. High concentrations (approximately 2 microM) of Escherichia coli derived tat protein, prepared by standard procedures, gave complete protection of TAR RNA from RNase A cleavage. However, under these conditions, truncated TAR derivatives in which no stem-loop structure is expected to form were also protected, indicating nonspecific binding. In order to obtain a tat preparation with enhanced specificity toward TAR RNA, methods were developed for refolding the recombinant protein. This treatment enhanced the affinity of tat for TAR by approximately 30-fold [Kd(apparent) less than 25 nM] and markedly increased its specificity for the TAR. Again, tat protected TAR RNA from RNase A cleavage at both U23 and U31. Protection was also observed with RNase T1 which cleaves TAR RNA at three G residues in the six-base loop.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Gene synthesis technology: recent developments and future prospects

Gene synthesis is a potentially powerful tool in molecular biology that has not yet reached widespread use because of the relatively high cost and labor-intensive nature of the process. This paper reviews some recent technological developments and current research activities of this laboratory which promise to greatly reduce the cost of gene synthesis and to increase the speed and efficiency of the process. We recently developed an improved device for "segmented" synthesis of oligonucleotides, which utilizes porous Teflon wafers containing derivatized controlled pore glass supports to simultaneously synthesize up to 100 different DNA sequences. The stepwise coupling efficiency with the "wafer synthesis device" is as high as that attained with current automated "gene machines" producing 1-4 oligonucleotides at a time, whereas the reagent usage is only 20-50% that of the current DNA synthesizers. At present, we are optimizing the conditions for rapid, efficient assembly of genes on a solid-phase support, wherein ordered, stepwise annealing/washing is performed to segmentally elongate a "starting" oligonucleotide attached to a solid-phase support. We expect that the wafer synthesis device (operated at reduced scale of synthesis), together with solid-phase gene assembly, will permit the synthesis and assembly of an average size gene (1 kb) in one week at a cost of less than $1000. These developments should make gene synthesis a routine and powerful tool in molecular biology.