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Tuhkanen S, Pekkanen J, Mole C, Wilkie RM, Lappi O. Can gaze control steering? J Vis 2023; 23:12. [PMID: 37477935 PMCID: PMC10365140 DOI: 10.1167/jov.23.7.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
When steering a trajectory, we direct our gaze to locations (1-3 s ahead) that we want to steer through. How and why are these active gaze patterns conducive to successful steering? While various sources of visual information have been identified that could support steering control, the role of stereotypical gaze patterns during steering remains unclear. Here, experimental and computational approaches are combined to investigate a possible direct connection between gaze and steering: Is there enough information in gaze direction that it could be used in isolation to steer through a series of waypoints? For this, we test steering models using waypoints supplied from human gaze data, as well as waypoints specified by optical features of the environment. Steering-by-gaze was modeled using a "pure-pursuit" controller (computing a circular trajectory toward a steering point), or a simple "proportional" controller (yaw-rate set proportional to the visual angle of the steering point). Both controllers produced successful steering when using human gaze data as the input. The models generalized using the same parameters across two scenarios: (a) steering through a slalom of three visible waypoints located within lane boundaries and (b) steering a series of connected S bends comprising visible waypoints without a visible road. While the trajectories on average broadly matched those generated by humans, the differences in individual trajectories were not captured by the models. We suggest that "looking where we are going" provides useful information and that this can often be adequate to guide steering. Capturing variation in human steering responses, however, likely requires more sophisticated models or additional sensory information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Tuhkanen
- Cognitive Science, TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jami Pekkanen
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Goodridge CM, Billington J, Markkula G, Wilkie RM. Error accumulation when steering toward curves. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2023; 49:821-834. [PMID: 37276122 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0001101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
To steer a vehicle, humans must process incoming signals that provide information about their movement through the world. These signals are used to inform motor control responses that are appropriately timed and of the correct magnitude. However, the perceptual mechanisms determining how drivers process visual information remain unclear. Previous research has demonstrated that when steering toward a straight road-line, drivers accumulate perceptual evidence (error) over time to initiate steering action (Accumulator framework), rather than waiting for perceptual evidence to surpass time-independent fixed thresholds (Threshold framework). The more general case of steering around bends (with a requirement that the trajectory is adjusted to match the road curvature ahead) provides richer continuously varying information. The current experiment aims to establish whether the Accumulator framework provides a good description of human responses when steering toward curved road-lines. Using a computer-generated steering correction paradigm, drivers (N = 11) steered toward intermittently appearing curved road-lines that varied in position and radius with respect to the driver's trajectory. The Threshold framework predicted that steering responses would be of fixed magnitude and at fixed absolute errors across conditions regardless of the rate of error development. Conversely, the Accumulator framework predicted that drivers should respond to larger absolute errors when the error signal developed at a faster rate. Results were consistent with an Accumulator framework in a manner that supports previous investigations and the computational modeling literature. We propose that the accumulation of perceptual evidence captures human behavior in a variety of steering contexts that drivers face in the real world. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Sheppard WEA, McCarrick D, Wilkie RM, Baraas RC, Coats RO. A Systematic Review of the Effects of Second-Eye Cataract Surgery on Motor Function. Front Aging 2022; 3:866823. [PMID: 35821847 PMCID: PMC9261376 DOI: 10.3389/fragi.2022.866823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cataract removal surgery is one of the most commonly performed surgical procedure in developed countries. The financial and staff resource cost that first-eye cataract surgery incurs, leads to restricted access to second-eye cataract surgery (SES) in some areas, including the United Kingdom. These restrictions have been imposed despite a lack of knowledge about the impact of not performing SES on visuo-motor function. To this end, a systematic literature review was carried out, with the aim of synthesising our present understanding of the effects of SES on motor function. Key terms were searched across four databases, PsycINFO, Medline, Web of Science, and CINAHL. Of the screened studies (K = 499) 13 met the eligibility criteria. The homogeneity between participants, study-design and outcome measures across these studies was not sufficient for meta-analyses and a narrative synthesis was carried out. The evidence from objective sources indicates a positive effect of SES on both mobility and fall rates, however, when considering self-report measures, the reduction in falls associated with SES becomes negligible. The evidence for any positive effect of SES on driving is also mixed, whereby SES was associated with improvements in simulated driving performance but was not associated with changes in driving behaviours measured through in vehicle monitoring. Self-report measures of driving performance also returned inconsistent results. Whilst SES appears to be associated with a general trend towards improved motor function, more evidence is needed to reach any firm conclusions and to best advise policy regarding access to SES in an ageing population. Systematic Review Registration:https://osf.io/7hne6/, identifier INPLASY2020100042.
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Pickavance JP, Giles OT, Morehead JR, Mushtaq F, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. Sensorimotor ability and inhibitory control independently predict attainment in mathematics in children and adolescents. J Neurophysiol 2022; 127:1026-1039. [PMID: 35196148 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00365.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously linked interceptive timing performance to mathematics attainment in 5- to 11-yr-old children, which we attributed to the neural overlap between spatiotemporal and numerical operations. This explanation implies that the relationship should persist through the teenage years. Here, we replicated this finding in adolescents (n = 200, 11-15 yr). However, an alternative explanation is that sensorimotor proficiency and academic attainment are both consequences of executive function. To assess this competing hypothesis, we developed a measure of a core executive function, inhibitory control, from the kinematic data. We combined our new adolescent data with the original children's data (total n = 568), performing a novel analysis controlling for our marker of executive function. We found that the relationship between mathematics and interceptive timing persisted at all ages. These results suggest a distinct functional link between interceptive timing and mathematics that operates independently of our measure of executive function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Previous research downplays the role of sensorimotor skills in the development of higher-order cognitive domains such as mathematics: using inadequate sensorimotor measures, differences in "executive function" account for any shared variance. Utilizing a high-resolution, kinematic measure of a sensorimotor skill previously linked to mathematics attainment, we show that inhibitory control alone cannot account for this relationship. The practical implication is that the development of children's sensorimotor skills must be considered in their intellectual development.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Pickavance
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Centre for Applied Education Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Oscar T Giles
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - J Ryan Morehead
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Faisal Mushtaq
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Mon-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Centre for Applied Education Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Bradford, United Kingdom
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Goodridge CM, Mole CD, Billington J, Markkula G, Wilkie RM. Steering is initiated based on error accumulation. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2022; 48:64-76. [DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Sheppard WEA, Dickerson P, Baraas RC, Mon-Williams M, Barrett BT, Wilkie RM, Coats RO. Exploring the effects of degraded vision on sensorimotor performance. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258678. [PMID: 34748569 PMCID: PMC8575268 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Many people experience unilateral degraded vision, usually owing to a developmental or age-related disorder. There are unresolved questions regarding the extent to which such unilateral visual deficits impact on sensorimotor performance; an important issue as sensorimotor limitations can constrain quality of life by restricting 'activities of daily living'. Examination of the relationship between visual deficit and sensorimotor performance is essential for determining the functional implications of ophthalmic conditions. This study attempts to explore the effect of unilaterally degraded vision on sensorimotor performance. METHODS In Experiment 1 we simulated visual deficits in 30 participants using unilateral and bilateral Bangerter filters to explore whether motor performance was affected in water pouring, peg placing, and aiming tasks. Experiment 2 (n = 74) tested the hypothesis that kinematic measures are associated with visuomotor deficits by measuring the impact of small visual sensitivity decrements created by monocular viewing on sensorimotor interactions with targets presented on a planar surface in aiming, tracking and steering tasks. RESULTS In Experiment 1, the filters caused decreased task performance-confirming that unilateral (and bilateral) visual loss has functional implications. In Experiment 2, kinematic measures were affected by monocular viewing in two of three tasks requiring rapid online visual feedback (aiming and steering). CONCLUSIONS Unilateral visual loss has a measurable impact on sensorimotor performance. The benefits of binocular vision may be particularly important for some groups (e.g. older adults) where an inability to complete sensorimotor tasks may necessitate assisted living. There is an urgent need to develop rigorous kinematic approaches to the quantification of the functional impact of unilaterally degraded vision and of the benefits associated with treatments for unilateral ophthalmic conditions to enable informed decisions around treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Polly Dickerson
- Department of Ophthalmology, York Teaching Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, North Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Rigmor C. Baraas
- Department of Optometry, Radiography and Lighting Design, National Centre for Optics, Vision and Eye Care, University of South-Eastern Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
| | - Mark Mon-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- Department of Optometry, Radiography and Lighting Design, National Centre for Optics, Vision and Eye Care, University of South-Eastern Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
- Bradford Institute of Health Research, Bradford Teaching Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Brendan T. Barrett
- Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M. Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel O. Coats
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Skillful behavior requires the anticipation of future action requirements. This is particularly true during high-speed locomotor steering where solely detecting and correcting current error is insufficient to produce smooth and accurate trajectories. Anticipating future steering requirements could be supported using "model-free" prospective signals from the scene ahead or might rely instead on model-based predictive control solutions. The present study generated conditions whereby the future steering trajectory was specified using a breadcrumb trail of waypoints, placed at regular intervals on the ground to create a predictable course (a repeated series of identical "S-bends"). The steering trajectories and gaze behavior relative to each waypoint were recorded for each participant (N = 16). To investigate the extent to which drivers predicted the location of future waypoints, "gaps" were included (20% of waypoints) whereby the next waypoint in the sequence did not appear. Gap location was varied relative to the S-bend inflection point to manipulate the chances that the next waypoint indicated a change in direction of the bend. Gaze patterns did indeed change according to gap location, suggesting that participants were sensitive to the underlying structure of the course and were predicting the future waypoint locations. The results demonstrate that gaze and steering both rely upon anticipation of the future path consistent with some form of internal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Tuhkanen
- Cognitive Science, Traffic Research Unit, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jami Pekkanen
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, Traffic Research Unit, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Billington J, Webster RJ, Sherratt TN, Wilkie RM, Hassall C. The (Under)Use of Eye-Tracking in Evolutionary Ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 35:495-502. [PMID: 32396816 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
To survive and pass on their genes, animals must perform many tasks that affect their fitness, such as mate-choice, foraging, and predator avoidance. The ability to make rapid decisions is dependent on the information that needs to be sampled from the environment and how it is processed. We highlight the need to consider visual attention within sensory ecology and advocate the use of eye-tracking methods to better understand how animals prioritise the sampling of information from their environments prior to making a goal-directed decision. We consider ways in which eye-tracking can be used to determine how animals work within attentional constraints and how environmental pressures may exploit these limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Billington
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
| | - R J Webster
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - T N Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - R M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - C Hassall
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Mole CD, Lappi O, Giles O, Markkula G, Mars F, Wilkie RM. Getting Back Into the Loop: The Perceptual-Motor Determinants of Successful Transitions out of Automated Driving. Hum Factors 2019; 61:1037-1065. [PMID: 30840514 DOI: 10.1177/0018720819829594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To present a structured, narrative review highlighting research into human perceptual-motor coordination that can be applied to automated vehicle (AV)-human transitions. BACKGROUND Manual control of vehicles is made possible by the coordination of perceptual-motor behaviors (gaze and steering actions), where active feedback loops enable drivers to respond rapidly to ever-changing environments. AVs will change the nature of driving to periods of monitoring followed by the human driver taking over manual control. The impact of this change is currently poorly understood. METHOD We outline an explanatory framework for understanding control transitions based on models of human steering control. This framework can be summarized as a perceptual-motor loop that requires (a) calibration and (b) gaze and steering coordination. A review of the current experimental literature on transitions is presented in the light of this framework. RESULTS The success of transitions are often measured using reaction times, however, the perceptual-motor mechanisms underpinning steering quality remain relatively unexplored. CONCLUSION Modeling the coordination of gaze and steering and the calibration of perceptual-motor control will be crucial to ensure safe and successful transitions out of automated driving. APPLICATION This conclusion poses a challenge for future research on AV-human transitions. Future studies need to provide an understanding of human behavior that will be sufficient to capture the essential characteristics of drivers reengaging control of their vehicle. The proposed framework can provide a guide for investigating specific components of human control of steering and potential routes to improving manual control recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Tuhkanen S, Pekkanen J, Rinkkala P, Mole C, Wilkie RM, Lappi O. Humans Use Predictive Gaze Strategies to Target Waypoints for Steering. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8344. [PMID: 31171850 PMCID: PMC6554351 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44723-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A major unresolved question in understanding visually guided locomotion in humans is whether actions are driven solely by the immediately available optical information (model-free online control mechanisms), or whether internal models have a role in anticipating the future path. We designed two experiments to investigate this issue, measuring spontaneous gaze behaviour while steering, and predictive gaze behaviour when future path information was withheld. In Experiment 1 participants (N = 15) steered along a winding path with rich optic flow: gaze patterns were consistent with tracking waypoints on the future path 1–3 s ahead. In Experiment 2, participants (N = 12) followed a path presented only in the form of visual waypoints located on an otherwise featureless ground plane. New waypoints appeared periodically every 0.75 s and predictably 2 s ahead, except in 25% of the cases the waypoint at the expected location was not displayed. In these cases, there were always other visible waypoints for the participant to fixate, yet participants continued to make saccades to the empty, but predictable, waypoint locations (in line with internal models of the future path guiding gaze fixations). This would not be expected based upon existing model-free online steering control models, and strongly points to a need for models of steering control to include mechanisms for predictive gaze control that support anticipatory path following behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Tuhkanen
- Cognitive Science, Department of Digital Humanities & Helsinki Centre for Digital Humanities (Heldig), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jami Pekkanen
- Cognitive Science, Department of Digital Humanities & Helsinki Centre for Digital Humanities (Heldig), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paavo Rinkkala
- Cognitive Science, Department of Digital Humanities & Helsinki Centre for Digital Humanities (Heldig), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Callum Mole
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Otto Lappi
- Cognitive Science, Department of Digital Humanities & Helsinki Centre for Digital Humanities (Heldig), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. .,TRUlab, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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Raw RK, Wilkie RM, Allen RJ, Warburton M, Leonetti M, Williams JHG, Mon-Williams M. Skill acquisition as a function of age, hand and task difficulty: Interactions between cognition and action. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211706. [PMID: 30730947 PMCID: PMC6366788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Some activities can be meaningfully dichotomised as 'cognitive' or 'sensorimotor' in nature-but many cannot. This has radical implications for understanding activity limitation in disability. For example, older adults take longer to learn the serial order of a complex sequence but also exhibit slower, more variable and inaccurate motor performance. So is their impaired skill acquisition a cognitive or motor deficit? We modelled sequence learning as a process involving a limited capacity buffer (working memory), where reduced performance restricts the number of elements that can be stored. To test this model, we examined the relationship between motor performance and sequence learning. Experiment 1 established that older adults were worse at learning the serial order of a complex sequence. Experiment 2 found that participants showed impaired sequence learning when the non-preferred hand was used. Experiment 3 confirmed that serial order learning is impaired when motor demands increase (as the model predicted). These results can be captured by reinforcement learning frameworks which suggest sequence learning will be constrained both by an individual's sensorimotor ability and cognitive capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K. Raw
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | - Richard J. Allen
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | - Matteo Leonetti
- School of Computing, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Justin H. G. Williams
- University of Aberdeen Medical School, Institute of Medical Sciences, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Mon-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford, United Kingdom
- National Centre for Vision, University of Southeast Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
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Abstract
Control of skilled actions requires rapid information sampling and processing, which may largely be carried out subconsciously. However, individuals often need to make conscious strategic decisions that ideally would be based upon accurate knowledge of performance. Here, we determined the extent to which individuals have explicit awareness of their steering performance (conceptualised as "metacognition"). Participants steered in a virtual environment along a bending road while attempting to keep within a central demarcated target zone. Task demands were altered by manipulating locomotor speed (fast/slow) and the target zone (narrow/wide). All participants received continuous visual feedback about position in zone, and one sub-group was given additional auditory warnings when exiting/entering the zone. At the end of each trial, participants made a metacognitive evaluation: the proportion of the trial they believed was spent in the zone. Overall, although evaluations broadly shifted in line with task demands, participants showed limited calibration to performance. Regression analysis showed that evaluations were influenced by two components: (a) direct monitoring of performance and (b) indirect task heuristics estimating performance based on salient cues (e.g., speed). Evaluations often weighted indirect task heuristics inappropriately, but the additional auditory feedback improved evaluations seemingly by reducing this weighting. These results have important implications for all motor tasks where conscious cognitive control can be used to influence action selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum D Mole
- 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | | | | | - Chris Ja Moulin
- 3 Laboratoire de Psychologie et Neurocognition (CNRS 5105), Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
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13
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Giles OT, Shire KA, Hill LJB, Mushtaq F, Waterman A, Holt RJ, Culmer PR, Williams JHG, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. Hitting the Target: Mathematical Attainment in Children Is Related to Interceptive-Timing Ability. Psychol Sci 2018; 29:1334-1345. [PMID: 29990446 DOI: 10.1177/0956797618772502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Interceptive timing is a fundamental ability underpinning numerous actions (e.g., ball catching), but its development and relationship with other cognitive functions remain poorly understood. Piaget suggested that children need to learn the physical rules that govern their environment before they can represent abstract concepts such as number and time. Thus, learning how objects move in space and time may underpin the development of related abstract representations (i.e., mathematics). To test this hypothesis, we captured objective measures of interceptive timing in 309 primary school children (5-11 years old), alongside scores for general motor skill and national standardized academic attainment. Bayesian estimation showed that interceptive timing (but not general motor capability) uniquely predicted mathematical ability even after we controlled for age, reading, and writing attainment. This finding demonstrates that interceptive timing is distinct from other motor skills with specificity in predicting childhood mathematical ability independently of other forms of attainment and motor capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar T Giles
- 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds.,2 Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds
| | - Katy A Shire
- 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds.,3 Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals Foundation Trust, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mark Mon-Williams
- 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds.,3 Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals Foundation Trust, Bradford, United Kingdom.,6 National Centre for Vision, University of Southeast Norway
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14
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Abstract
Introduction Older adults show increased postural sway and a greater risk of falls when completing activities with high cognitive demands. While dual-task approaches have clarified an association between cognitive processes and postural control, it is unclear how manual ability, which is also required for the successful completion of cognitively demanding tasks (such as putting a key into a lock), affects this relationship. Method Kinematic technology was used to explore the relationship between postural sway and manual control in healthy younger and older adults. Participants ( n = 82) remained standing to complete a visual-motor tracking task on a tablet computer. Root mean square tracking error measured manual performance, and a balance board measured deviations in centre of pressure as a marker of postural sway. Results Older adults displayed poorer manual accuracy and increased postural sway across all testing conditions. Conclusions Cognitive capacity can interact with multiple task demands, and in turn affect postural sway in older adults. Improving our understanding of factors that influence postural control will assist falls-prevention efforts and inform clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rossiter
- Postgraduate Researcher, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Matthew J Allsop
- Research Fellow, Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Rachael K Raw
- Post-Doctoral Researcher, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Lindsay Howard
- Postgraduate Researcher, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Raymond J Holt
- Lecturer, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- Associate Professor, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Mark Mon-Williams
- Professor, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK
- Professor, Bradford Institute of Health Research, West Yorkshire, UK
- Professor, Norwegian Centre for Vision, University of Southeast Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
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15
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Waterman AH, Giles OT, Havelka J, Ali S, Culmer PR, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. Sensorimotor control dynamics and cultural biases: learning to move in the right (or left) direction. R Soc Open Sci 2017; 4:160806. [PMID: 28386437 PMCID: PMC5367303 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The nativist hypothesis suggests universal features of human behaviour can be explained by biologically determined cognitive substrates. This nativist account has been challenged recently by evolutionary models showing that the cultural transmission of knowledge can produce behavioural universals. Sensorimotor invariance is a canonical example of a behavioural universal, raising the issue of whether culture can influence not only which skills people acquire but also the development of the sensorimotor system. We tested this hypothesis by exploring whether culture influences the developing sensorimotor system in children. We took kinematic measures of motor control asymmetries in adults and children from differing cultures where writing follows opposite directions. British and Kuwaiti adults (n = 69) and first grade (5-6 year old) children (n = 140) completed novel rightward and leftward tracing tasks. The Kuwaitis were better when moving their arm leftward while the British showed the opposite bias. Bayesian analysis techniques showed that while children were worse than adults, they also showed asymmetries-with the asymmetry magnitude related to accuracy levels. Our findings support the idea that culture influences the sensorimotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Oscar T. Giles
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Jelena Havelka
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Sumaya Ali
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Peter R. Culmer
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | | | - Mark Mon-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
- Bradford Institute of Health Research, Temple Bank House, Bradford Royal Infirmary, Duckworth Lane, Bradford, BD9 6RJ, UK
- Norwegian Centre for Vision, The University of South-East Norway, Høgskolen i Sørøst-Norge, Postboks 235, 3603 Kongsberg, Norway
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Raw RK, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M, Ross SA, Deniz K, Goddard T, Patankar T. Kinematic measures provide useful information after intracranial aneurysm treatment. J Rehabil Assist Technol Eng 2017; 4:2055668317744999. [PMID: 31186944 PMCID: PMC6453038 DOI: 10.1177/2055668317744999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Current methods of assessing the outcomes of intracranial aneurysm treatment for aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage are relatively insensitive, and thus unlikely to detect subtle deficits. Failures to identify cognitive and motor outcomes of intracranial aneurysm treatment might prevent delivery of optimal post-operative care. There are also concerns over risks associated with using intracranial aneurysm treatment as a preventative measure. METHODS We explored whether our kinematic tool would yield useful information regarding motor/cognitive function in patients who underwent intracranial aneurysm treatment for aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage or unruptured aneurysm. Computerised kinematic motor and learning tasks were administered alongside standardised clinical outcome measures of cognition and functional ability, in 10 patients, as a pilot trial. Tests at post-intracranial aneurysm treatment discharge and six-week follow-up were compared to see which measures detected changes. RESULTS Kinematic tests captured significant improvements from discharge to six-week follow-up, indexed by reduced motor errors and improved learning. Increased Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised scores reflected some recovery of memory function for most individuals, but other standardised cognitive measures, functional outcome scores and a psychological questionnaire showed no changes. CONCLUSIONS Kinematic measures can identify variation in performance in individuals with only slightly improved abilities post-intracranial aneurysm treatment. These measures may provide a sensitive way to explore post-operative outcomes following intracranial aneurysm treatment, or other similar surgical procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K Raw
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School
of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School
of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Mark Mon-Williams
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School
of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Stuart A Ross
- Department of Neurosciences, Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds, UK
| | - Kenan Deniz
- Department of Neurosciences, Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds, UK
| | - Tony Goddard
- Department of Neurosciences, Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds, UK
| | - Tufail Patankar
- Department of Neurosciences, Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds, UK
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Mann RP, Mushtaq F, White AD, Mata-Cervantes G, Pike T, Coker D, Murdoch S, Hiles T, Smith C, Berridge D, Hinchliffe S, Hall G, Smye S, Wilkie RM, Lodge JPA, Mon-Williams M. The Problem with Big Data: Operating on Smaller Datasets to Bridge the Implementation Gap. Front Public Health 2016; 4:248. [PMID: 27990415 PMCID: PMC5130981 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2016.00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Big datasets have the potential to revolutionize public health. However, there is a mismatch between the political and scientific optimism surrounding big data and the public's perception of its benefit. We suggest a systematic and concerted emphasis on developing models derived from smaller datasets to illustrate to the public how big data can produce tangible benefits in the long term. In order to highlight the immediate value of a small data approach, we produced a proof-of-concept model predicting hospital length of stay. The results demonstrate that existing small datasets can be used to create models that generate a reasonable prediction, facilitating health-care delivery. We propose that greater attention (and funding) needs to be directed toward the utilization of existing information resources in parallel with current efforts to create and exploit "big data."
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Faisal Mushtaq
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Alan D. White
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- Big Data and Analytics Unit, Institute of Global Health Innovation, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Tom Pike
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Dalton Coker
- Big Data and Analytics Unit, Institute of Global Health Innovation, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Tim Hiles
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
| | - Clare Smith
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
| | | | | | - Geoff Hall
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
| | - Stephen Smye
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
| | | | - J. Peter A. Lodge
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
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White AD, Mushtaq F, Giles O, Wood ML, Mole C, Culmer PR, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M, Lodge JPA. Laparoscopic Motor Learning and Workspace Exploration. J Surg Educ 2016; 73:992-998. [PMID: 27321983 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Laparoscopic surgery requires operators to learn novel complex movement patterns. However, our understanding of how best to train surgeons' motor skills is inadequate, and research is needed to determine optimal laparoscopic training regimes. This difficulty is confounded by variables inherent in surgical practice, for example, the increasing prevalence of morbidly obese patients presents additional challenges related to restriction of movement because of abdominal wall resistance and reduced intra-abdominal space. The aim of this study was to assess learning of a surgery-related task in constrained and unconstrained conditions using a novel system linking a commercially available robotic arm with specialised software creating the novel kinematic assessment tool (Omni-KAT). METHODS We created an experimental tool that records motor performance by linking a commercially available robotic arm with specialized software that presents visual stimuli and objectively measures movement outcome (kinematics). Participants were given the task of generating aiming movements along a horizontal plane to move a visual cursor on a vertical screen. One group received training that constrained movements to the correct plane, whereas the other group was unconstrained and could explore the entire "action space." RESULTS The tool successfully generated the requisite force fields and precisely recorded the aiming movements. Consistent with predictions from structural learning theory, the unconstrained group produced better performance after training as indexed by movement duration (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION The data showed improved performance for participants who explored the entire action space, highlighting the importance of learning the full dynamics of laparoscopic instruments. These findings, alongside the development of the Omni-KAT, open up exciting prospects for better understanding of the learning processes behind surgical training and investigate ways in which learning can be optimized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan D White
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom; Department of Hepatobiliary and Transplant Surgery, St James's University Hospital, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Faisal Mushtaq
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.
| | - Oscar Giles
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Megan L Wood
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Callum Mole
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Peter R Culmer
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | - J Peter A Lodge
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Transplant Surgery, St James's University Hospital, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Kountouriotis GK, Mole CD, Merat N, Wilkie RM. The need for speed: global optic flow speed influences steering. R Soc Open Sci 2016; 3:160096. [PMID: 27293789 PMCID: PMC4892451 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
How do animals follow demarcated paths? Different species are sensitive to optic flow and one control solution is to maintain the balance of flow symmetry across visual fields; however, it is unclear whether animals are sensitive to changes in asymmetries when steering along curved paths. Flow asymmetries can alter the global properties of flow (i.e. flow speed) which may also influence steering control. We tested humans steering curved paths in a virtual environment. The scene was manipulated so that the ground plane to either side of the demarcated path produced larger or smaller asymmetries in optic flow. Independent of asymmetries and the locomotor speed, the scene properties were altered to produce either faster or slower globally averaged flow speeds. Results showed that rather than being influenced by changes in flow asymmetry, steering responded to global flow speed. We conclude that the human brain performs global averaging of flow speed from across the scene and uses this signal as an input for steering control. This finding is surprising since the demarcated path provided sufficient information to steer, whereas global flow speed (by itself) did not. To explain these findings, existing models of steering must be modified to include a new perceptual variable: namely global optic flow speed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Callum D. Mole
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Natasha Merat
- Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
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White AD, Mushtaq F, Raw RK, Giles OT, Crook IC, Tomlinson J, Miskovic D, Lodge JPA, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. Does monitor position influence visual-motor performance during minimally invasive surgery? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1102/2051-7726.2016.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Mushtaq F, Guillen PP, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams MA, Schaefer A. Feedback-related potentials in a gambling task with randomised reward. Data Brief 2015; 6:378-85. [PMID: 26862585 PMCID: PMC4706610 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2015.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Event-related potentials (ERPs) time-locked to decision outcomes are reported. Participants engaged in a gambling task (see [1] for details) in which they decided between a risky and a safe option (presented as different coloured shapes) on each trial (416 in total). Each decision was associated with (fully randomised) feedback about the reward outcome (Win/Loss) and its magnitude (varying as a function of decision response; 5–9 points for Risky decisions and 1–4 points for Safe decisions). Here, we show data demonstrating: (a) the influence of Win feedback in the preceding outcome (Outcomet−1) on activity related to the current outcome (Outcomet); (b) difference wave analysis for outcome expectancy- separating Expected Outcomes (consecutive Loss trials subtracted from consecutive reward) from Unexpected Outcomes (subtracting Losst−1Wint trials from Wint−1Losst trials); (c) difference waves separating Switch and Stay responses for Outcome Expectancy; (d) the effect of magnitude induced by decisions (Riskt vs. Safet) on Outcome Expectancy; and finally, (e) expectations reflected by response switch direction (Risk to Safe responses vs. Safe to Riskt) on the FRN at Outcomet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Mushtaq
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo Puente Guillen
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom; School of Computing, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Mon-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandre Schaefer
- School of Business, Monash University, Sunway Campus, Selangor, Malaysia
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22
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White AD, Skelton M, Mushtaq F, Pike TW, Mon-Williams M, Lodge JPA, Wilkie RM. Inconsistent reporting of minimally invasive surgery errors. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2015; 97:608-12. [PMID: 26492908 PMCID: PMC5096613 DOI: 10.1308/rcsann.2015.0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is a complex task requiring dexterity and high level cognitive function. Unlike surgical 'never events', potentially important (and frequent) manual or cognitive slips ('technical errors') are underresearched. Little is known about the occurrence of routine errors in MIS, their relationship to patient outcome, and whether they are reported accurately and/or consistently. METHODS An electronic survey was sent to all members of the Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland, gathering demographic information, experience and reporting of MIS errors, and a rating of factors affecting error prevalence. RESULTS Of 249 responses, 203 completed more than 80% of the questions regarding the surgery they had performed in the preceding 12 months. Of these, 47% reported a significant error in their own performance and 75% were aware of a colleague experiencing error. Technical skill, knowledge, situational awareness and decision making were all identified as particularly important for avoiding errors in MIS. Reporting of errors was variable: 15% did not necessarily report an intraoperative error to a patient while 50% did not consistently report at an institutional level. Critically, 12% of surgeons were unaware of the procedure for reporting a technical error and 59% felt guidance is needed. Overall, 40% believed a confidential reporting system would increase their likelihood of reporting an error. CONCLUSION These data indicate inconsistent reporting of operative errors, and highlight the need to better understand how and why technical errors occur in MIS. A confidential 'no blame' reporting system might help improve patient outcomes and avoid a closed culture that can undermine public confidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D White
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust , UK
- University of Leeds , UK
| | | | | | - T W Pike
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust , UK
- University of Leeds , UK
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23
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Mushtaq F, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams MA, Schaefer A. Randomised prior feedback modulates neural signals of outcome monitoring. Neuroimage 2015; 125:868-879. [PMID: 26497268 PMCID: PMC4692517 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Substantial evidence indicates that decision outcomes are typically evaluated relative to expectations learned from relatively long sequences of previous outcomes. This mechanism is thought to play a key role in general learning and adaptation processes but relatively little is known about the determinants of outcome evaluation when the capacity to learn from series of prior events is difficult or impossible. To investigate this issue, we examined how the feedback-related negativity (FRN) is modulated by information briefly presented before outcome evaluation. The FRN is a brain potential time-locked to the delivery of decision feedback and it is widely thought to be sensitive to prior expectations. We conducted a multi-trial gambling task in which outcomes at each trial were fully randomised to minimise the capacity to learn from long sequences of prior outcomes. Event-related potentials for outcomes (Win/Loss) in the current trial (Outcomet) were separated according to the type of outcomes that occurred in the preceding two trials (Outcomet-1 and Outcomet-2). We found that FRN voltage was more positive during the processing of win feedback when it was preceded by wins at Outcomet-1 compared to win feedback preceded by losses at Outcomet-1. However, no influence of preceding outcomes was found on FRN activity relative to the processing of loss feedback. We also found no effects of Outcomet-2 on FRN amplitude relative to current feedback. Additional analyses indicated that this effect was largest for trials in which participants selected a decision different to the gamble chosen in the previous trial. These findings are inconsistent with models that solely relate the FRN to prediction error computation. Instead, our results suggest that if stable predictions about future events are weak or non-existent, then outcome processing can be determined by affective systems. More specifically, our results indicate that the FRN is likely to reflect the activity of positive affective systems in these contexts. Importantly, our findings indicate that a multifactorial explanation of the nature of the FRN is necessary and such an account must incorporate affective and motivational factors in outcome processing. FRN is sensitive to prior events but does this persist when learning is impossible? Four FRN theories were examined in a task with fully randomised feedback. Previous trial outcome modulated FRN during positive but not negative outcomes. Results consistent with a positive affective modulation interpretation of the FRN. FRN is determined by factors beyond prediction error (e.g. affective/motivational).
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Mushtaq
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | | | - Alexandre Schaefer
- School of Business, Monash University, Sunway Campus, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Jamieson ES, Chandler JH, Culmer PR, Manogue M, Mon-Williams M, Wilkie RM. Can virtual reality trainers improve the compliance discrimination abilities of trainee surgeons? Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2015; 2015:466-469. [PMID: 26736300 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2015.7318400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The assessment of tissue compliance using a handheld tool is an important skill in medical areas such as laparoscopic and dental surgery. The increasing prevalence of virtual reality devices raises the question of whether we can exploit these systems to accelerate the training of compliance discrimination in trainee surgeons. We used a haptic feedback device and stylus to assess the abilities of naïve participants to detect compliance differences with and without knowledge of results (KR) (groups 1 and 2), as well as the abilities of participants who had undergone repetitive training over several days (group 3). Kinematic analyses were carried out to objectively measure the probing action. Untrained participants had poor detection thresholds (mean just noticeable difference, JND = 33%), and we found no effect of KR (provided after each trial) on performance (mean JND = 35%). Intensive training dramatically improved group performance (mean JND = 12%). Probing action (in particular, slower movement execution) was associated with better detection thresholds, but training did not lead to systematic changes in probing behaviour. These findings set a benchmark for training systems that act to increase perceptual sensitivity and guide the learner toward optimal movement strategies to improve discrimination.
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25
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Raw RK, Wilkie RM, White A, Williams JHG, Mon-Williams M. The 'Goldilocks Zone': getting the measure of manual asymmetries. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128322. [PMID: 26023774 PMCID: PMC4449126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Some studies have shown that manual asymmetries decrease in older age. These results have often been explained with reference to models of reduced hemispheric specialisation. An alternative explanation, however, is that hand differences are subtle, and capturing them requires tasks that yield optimal performance with both hands. Whereas the hemispheric specialisation account implies that reduced manual asymmetries should be reliably observed in older adults, the ‘measurement difficulty’ account suggests that manual asymmetries will be hard to detect unless a task has just the right level of difficulty—i.e. within the ‘Goldilocks Zone’, where it is not too easy or too hard, but just right. Experiment One tested this hypothesis and found that manual asymmetries were only detected when participants performed in this zone; specifically, performance on a tracing task was only superior in the preferred hand when task constraints were high (i.e. fast speed tracing). Experiment Two used three different tasks to examine age differences in manual asymmetries; one task produced no asymmetries, whilst two tasks revealed asymmetries in both younger and older groups (with poorer overall performance in the old group across all tasks). Experiment Three revealed task-dependent asymmetries in both age groups, but highlighted further detection difficulties linked with the metric of performance and compensatory strategies used by participants. Results are discussed with reference to structural learning theory, whereby we suggest that the processes of inter-manual transfer lead to relatively small performance differences between the hands (despite a strong phenomenological sense of performance disparities).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K. Raw
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M. Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Alan White
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Justin H. G. Williams
- Division of Applied Health Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Clinical Research Centre, Royal Cornhill Hospital, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
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Smith M, Mole CD, Kountouriotis GK, Chisholm C, Bhakta B, Wilkie RM. Driving with homonymous visual field loss: Does visual search performance predict hazard detection? Br J Occup Ther 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0308022614562786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Stroke often causes homonymous visual field loss, which can lead to exclusion from driving. Retention of a driving licence is sometimes possible by completing an on-road assessment, but this is not practical for all. It is important to find simple tests that can inform the assessment and rehabilitation of driving-related visual-motor function. Method We developed novel computerised assessments: visual search; simple reaction and decision reaction to appearing pedestrians; and pedestrian detection during simulated driving. We tested 12 patients with stroke (seven left, five right field loss) and 12 controls. Results The homonymous visual field defect group was split into adequately compensated or inadequately compensated groups based on visual search performance. The inadequately compensated group had problems with stimuli in their affected field: they tended to react more slowly than controls and in the driving task they failed to detect a number of pedestrians. In contrast, the adequately compensated group were better at detecting pedestrians, though reaction times were slightly slower than controls. Conclusion We suggest that our search task can predict, to a limited extent, whether a person with stroke compensates for visual field loss, and may potentially identify suitability for specific rehabilitation to promote return to driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Smith
- Consultant, major trauma rehabilitation, Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, UK
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White AD, Giles O, Sutherland RJ, Ziff O, Mon-Williams M, Wilkie RM, Lodge JPA. Minimally invasive surgery training using multiple port sites to improve performance. Surg Endosc 2014; 28:1188-93. [PMID: 24232133 DOI: 10.1007/s00464-013-3307-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Structural learning theory suggests that experiencing motor task variation enables the central nervous system to extract general rules regarding tasks with a similar structure - rules that can subsequently be applied to novel situations. Complex minimally invasive surgery (MIS) requires different port sites, but switching ports alters the limb movements required to produce the same endpoint control of the surgical instrument. The purpose of the present study was to determine if structural learning theory can be applied to MIS to inform training methods. METHODS A tablet laptop running bespoke software was placed within a laparoscopic box trainer and connected to a monitor situated at eye level. Participants (right-handed, non-surgeons, mean age = 23.2 years) used a standard laparoscopic grasper to move between locations on the screen. There were two training groups: the M group (n = 10) who trained using multiple port sites, and the S group (n = 10) who trained using a single port site. A novel port site was used as a test of generalization. Performance metrics were a composite of speed and accuracy (SACF) and normalized jerk (NJ; a measure of movement 'smoothness'). RESULTS The M group showed a statistically significant performance advantage over the S group at test, as indexed by improved SACF (p < 0.05) and NJ (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS This study has demonstrated the potential benefits of incorporating a structural learning approach within MIS training. This may have practical applications when training junior surgeons and developing surgical simulation devices.
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Flatters I, Mushtaq F, Hill LJB, Holt RJ, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. The relationship between a child's postural stability and manual dexterity. Exp Brain Res 2014; 232:2907-17. [PMID: 24825824 PMCID: PMC4131166 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-3947-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The neural systems responsible for postural control are separate from the neural substrates that underpin control of the hand. Nonetheless, postural control and eye-hand coordination are linked functionally. For example, a stable platform is required for precise manual control tasks (e.g. handwriting) and thus such skills often cannot develop until the child is able to sit or stand upright. This raises the question of the strength of the empirical relationship between measures of postural stability and manual motor control. We recorded objective computerised measures of postural stability in stance and manual control in sitting in a sample of school children (n = 278) aged 3–11 years in order to explore the extent to which measures of manual skill could be predicted by measures of postural stability. A strong correlation was found across the whole sample between separate measures of postural stability and manual control taken on different days. Following correction for age, a significant but modest correlation was found. Regression analysis with age correction revealed that postural stability accounted for between 1 and 10 % of the variance in manual performance, dependent on the specific manual task. These data reflect an interdependent functional relationship between manual control and postural stability development. Nevertheless, the relatively small proportion of the explained variance is consistent with the anatomically distinct neural architecture that exists for ‘gross’ and ‘fine’ motor control. These data justify the approach of motor batteries that provide separate assessments of postural stability and manual dexterity and have implications for therapeutic intervention in developmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Flatters
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
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29
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Flatters I, Mushtaq F, Hill LJB, Rossiter A, Jarrett-Peet K, Culmer P, Holt R, Wilkie RM, Mon-Williams M. Children's head movements and postural stability as a function of task. Exp Brain Res 2014; 232:1953-70. [PMID: 24668127 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-3886-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Manual dexterity and postural control develop throughout childhood, leading to changes in the synergistic relationships between head, hand and posture. But the postural developments that support complex manual task performance (i.e. beyond pointing and grasping) have not been examined in depth. We report two experiments in which we recorded head and posture data whilst participants simultaneously performed a visuomotor task. In Experiment 1, we explored the extent to which postural stability is affected by concurrently performing a visual and manual task whilst standing (a visual vs. manual-tracking task) in four age groups: 5-6 years (n = 8), 8-9 years (n = 10), 10-11 years (n = 7) and 19-21 years (n = 9). For visual tracking, the children's but not adult's postural movement increased relative to baseline with a larger effect for faster moving targets. In manual tracking, we found greater postural movement in children compared to adults. These data suggest predictive postural compensation mechanisms develop during childhood to improve stability whilst performing visuomotor tasks. Experiment 2 examined the extent to which posture is influenced by manual activity in three age groups of children [5-6 years (n = 14), 7-8 years (n = 25), and 9-10 years (n = 24)] when they were seated, given that many important tasks (e.g. handwriting) are learned and performed whilst seated. We found that postural stability varied in a principled manner as a function of task demands. Children exhibited increased stability when tracing a complex shape (which required less predictive postural adjustment) and decreased stability in an aiming task (which required movements that were more likely to perturb posture). These experiments shed light on the task-dependant relationships that exist between postural control mechanisms and the development of specific types of manual control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Flatters
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Kountouriotis GK, Wilkie RM. Displaying optic flow to simulate locomotion: Comparing heading and steering. Iperception 2013; 4:333-46. [PMID: 24349692 PMCID: PMC3859550 DOI: 10.1068/i0590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Optic flow can be used by humans to determine their direction of heading as well as controlling steering. Dot-flow displays have been widely used to investigate these abilities but it is unclear whether photorealistic textures would provide better information for controlling high-speed steering. Here, we examine the accuracy of heading judgements from dot-flow displays of different densities and luminance and then compare to a scene containing a textured ground. We then examine steering behaviour using these same displays to determine whether accurate heading conditions necessarily equate to successful steering. Our findings suggest that the bright dense dot-flow displays led to equivalent performance as the ground texture when judging heading, and this was also true when steering. The intermediate dot-flow conditions (with fewer and faded dots) revealed that some conditions that led to accurate heading judgements were insufficient for accurate steering. It seems, therefore, that heading perception should not be considered synonymous with successful steering control, and displays that support one ability will not necessarily support the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios K Kountouriotis
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; and Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; e-mail:
| | - Richard M Wilkie
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; e-mail:
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31
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Abstract
How do animals and insects use visual information to move through the world successfully? Optic flow, the pattern of motion at the eye, is a powerful source of information about self-motion. Insects and humans are sensitive to the global pattern of optic flow and try to maintain flow symmetry when flying or walking. The environments humans encounter, however, often contain demarcated paths that constrain future trajectories (e.g., roads), and steering has been successfully modeled using only road edge information. Here we examine whether flow asymmetries from a textured ground plane influences humans steering along demarcated paths. Using a virtual reality simulator we observed that different textures on either side of the path caused predictable biases to steering trajectories, consistent with participants reducing flow asymmetries. We also generated conditions where one textured region had no flow (either the texture was removed or the textured region was static). Despite the presence of visible path information, participants were biased toward the no-flow region consistent with reducing flow asymmetries. We conclude that optic flow asymmetries can lead to biased locomotor steering even when traveling along demarcated paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios K Kountouriotis
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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32
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Billington J, Wilkie RM, Wann JP. Obstacle avoidance and smooth trajectory control: neural areas highlighted during improved locomotor performance. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:9. [PMID: 23423825 PMCID: PMC3575057 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual control of locomotion typically involves both detection of current egomotion as well as anticipation of impending changes in trajectory. To determine if there are distinct neural systems involved in these aspects of steering control we used a slalom paradigm, which required participants to steer around objects in a computer simulated environment using a joystick. In some trials the whole slalom layout was visible (steering “preview” trials) so planning of the trajectory around future waypoints was possible, whereas in other trials the slalom course was only revealed one object at a time (steering “near” trials) so that future planning was restricted. In order to control for any differences in the motor requirements and visual properties between “preview” and “near” trials, we also interleaved control trials which replayed a participants' previous steering trials, with the task being to mimic the observed steering. Behavioral and fMRI results confirmed previous findings of superior parietal lobe (SPL) recruitment during steering trials, with a more extensive parietal and sensorimotor network during steering “preview” compared to steering “near” trials. Correlational analysis of fMRI data with respect to individual behavioral performance revealed that there was increased activation in the SPL in participants who exhibited smoother steering performance. These findings indicate that there is a role for the SPL in encoding path defining targets or obstacles during forward locomotion, which also provides a potential neural underpinning to explain improved steering performance on an individual basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jac Billington
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Leeds Leeds, UK
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33
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Abstract
"Visual capture" is the term used to describe vision being afforded a higher weighting than other sensory information. Visual capture can produce powerful illusory effects with individuals misjudging the size and position of their hands. The advent of laparoscopic surgical techniques raises the question of whether visual capture can interfere with an individual's rate of motor learning. We compared adaptation to distorted visual feedback in two groups: the Direct group appeared to have the advantage of directly viewing the input device, while the Indirect group used the same input device but viewed their movements on a remote screen. Counterintuitively, the Indirect group adapted more readily to distorted feedback and showed enhanced performance. The results show that visual capture impairs adaptation to distorted visual feedback, suggesting that surgeons need to avoid viewing their hands when learning laparoscopic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Wilkie
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.
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34
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Kountouriotis GK, Floyd RC, Gardner PH, Merat N, Wilkie RM. The role of gaze and road edge information during high-speed locomotion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 38:687-702. [PMID: 22060146 DOI: 10.1037/a0026123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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35
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K Raw
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- M Allsop
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering Systems and Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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37
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Gonzalez C, Anderson J, Culmer P, Burke MR, Mon-Williams M, Wilkie RM. Is tracing or copying better when learning to reproduce a pattern? Exp Brain Res 2010; 208:459-65. [PMID: 21069306 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2482-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C Gonzalez
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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38
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Abstract
Detecting a looming object and its imminent collision is imperative to survival. For most humans, it is a fundamental aspect of daily activities such as driving, road crossing and participating in sport, yet little is known about how the brain both detects and responds to such stimuli. Here we use functional magnetic resonance imaging to assess neural response to looming stimuli in comparison with receding stimuli and motion-controlled static stimuli. We demonstrate for the first time that, in the human, the superior colliculus and the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus respond to looming in addition to cortical regions associated with motor preparation. We also implicate the anterior insula in making timing computations for collision events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jac Billington
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
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39
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Johnson RL, Culmer PR, Burke MR, Mon-Williams M, Wilkie RM. Exploring structural learning in handwriting. Exp Brain Res 2010; 207:291-5. [PMID: 20972778 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2438-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Structural learning suggests that the human nervous system learns general rules that can be applied when controlling actions involving similar structures (e.g. using a variety of bicycles when learning to ride). These general rules can then facilitate skill acquisition in novel but related situations (e.g. a new bicycle). We tested this concept by investigating whether learned asymmetries in handwriting (greater ease in moving the hand rightwards and downwards within Western-educated populations) are present in the non-preferred hand as predicted by structural learning. We found these asymmetries in both hands of a right-handed population when tracing abstract shapes. We then ruled out biomechanical explanations by finding the same results with a left-handed population. These findings provide support for structural learning and explain: (1) the rapidity with which individuals can learn to write with their non-preferred hand; (2) the presence of a higher abstract (effector independent) level within voluntary motor control organisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn L Johnson
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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40
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Wilkie RM, Kountouriotis GK, Merat N, Wann JP. Using vision to control locomotion: looking where you want to go. Exp Brain Res 2010; 204:539-47. [PMID: 20556368 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2321-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Looking at the inside edge of the road when steering a bend seems to be a well-established strategy linked to using a feature called the tangent point. An alternative proposal suggests that the gaze patterns observed when steering result from looking at the points in the world through which one wishes to pass. In this explanation fixation on or near the tangent point results from trying to take a trajectory that cuts the corner. To test these accounts, we recorded gaze and steering when taking different paths along curved roadways. Participants could gauge and maintain their lateral distance, but crucially, gaze was predominantly directed to the region proximal to the desired path rather than toward the tangent point per se. These results show that successful control of high-speed locomotion requires fixations in the direction you want to steer rather than using a single road feature like the tangent point.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Wilkie
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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41
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Billington J, Field DT, Wilkie RM, Wann JP. An fMRI study of parietal cortex involvement in the visual guidance of locomotion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 36:1495-507. [PMID: 20718562 DOI: 10.1037/a0018728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jac Billington
- Department of Psychology, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK.
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42
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Abstract
Traditional approaches to assessing students assume that multiple choice questions (MCQs) are adequate in assessing only basic, low-level knowledge at the early stages of the higher education (HE) curriculum. Increasingly, however, teachers of HE across a variety of subject areas are keen to explore the opportunities for developing higher-level MCQ formats for assessing more advanced stages of the curriculum. This has many benefits: students are unable to question-spot and are required to demonstrate a breadth as well as a depth of knowledge, tests can be administered electronically, and because feedback and marking can be instantaneous feedback can be quicker than in a traditional paper-and-pencil assessment, without an onerous marking load for staff. Here we report the use of high-level MCQs (hMCQ) in Level 2 of our BSc Psychology programme. We demonstrate the success of this format in differentiating between students, and highlight important factors in designing questions. We argue that this type of examination format offers an assessment that discriminates between students and which can be simply evaluated to ensure there is a suitable fit between the questions that make up the assessment tool and the student population under evaluation.
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43
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Abstract
The authors examined observers steering through a series of obstacles to determine the role of active gaze in shaping locomotor trajectories. Participants sat on a bicycle trainer integrated with a large field-of-view simulator and steered through a series of slalom gates. Steering behavior was determined by examining the passing distance through gates and the smoothness of trajectory. Gaze monitoring revealed which slalom targets were fixated and for how long. Participants tended to track the most immediate gate until it was about 1.5 s away, at which point gaze switched to the next slalom gate. To probe this gaze pattern, the authors then introduced a number of experimental conditions that placed spatial or temporal constraints on where participants could look and when. These manipulations resulted in systematic steering errors when observers were forced to use unnatural looking patterns, but errors were reduced when peripheral monitoring of obstacles was allowed. A steering model based on active gaze sampling is proposed, informed by the experimental conditions and consistent with observations in free-gaze experiments and with recommendations from real-world high-speed steering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Wilkie
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, England.
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44
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Abstract
M. F. Land and D. N. Lee (1994) suggested that steering around a bend is controlled through the estimation of curvature using the visual direction of a single road feature: the tangent point. The aim of this study was to evaluate, using a simulated environment, whether the high levels of tangent point fixation reported by some researchers are indeed related to steering control. In the first experiment, gaze patterns were examined when steering along roadways of varying widths and curvatures. Experiment 2 investigated the effects of enforced fixation on steering, when gaze was directed to the road ahead at a range of lateral eccentricities, including the tangent point. All participants completed both experiments. Overall, there was no evidence for extensive tangent point fixation in the free-gaze experiment and enforced tangent point fixation did not result in more accurate steering. The present results seem to suggest that participants tend to steer in the direction of their gaze; hence, looking at the tangent point causes the driver to steer toward it. These results provide some support for the R. M. Wilkie and J. P. Wann (2002) model of steering, which proposes that drivers will direct their gaze toward points they wish to pass through.
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45
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Abstract
Visual control of locomotion is essential for most mammals and requires coordination between perceptual processes and action systems. Previous research on the neural systems engaged by self-motion has focused on heading perception, which is only one perceptual subcomponent. For effective steering, it is necessary to perceive an appropriate future path and then bring about the required change to heading. Using function magnetic resonance imaging in humans, we reveal a role for the parietal eye fields (PEFs) in directing spatially selective processes relating to future path information. A parietal area close to PEFs appears to be specialized for processing the future path information itself. Furthermore, a separate parietal area responds to visual position error signals, which occur when steering adjustments are imprecise. A network of three areas, the cerebellum, the supplementary eye fields, and dorsal premotor cortex, was found to be involved in generating appropriate motor responses for steering adjustments. This may reflect the demands of integrating visual inputs with the output response for the control device.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Field
- Department of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AH, United Kingdom.
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46
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Abstract
During locomotion, retinal flow, gaze angle, and vestibular information can contribute to one's perception of self-motion. Their respective roles were investigated during active steering: Retinal flow and gaze angle were biased by altering the visual information during computer-simulated locomotion, and vestibular information was controlled through use of a motorized chair that rotated the participant around his or her vertical axis. Chair rotation was made appropriate for the steering response of the participant or made inappropriate by rotating a proportion of the veridical amount. Large steering errors resulted from selective manipulation of retinal flow and gaze angle, and the pattern of errors provided strong evidence for an additive model of combination. Vestibular information had little or no effect on steering performance, suggesting that vestibular signals are not integrated with visual information for the control of steering at these speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Wilkie
- Department of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom.
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47
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Abstract
To steer a course through the world, people are almost entirely dependent on visual information, of which a key component is optic flow. In many models of locomotion, heading is described as the fundamental control variable; however, it has also been shown that fixating points along or near one's future path could be the basis of an efficient control solution. Here, the authors aim to establish how well observers can pinpoint instantaneous heading and path, by measuring their accuracy when looking at these features while traveling along straight and curved paths. The results showed that observers could identify both heading and path accurately (approximately 3 degrees ) when traveling along straight paths, but on curved paths they were more accurate at identifying a point on their future path (approximately 5 degrees ) than indicating their instantaneous heading (approximately 13 degrees ). Furthermore, whereas participants could track changes in the tightness of their path, they were unable to accurately track the rate of change of heading. In light of these results, the authors suggest it is unlikely that heading is primarily used by the visual system to support active steering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Wilkie
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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48
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Abstract
Eye-movements have long been considered a problem when trying to understand the visual control of locomotion. They transform the retinal image from a simple expanding pattern of moving texture elements (pure optic flow), into a complex combination of translation and rotation components (retinal flow). In this article we investigate whether there are measurable advantages to having an active free gaze, over a static gaze or tracking gaze, when steering along a winding path. We also examine patterns of free gaze behavior to determine preferred gaze strategies during active locomotion. Participants were asked to steer along a computer-simulated textured roadway with free gaze, fixed gaze, or gaze tracking the center of the roadway. Deviation of position from the center of the road was recorded along with their point of gaze. It was found that visually tracking the middle of the road produced smaller steering errors than for fixed gaze. Participants performed best at the steering task when allowed to sample naturally from the road ahead with free gaze. There was some variation in the gaze strategies used, but sampling was predominantly of areas proximal to the center of the road. These results diverge from traditional models of flow analysis.
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49
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Abstract
We have the ability to locomote at high speeds, and we usually negotiate bends safely, even when visual information is degraded, for example, when driving at night. There are three sources of visual information that could support successful steering. An observer fixating a steering target that is eccentric to the current heading must rotate their gaze. The gaze rotation may be detected by using head and eye movement signals (extra-retinal direction: ERD) or their retinal counterpart, visual direction (VD). The gaze rotation also transforms the global retinal flow (RF) field, which may enable direct steering judgments. In this study, we manipulate VD and RF to determine their contribution toward steering a curved path in the presence of ERD. The results suggest a model that uses a weighted combination of all three information sources, but results also suggest that this weighting may change in reduced visibility, such as in low-light conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Wilkie
- School of Psychology, University of Reading, 3 Earley Gate, Reading RG6 6AL, United Kingdom
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50
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Sumner ED, Nickel RO, Lancaster CJ, Wilkie RM. Using self-evaluation to maintain competence. J Pharm Technol 1992; 8:78-80. [PMID: 10118897 DOI: 10.1177/875512259200800208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This limited study examined differences in pharmacists' competencies through self-assessment. By using self-assessment with specified objectives, pharmacists can target areas for CE programs. Pharmacists can then improve and maintain their competencies in these specific areas. A future study could focus on discovering the reasons some pharmacists do not feel comfortable in giving advice/information to other healthcare professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Sumner
- College of Pharmacy, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston 29425
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