Improvements in Compassion and Fears of Compassion throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Multinational Study

During large-scale disasters, social support, caring behaviours, and compassion are shown to protect against poor mental health outcomes. This multi-national study aimed to assess the fluctuations in compassion over time during the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents (Time 1 n = 4156, Time 2 n = 980, Time 3 n = 825) from 23 countries completed online self-report questionnaires measuring the flows of compassion (i.e., Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales) and fears of compassion toward self and others and from others (i.e., Fears of Compassion Scales) and mental health at three time-points during a 10-month period. The results for the flows of compassion showed that self-compassion increased at Time 3. Compassion for others increased at Time 2 and 3 for the general population, but in contrast, it decreased in health professionals, possibly linked to burnout. Compassion from others did not change in Time 2, but it did increase significantly in Time 3. For fears of compassion, fears of self-compassion reduced over time, fears of compassion for others showed more variation, reducing for the general public but increasing for health professionals, whilst fears of compassion from others did not change over time. Health professionals, those with compassion training, older adults, and women showed greater flows of compassion and lower fears of compassion compared with the general population, those without compassion training, younger adults, and men. These findings highlight that, in a period of shared suffering, people from multiple countries and nationalities show a cumulative improvement in compassion and reduction in fears of compassion, suggesting that, when there is intense suffering, people become more compassionate to self and others and less afraid of, and resistant to, compassion.

The role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related post-traumatic growth and stress

BACKGROUND

Historically social connection has been an important way through which humans have coped with large-scale threatening events. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns have deprived people of major sources of social support and coping, with others representing threats. Hence, a major stressor during the pandemic has been a sense of social disconnection and loneliness. This study explores how people's experience of compassion and feeling socially safe and connected, in contrast to feeling socially disconnected, lonely and fearful of compassion, effects the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress.

METHODS

Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) across 21 countries worldwide, completed self-report measures of social connection (compassion for self, from others, for others; social safeness), social disconnection (fears of compassion for self, from others, for others; loneliness), perceived threat of COVID-19, post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress.

RESULTS

Perceived threat of COVID-19 predicted increased post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress. Social connection (compassion and social safeness) predicted higher post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress, whereas social disconnection (fears of compassion and loneliness) predicted increased traumatic symptoms only. Social connection heightened the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth, while social disconnection weakened this impact. Social disconnection magnified the impact of the perceived threat of COVID-19 on traumatic stress. These effects were consistent across all countries.

CONCLUSIONS

Social connection is key to how people adapt and cope with the worldwide COVID-19 crisis and may facilitate post-traumatic growth in the context of the threat experienced during the pandemic. In contrast, social disconnection increases vulnerability to develop post-traumatic stress in this threatening context. Public health and Government organizations could implement interventions to foster compassion and feelings of social safeness and reduce experiences of social disconnection, thus promoting growth, resilience and mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Fears of compassion magnify the harmful effects of threat of COVID-19 on mental health and social safeness across 21 countries

Background

The COVID‐19 pandemic is a massive global health crisis with damaging consequences to mental health and social relationships. Exploring factors that may heighten or buffer the risk of mental health problems in this context is thus critical. Whilst compassion may be a protective factor, in contrast fears of compassion increase vulnerability to psychosocial distress and may amplify the impact of the pandemic on mental health. This study explores the magnifying effects of fears of compassion on the impact of perceived threat of COVID‐19 on depression, anxiety and stress, and social safeness.

Methods

Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) were recruited across 21 countries worldwide, and completed self‐report measures of perceived threat of COVID‐19, fears of compassion (for self, from others, for others), depression, anxiety, stress and social safeness.

Results

Perceived threat of COVID‐19 predicted increased depression, anxiety and stress. The three flows of fears of compassion predicted higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress and lower social safeness. All fears of compassion moderated (heightened) the impact of perceived threat of COVID‐19 on psychological distress. Only fears of compassion from others moderated the effects of likelihood of contracting COVID‐19 on social safeness. These effects were consistent across all countries.

Conclusions

Fears of compassion have a universal magnifying effect on the damaging impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on mental health and social safeness. Compassion focused interventions and communications could be implemented to reduce resistances to compassion and promote mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Rad54 and Mus81 cooperation promotes DNA damage repair and restrains chromosome missegregation

Rad54 and Mus81 mammalian proteins physically interact and are important for the homologous recombination DNA repair pathway; however, their functional interactions in vivo are poorly defined. Here, we show that combinatorial loss of Rad54 and Mus81 results in hypersensitivity to DNA-damaging agents, defects on both the homologous recombination and non-homologous DNA end joining repair pathways and reduced fertility. We also observed that while Mus81 deficiency diminished the cleavage of common fragile sites, very strikingly, Rad54 loss impaired this cleavage to even a greater extent. The inefficient repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in Rad54(-/-)Mus81(-/-) cells was accompanied by elevated levels of chromosome missegregation and cell death. Perhaps as a consequence, tumor incidence in Rad54(-/-)Mus81(-/-) mice remained comparable to that in Mus81(-/-) mice. Our study highlights the importance of the cooperation between Rad54 and Mus81 for mediating DNA DSB repair and restraining chromosome missegregation.

Caspase-12 compensates for lack of caspase-2 and caspase-3 in female germ cells

Previously, we analyzed mice lacking either caspase-2 or caspase-3 and documented a role for caspase-2 in developmental and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis of oocytes. Those data also revealed dispensability of caspase-3, although we found this caspase critical for ovarian granulosa cell death. Because of the mutual interdependence of germ cells and granulosa cells, herein we generated caspase-2 and -3 double-mutant (DKO) mice to evaluate how these two caspases functionally relate to each other in orchestrating oocyte apoptosis. No difference was observed in the rate of spontaneous oocyte apoptosis between DKO and wildtype (WT) females. In contrast, the oocytes from DKO females were more susceptible to apoptosis induced by DNA damaging agents, compared with oocytes from WT females. This increased sensitivity to death of DKO oocytes appears to be a specific response to DNA damage, and it was associated with a compensatory upregulation of caspase-12. Interestingly, DKO oocytes were more resistant to apoptosis induced by methotrexate (MTX) than WT oocytes. These results revealed that in female germ cells, insults that directly interfere with their metabolic status (e.g. MTX) require caspase-2 and caspase-3 as obligatory executioners of the ensuing cell death cascade. However, when DNA damage is involved, and in the absence of caspase-2 and -3, caspase-12 becomes upregulated and mediates apoptosis in oocytes.

CD95 apoptosis resistance in certain cells can be overcome by noncanonical activation of caspase-8

CD95 apoptosis resistance of tumor cells is often acquired through mutations in the death domain (DD) of one of the CD95 alleles. Furthermore, Type I cancer cells are resistant to induction of apoptosis by soluble CD95 ligand (CD95L), which does not induce efficient formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). Here, we report that tumor cells expressing a CD95 allele that lacks a functional DD, splenocytes from heterozygous lpr(cg) mice, which express one mutated CD95 allele, and Type I tumor cells stimulated with soluble CD95L can all die through CD95 when protein synthesis or nuclear factor kappa B is inhibited. This noncanonical form of CD95-mediated apoptosis is dependent on the enzymatic activity of procaspase-8 but does not involve fully processed active caspase-8 subunits. Our data suggest that it is possible to overcome the CD95 apoptosis resistance of many tumor cells that do not efficiently form a DISC through noncanonical activation of the caspase-8 proenzyme.

Animal models of tumor-suppressor genes

The development of cancer requires multiple genetic alterations perturbing distinct cellular pathways. In human cancers, these alterations often arise owing to mutations in tumor-suppressor genes whose normal function is to either inhibit the proliferation, apoptosis, or differentiation of cells, or maintain their genomic integrity. Mouse models for tumor suppressors frequently provide definitive evidence for the antitumorigenic functions of these genes. In addition, animal models permit the identification of previously unsuspected roles of these genes in development and differentiation. The availability of null and tissue-specific mouse mutants for tumor-suppressor genes has greatly facilitated our understanding of the mechanisms leading to cancer. In this review, we describe mouse models for tumor-suppressor genes.

Essential role of the mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor in programmed cell death

Programmed cell death is a fundamental requirement for embryogenesis, organ metamorphosis and tissue homeostasis. In mammals, release of mitochondrial cytochrome c leads to the cytosolic assembly of the apoptosome-a caspase activation complex involving Apaf1 and caspase-9 that induces hallmarks of apoptosis. There are, however, mitochondrially regulated cell death pathways that are independent of Apaf1/caspase-9. We have previously cloned a molecule associated with programmed cell death called apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Like cytochrome c, AIF is localized to mitochondria and released in response to death stimuli. Here we show that genetic inactivation of AIF renders embryonic stem cells resistant to cell death after serum deprivation. Moreover, AIF is essential for programmed cell death during cavitation of embryoid bodies-the very first wave of cell death indispensable for mouse morphogenesis. AIF-dependent cell death displays structural features of apoptosis, and can be genetically uncoupled from Apaf1 and caspase-9 expression. Our data provide genetic evidence for a caspase-independent pathway of programmed cell death that controls early morphogenesis.

Executionary pathway for apoptosis: lessons from mutant mice

Apoptosis or programmed cell death (PCD) is an evolutionarily conserved cellular process that is essential for normal development and homeostasis of multicellular organisms. Defects in the apoptosis signaling result in many diseases including autoimmune diseases and cancer. The apoptosis signaling pathway was first described genetically in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans which serves as a framework for the more complex apoptotic pathways that exist in mammals. In this review, we will discuss the apoptotic pathways that are emerging in mammals as elucidated by studies of gene-targeted mutant mice.

BNIP3 and genetic control of necrosis-like cell death through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore

Many apoptotic signaling pathways are directed to mitochondria, where they initiate the release of apoptogenic proteins and open the proposed mitochondrial permeability transition (PT) pore that ultimately results in the activation of the caspase proteases responsible for cell disassembly. BNIP3 (formerly NIP3) is a member of the Bcl-2 family that is expressed in mitochondria and induces apoptosis without a functional BH3 domain. We report that endogenous BNIP3 is loosely associated with mitochondrial membrane in normal tissue but fully integrates into the mitochondrial outer membrane with the N terminus in the cytoplasm and the C terminus in the membrane during induction of cell death. Surprisingly, BNIP3-mediated cell death is independent of Apaf-1, caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor. However, cells transfected with BNIP3 exhibit early plasma membrane permeability, mitochondrial damage, extensive cytoplasmic vacuolation, and mitochondrial autophagy, yielding a morphotype that is typical of necrosis. These changes were accompanied by rapid and profound mitochondrial dysfunction characterized by opening of the mitochondrial PT pore, proton electrochemical gradient (Deltapsim) suppression, and increased reactive oxygen species production. The PT pore inhibitors cyclosporin A and bongkrekic acid blocked mitochondrial dysregulation and cell death. We propose that BNIP3 is a gene that mediates a necrosis-like cell death through PT pore opening and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Brca1 required for T cell lineage development but not TCR loci rearrangement

Brca1 (breast cancerl, early onset) deficiency results in early embryonic lethality. As Brca1 is highly expressed in the T cell lineage, a T cell-specific disruption of Brca1 was generated to assess the role of Brca1 in relation to T lymphocyte development. We found that thymocyte development in Brca1-/- mice was impaired not as a result of V(D)J T cell receptor (TCR) recombination but because thymocytes had increased expression of tumor protein p53. Chromosomal damage accumulation and abnormal cell death were observed in mutant cells. We found that cell death inhibitor Bcl-2 overexpression, or p53-/- backgrounds, completely restored survival and development of Brca1-/- thymocytes; peripheral T cell numbers were not totally restored in Brcal-/- p53-/- mice; and that a mutant background for p21 (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A) did not restore Brca1-/- thymocyte development, but partially restored peripheral T cell development. Thus, the outcome of Brca1 deficiency was dependent on cellular context, with the major defects being increased apoptosis in thymocytes, and defective proliferation in peripheral T cells.

In vivo evidence that caspase-3 is required for Fas-mediated apoptosis of hepatocytes

Caspase-3 is essential for Fas-mediated apoptosis in vitro. We investigated the role of caspase-3 in Fas-mediated cell death in vivo by injecting caspase-3-deficient mice with agonistic anti-Fas Ab. Wild-type controls died rapidly of fulminant hepatitis, whereas the survival of caspase-3-/- mice was increased due to a delay in hepatocyte cell death. Bcl-2 expression in the liver was dramatically decreased in wild-type mice following anti-Fas injection, but was unchanged in caspase-3-/- mice. Hepatocytes from anti-Fas-injected wild-type, but not caspase-3-/-, mice released cytochrome c into the cytoplasm. Western blotting confirmed the lack of caspase-3-mediated cleavage of Bcl-2. Presumably the presence of intact Bcl-2 in caspase-3-/- hepatocytes prevents the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, a required step for the mitochondrial death pathway. We also show by Western blot that Bcl-xL, caspase-9, caspase-8, and Bid are processed by caspase-3 in injected wild-type mice but that this processing does not occur in caspase-3-/- mice. This study thus provides novel in vivo evidence that caspase-3, conventionally known for its downstream effector function in apoptosis, also modifies Bcl-2 and other upstream proteins involved in the regulation of Fas-mediated apoptosis.

Gene targeting in the analysis of mammalian apoptosis and TNF receptor superfamily signaling

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death (PCD), is the subject of much current investigative interest. Developing embryos and many adult organ systems require the tight coupling of cellular proliferation and PCD to ensure proper organogenesis and optimal tissue function. Over the past decade, our knowledge of the genetic basis underlying the execution of apoptosis in mammals has progressed enormously, thanks largely to groundbreaking studies performed in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. In contrast, the components of the signaling apparatus that links the various death stimuli and the receptors they stimulate to the execution mechanism remain relatively unknown. It is only in the past 4 years that studies of signal transduction via members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily have identified a plethora of novel signaling proteins, including molecules that are directly involved in apoptosis signaling, and others that regulate the induction of cell death. This two-part review focuses on the biology of apoptosis and signaling through members of the TNF receptor superfamily as revealed by the study of gene-targeted "knockout" mice. These genetic mutant animals are invaluable tools not only for confirming or refuting a proposed function of a particular gene in an in vivo setting, but also for uncovering novel functions for a gene that were not anticipated from conventional in vitro experiments. In the field of apoptosis, as for many other areas of biomedical research, knockout mice and cell lines can be used as models for studying human disease, with the ultimate goal of developing therapeutic strategies.

Apaf-1 and caspase-9 in p53-dependent apoptosis and tumor inhibition

The ability of p53 to promote apoptosis in response to mitogenic oncogenes appears to be critical for its tumor suppressor function. Caspase-9 and its cofactor Apaf-1 were found to be essential downstream components of p53 in Myc-induced apoptosis. Like p53 null cells, mouse embryo fibroblast cells deficient in Apaf-1 and caspase-9, and expressing c-Myc, were resistant to apoptotic stimuli that mimic conditions in developing tumors. Inactivation of Apaf-1 or caspase-9 substituted for p53 loss in promoting the oncogenic transformation of Myc-expressing cells. These results imply a role for Apaf-1 and caspase-9 in controlling tumor development.

Developmental studies of Brca1 and Brca2 knock-out mice

In humans, the inheritance of mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 increases the risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer. To study their biological function and to create animal models for these cancer susceptibility genes, several strains of mice mutated in the homologous genes Brca1 and Brca2 have been generated by gene targeting. Analyses of these "knock-out" mouse mutants have provided invaluable knowledge about the function of these genes. Brca1 and Brca2 null mutants are similar in phenotype: mutations in both genes result in embryonic lethality and the developing embryos show signs of a cellular proliferation defect associated with activation of the p53 pathway. The significance of this activation, as well as the role of these cancer susceptibility genes in DNA damage repair, is discussed.

Apaf1 is required for mitochondrial pathways of apoptosis and brain development

Apoptosis is essential for the precise regulation of cellular homeostasis and development. The role in vivo of Apaf1, a mammalian homolog of C. elegans CED-4, was investigated in gene-targeted Apaf1-/- mice. Apaf1-deficient mice exhibited reduced apoptosis in the brain and striking craniofacial abnormalities with hyperproliferation of neuronal cells. Apaf1-deficient cells were resistant to a variety of apoptotic stimuli, and the processing of Caspases 2, 3, and 8 was impaired. However, both Apaf1-/- thymocytes and activated T lymphocytes were sensitive to Fas-induced killing, showing that Fas-mediated apoptosis in these cells is independent of Apaf1. These data indicate that Apaf1 plays a central role in the common events of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in most death pathways and that this role is critical for normal development.

Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo

Mutation of Caspase 9 (Casp9) results in embryonic lethality and defective brain development associated with decreased apoptosis. Casp9-/- embryonic stem cells and embryonic fibroblasts are resistant to several apoptotic stimuli, including UV and gamma irradiation. Casp9-/- thymocytes are also resistant to dexamethasone- and gamma irradiation-induced apoptosis, but are surprisingly sensitive to apoptosis induced by UV irradiation or anti-CD95. Resistance to apoptosis is accompanied by retention of the mitochondrial membrane potential in mutant cells. In addition, cytochrome c is translocated to the cytosol of Casp9-/- ES cells upon UV stimulation, suggesting that Casp9 acts downstream of cytochrome c. Caspase processing is inhibited in Casp9-/- ES cells but not in thymocytes or splenocytes. Comparison of the requirement for Casp9 and Casp3 in different apoptotic settings indicates the existence of at least four different apoptotic pathways in mammalian cells.

Essential contribution of caspase 3/CPP32 to apoptosis and its associated nuclear changes

Caspases are fundamental components of the mammalian apoptotic machinery, but the precise contribution of individual caspases is controversial. CPP32 (caspase 3) is a prototypical caspase that becomes activated during apoptosis. In this study, we took a comprehensive approach to examining the role of CPP32 in apoptosis using mice, embryonic stem (ES) cells, and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) deficient for CPP32. CPP32(ex3-/-) mice have reduced viability and, consistent with an earlier report, display defective neuronal apoptosis and neurological defects. Inactivation of CPP32 dramatically reduces apoptosis in diverse settings, including activation-induced cell death (AICD) of peripheral T cells, as well as chemotherapy-induced apoptosis of oncogenically transformed CPP32(-/-) MEFs. As well, the requirement for CPP32 can be remarkably stimulus-dependent: In ES cells, CPP32 is necessary for efficient apoptosis following UV- but not gamma-irradiation. Conversely, the same stimulus can show a tissue-specific dependence on CPP32: Hence, TNFalpha treatment induces normal levels of apoptosis in CPP32 deficient thymocytes, but defective apoptosis in oncogenically transformed MEFs. Finally, in some settings, CPP32 is required for certain apoptotic events but not others: Select CPP32(ex3-/-) cell types undergoing cell death are incapable of chromatin condensation and DNA degradation, but display other hallmarks of apoptosis. Together, these results indicate that CPP32 is an essential component in apoptotic events that is remarkably system- and stimulus-dependent. Consequently, drugs that inhibit CPP32 may preferentially disrupt specific forms of cell death.

Partial rescue of Brca1 (5-6) early embryonic lethality by p53 or p21 null mutation

Mutations in the mouse Brca1 gene cause lethality at different embryonic stages. We have shown that Brca1 mutant embryos, in which the fifth and sixth exons of Brca1 are deleted die before E7.5 and show decreased cellular proliferation. Brca1 mutants also show decreased expression of mdm2, a gene encoding an inhibitor of p53 activity. Thus, we have proposed that the reduction in mdm2 expression in Brca1 (5-6) mutants might lead to increased p53 activity. Consistent with this finding, the expression of p21, which encodes a G1 cell cycle inhibitor and is a target for p53 transcriptional activation was dramatically increased in the Brca1 (5-6) mutants, suggesting that impaired cellular proliferation could be due to a G1 cell-cycle arrest, caused by increased p21 levels. To test this hypothesis, we generated mice double mutant for Brca1 (5-6) and p53, or Brca1 (5-6) and p21. Mutation in either p53 or p21 prolonged the survival of Brca1 (5-6) mutant embryos from E7.5 to E9.5. The development of most Brca1 (5-6): p21 double-mutant embryos was comparable to that of their wild-type littermates, although no mutant survived past E10.5. The fact that mutation of neither p53 nor p21 completely rescued Brca1 (5-6) embryos suggests that their lethality is likely due to a multi-factorial process.

Brca2 is required for embryonic cellular proliferation in the mouse

Mutations of the tumor suppressor gene BRCA2 are associated with predisposition to breast and other cancers. Homozygous mutant mice in which exons 10 and 11 of the Brca2 gene were deleted by gene targeting (Brca2(10-11)) die before day 9.5 of embryogenesis. Mutant phenotypes range from severely developmentally retarded embryos that do not gastrulate to embryos with reduced size that make mesoderm and survive until 8.5 days of development. Although apoptosis is normal, cellular proliferation is impaired in Brca2(10-11) mutants, both in vivo and in vitro. In addition, the expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is increased. Thus, Brca2(10-11) mutants are similar in phenotype to Brca1(5-6) mutants but less severely affected. Expression of either of these two genes was unaffected in mutant embryos of the other. This study shows that Brca2, like Brca1, is required for cellular proliferation during embryogenesis. The similarity in phenotype between Brca1 and Brca2 mutants suggests that these genes may have cooperative roles or convergent functions during embryogenesis.

Stress-signalling kinase Sek1 protects thymocytes from apoptosis mediated by CD95 and CD3

Distinct and evolutionarily conserved signal transduction cascades mediate survival or death in response to developmental and environmental cues. The stress-activated protein kinases, or Jun N-terminal kinases (SAPKs/JNKs), are activated in response to a variety of cellular stresses such as changes in osmolarity and metabolism, DNA damage, heat shock, ischaemia, or inflammatory cytokines. Sek1 (JNKK/MKK4) is a direct activator of SAPKs/JNKs in response to environmental stresses or mitogenic factors. Here we investigate the role of Sek1 in development and apoptosis by deleting sek1 in embryonic stem (ES) cells by homologous recombination. We provide genetic evidence that different stresses utilize distinct signalling pathways for SAPK/JNK activation. sek1(-/-) rag2(-/-) chimaeric mice have normal numbers of mature T cells but fewer immature CD4+CD8+ thymocytes. The sek1 mutation did not affect the induction of apoptosis in response to environmental stresses in ES and T cells: instead, sek1 protected thymocytes from CD95 (Fas)- and CD3-mediated apoptosis. These data indicate that SEK1 mediates survival signals in T-cell development.

PCR-based gene targeting of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) locus in murine ES cells, a new and more cost-effective approach

Gene targeting by double homologous recombination in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells is a powerful tool used to study the cellular consequences of specific genetic mutations. A typical targeting construct consists of a neomycin phosphotransferase (neo) gene flanked by genomic DNA fragments that are homologous to sequences in the target chromosomal locus. Homologous DNA fragments are typically cloned from a murine genomic DNA library. Here we describe an alternative approach whereby the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) gene locus is partially mapped and homologous DNA sequences obtained using a long-range PCR method. A 7 kb NOS2 amplicon is used to construct a targeting vector where the neo gene is flanked by PCR-derived homologous DNA sequences. The vector also includes a thymidine kinase (tk) negative-selectable marker gene. Following transfection into ES cells, the PCR-based targeting vector undergoes efficient homologous recombination into the NOS2 locus. Thus, PCR-based gene targeting can be a valuable alternative to the conventional cloning approach. It expedites the acquisition of homologous genomic DNA sequences and simplifies the construction of targeting plasmids by making use of defined cloning sites. This approach should result in substantial time and cost savings for appropriate homologous recombination projects.

The tumor suppressor gene Brca1 is required for embryonic cellular proliferation in the mouse

Mutations of the BRCA1 gone in humans are associated with predisposition to breast and ovarian cancers. We show here that Brca1+/- mice are normal and fertile and lack tumors by age eleven months. Homozygous Brca1(5-6) mutant mice die before day 7.5 of embryogenesis. Mutant embryos are poorly developed, with no evidence of mesoderm formation. The extraembryonic region is abnormal, but aggregation with wild-type tetraploid embryos does not rescue the lethality. In vivo, mutant embryos do not exhibit increased apoptosis but show reduced cell proliferation accompanied by decreased expression of cyclin E and mdm-2, a regulator of p53 activity. The expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is dramatically increased in the mutant embryos. Buttressing these in vivo observations is the fact that mutant blastocyst growth is grossly impaired in vitro. Thus, the death of Brca1(5-6) mutant embryos prior to gastrulation may be due to a failure of the proliferative burst required for the development of the different germ layers.

Differential regulation of HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 MHC class I genes by IFN is due to two nucleotide differences in their IFN response sequences

The transcription of HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 class I genes is differentially regulated by IFN-alpha and -gamma, the latter gene being more inducible than the former. To determine the structural basis of this differential response, hybrid genes were constructed in which complete or fragmented HLA-A3 or HLA-B7 promoters were fused to the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase coding sequence. These constructs were tested in transient transfection assays, and the differential response of the HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 genes to IFN was correlated with nucleotide differences in their interferon response sequences (IRS). Replacement of two T nucleotides in the HLA-A3 IRS by the homologous A and C nucleotides of the HLA-B7 IRS was sufficient to impart IFN inducibility of the HLA-A3 promoter and efficient binding of constitutive and IFN-induced nuclear factors to the IRS of HLA-A3. Since the same two nucleotide differences are shared by all sequenced HLA-A and HLA-B genes, these results suggest that high or low responsiveness to IFN might be a locus-related property.

Differential regulation of HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 MHC class I genes by IFN is due to two nucleotide differences in their IFN response sequences

The transcription of HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 class I genes is differentially regulated by IFN-alpha and -gamma, the latter gene being more inducible than the former. To determine the structural basis of this differential response, hybrid genes were constructed in which complete or fragmented HLA-A3 or HLA-B7 promoters were fused to the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase coding sequence. These constructs were tested in transient transfection assays, and the differential response of the HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 genes to IFN was correlated with nucleotide differences in their interferon response sequences (IRS). Replacement of two T nucleotides in the HLA-A3 IRS by the homologous A and C nucleotides of the HLA-B7 IRS was sufficient to impart IFN inducibility of the HLA-A3 promoter and efficient binding of constitutive and IFN-induced nuclear factors to the IRS of HLA-A3. Since the same two nucleotide differences are shared by all sequenced HLA-A and HLA-B genes, these results suggest that high or low responsiveness to IFN might be a locus-related property.

Transfected trophoblast-derived human cells can express a single HLA class I allelic product

The human trophoblast-derived JAR cell line, that does not express polymorphic HLA class I antigens even after IFN induction, can be stably transfected by genomic clones encoding the entire HLA-A2, -A3 and -B7 alpha-chain genes. The transfected genes were expressed at the cell surface in association with endogenous beta 2-microglobulin (shown by FCM analysis) as a single allelic product without reexpression of any endogenous class I gene (shown by 1D.IEF analysis). Furthermore, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, alone and synergistically, increase cell surface expression of transfected MHC class I/endogenous beta 2m heterodimers without induction of endogenous class I alpha-chain genes. These data show that the MHC class I-negative JAR human cell line might be used for transfections with the aim of establishing human cells expressing just one defined MHC class I allele for functional and regulatory studies. These findings are discussed in relation to the methylated status solely of endogenous class I alpha-chain genes in JAR cells and suggest that transfected class I genes are not regulated in the same fashion and, in particular, that constitutive and TNF/IFN inducible trans-acting regulatory factors able to bind to cis-promoter/enhancer sequences of class I DNA are likely to be present.

Differential transcription inducibility by interferon of the HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 class-I genes

HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 class-I genes are differentially regulated in human T lymphoma Jurkat cells, at the transcriptional level, the expression of the HLA-B7 gene being selectively increased following alpha, beta or gamma interferon (IFN) treatment. Using a series of hybrid CAT constructs, associating HLA-A3 and HLA-B7 complete or fragmented promoters, the differential regulation was shown to be associated with 2 nucleotide differences at positions -176 and -175 in the interferon regulatory sequence (IRS) of the HLA-A3 and the HLA-B7 genes. Replacement, using site-directed mutagenesis, of the 2 thymidine in the HLA-A3-IRS by adenine and cytidine found at the same positions in the HLA-B7-IRS was sufficient to restore IFN inducibility of the HLA-A3 promoter and efficient interaction with HeLa nuclear factors. Since the same nucleotide differences are shared by all sequenced HLA-A and HLA-B class-I genes, the differential induction by IFN of the transcription of the HLA-A3 and B7 genes might be a general locus-related property.

IFN-mediated differential regulation of the expression of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I genes

The regulation by IFN of the expression of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I molecules was studied in Jurkat human T lymphoma cells, HHK EBV-transformed human B lymphocytes, and murine HLA-B7 HLA-A3 co-transfected L fibroblasts. Jurkat cells express constitutively low level of HLA class I molecules and treatment with human IFN resulted in preferential increase of the expression of HLA-B7 molecules, the expression of the HLA-A3 molecules being relatively unchanged. Similar treatment of HHK cells, which express constitutively large amount of HLA class I molecules, resulted in a marginal increase of the expression of both HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 molecules. HLA-B7 HLA-A3 co-transfected L cells express relatively low level of HLA class I molecules, expression of both however was significantly increased after treatment with murine INF-alpha, the augmentation being more accentuated for HLA-B7 molecules. In all cases, variations of cell surface expression were related to parallel modifications of the level of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 RNA transcripts. Important nucleotide differences exist between the IFN consensus sequences associated with the HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I genes. Using oligonucleotides corresponding to these sequences two patterns of retarded bands were observed by the gel mobility shift assay, suggesting that the IFN-mediated differential regulation of the expression of the HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 genes could be due to different nuclear regulatory factors.

IFN-mediated differential regulation of the expression of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I genes

The regulation by IFN of the expression of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I molecules was studied in Jurkat human T lymphoma cells, HHK EBV-transformed human B lymphocytes, and murine HLA-B7 HLA-A3 co-transfected L fibroblasts. Jurkat cells express constitutively low level of HLA class I molecules and treatment with human IFN resulted in preferential increase of the expression of HLA-B7 molecules, the expression of the HLA-A3 molecules being relatively unchanged. Similar treatment of HHK cells, which express constitutively large amount of HLA class I molecules, resulted in a marginal increase of the expression of both HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 molecules. HLA-B7 HLA-A3 co-transfected L cells express relatively low level of HLA class I molecules, expression of both however was significantly increased after treatment with murine INF-alpha, the augmentation being more accentuated for HLA-B7 molecules. In all cases, variations of cell surface expression were related to parallel modifications of the level of HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 RNA transcripts. Important nucleotide differences exist between the IFN consensus sequences associated with the HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 class I genes. Using oligonucleotides corresponding to these sequences two patterns of retarded bands were observed by the gel mobility shift assay, suggesting that the IFN-mediated differential regulation of the expression of the HLA-B7 and HLA-A3 genes could be due to different nuclear regulatory factors.

Human beta 2-microglobulin specifically enhances cell-surface expression of HLA class I molecules in transfected murine cells

Sequential transfections of P815 murine mastocytoma cells with class I gene encoding either HLA-Cw3, HLA-A3, or HLA-B7 H chain and subsequently with a human beta 2-microglobulin gene were performed to evaluate the relative efficiency of human and murine beta 2-microglobulins in promoting the cell-surface expression of HLA-class I molecules. A 6-, 11-, and 40-fold specific enhancement of the cell-surface expression of HLA-Cw3, HLA-A3, and HLA-B7 molecules, respectively, was observed in cells co-transfected with human beta 2-microglobulin gene. This effect was attributed to a more efficient association of HLA H chains with human than with murine beta 2-microglobulin, which apparently allowed a more rapid transport of the HLA molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.

Human beta 2-microglobulin specifically enhances cell-surface expression of HLA class I molecules in transfected murine cells

Sequential transfections of P815 murine mastocytoma cells with class I gene encoding either HLA-Cw3, HLA-A3, or HLA-B7 H chain and subsequently with a human beta 2-microglobulin gene were performed to evaluate the relative efficiency of human and murine beta 2-microglobulins in promoting the cell-surface expression of HLA-class I molecules. A 6-, 11-, and 40-fold specific enhancement of the cell-surface expression of HLA-Cw3, HLA-A3, and HLA-B7 molecules, respectively, was observed in cells co-transfected with human beta 2-microglobulin gene. This effect was attributed to a more efficient association of HLA H chains with human than with murine beta 2-microglobulin, which apparently allowed a more rapid transport of the HLA molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.

Serological and structural analysis of HLA class I molecules: beta 2-microglobulin interacts with the two external domains of the HLA class I heavy chain

The serological reactivities of HLA class I molecules were studied in relation to structural modifications of these molecules, including shuffling of external exons and exchange of human beta 2-microglobulin for beta 2-microglobulin from different species. Two major clusters (I and II) of monomorphic and polymorphic antigenic determinants could be delineated. beta 2-Microglobulin participates in the formation of the two clusters, indicating that the light chain interacts tightly with the two external domains of the HLA class I heavy chain. However, external molecules can modify these interactions and alter the antigenic structure of the overall molecule. Thus, fixation on HLA class I molecules of the Fab fragment of a monoclonal antibody directed at antigenic determinants associated with cluster II resulted in enhanced fixation of a monoclonal antibody (B10.6) related to cluster I. The structural and functional implications of these results are discussed.