Thermosensitive polymer prodrug nanoparticles prepared by an all-aqueous nanoprecipitation process and application to combination therapy

Despite their great versatility and ease of functionalization, most polymer-based nanocarriers intended for use in drug delivery often face serious limitations that can prevent their clinical translation, such as uncontrolled drug release and off-target toxicity, which mainly originate from the burst release phenomenon. In addition, residual solvents from the formulation process can induce toxicity, alter the physico-chemical and biological properties and can strongly impair further pharmaceutical development. To address these issues, we report polymer prodrug nanoparticles, which are prepared without organic solvents via an all-aqueous formulation process, and provide sustained drug release. This was achieved by the "drug-initiated" synthesis of well-defined copolymer prodrugs exhibiting a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and based on the anticancer drug gemcitabine (Gem). After screening for different structural parameters, prodrugs based on amphiphilic diblock copolymers were formulated into stable nanoparticles by all-aqueous nanoprecipitation, with rather narrow particle size distribution and average diameters in the 50-80 nm range. They exhibited sustained Gem release in human serum and acetate buffer, rapid cellular uptake and significant cytotoxicity on A549 and Mia PaCa-2 cancer cells. We also demonstrated the versatility of this approach by formulating Gem-based polymer prodrug nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin (Dox) for combination therapy. The dual-drug nanoparticles exhibited sustained release of Gem in human serum and acidic release of Dox under accelerated pathophysiological conditions. Importantly, they also induced a synergistic effect on triple-negative breast cancer line MDA-MB-231, which is a relevant cell line to this combination.

Transformation of metallo-elastomer grafts in a carotid artery interposition model over a year

Current vascular grafts, primarily Gore-Tex® and Dacron®, don't integrate with the host and have low patency in small-diameter vessels (<6 mm). Biomaterials that possess appropriate viscoelasticity, compliance, and high biocompatibility are essential for their application in small blood vessels. We have developed metal ion crosslinked poly(propanediol-co-(hydroxyphenyl methylene)amino-propanediol sebacate) (M-PAS), a biodegradable elastomer with a wide range of mechanical properties. We call these materials metallo-elastomers. An initial test on Zn-, Fe-, and Cu-PAS grafts reveals that Cu-PAS is the most suitable because of its excellent elastic recoil and well-balanced polymer degradation/tissue regeneration rate. Here we report host remodeling of Cu-PAS vascular grafts in rats over one year. 76 % of the grafts remain patent and >90 % of the synthetic polymer is degraded by 12 months. Extensive cell infiltration leads to a positive host remodeling. The remodeled grafts feature a fully endothelialized lumen. Circumferentially organized smooth muscle cells, elastin fibers, and widespread mature collagen give the neoarteries mechanical properties similar to native arteries. Proteomic analysis further reveals the presence of important vascular proteins in the neoarteries. Evidence suggests that Cu-PAS is a promising material for engineering small blood vessels.

Lipid Nanoparticle Delivery Alters the Adjuvanticity of the TLR9 Agonist CpG by Innate Immune Activation in Lymphoid Tissue

Pharmacological strategies to activate innate immune cells are of great relevance in the context of vaccine design and anticancer immune therapy, to mount broad immune responses able to clear infection and malignant cells. Synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODNs) are short single-stranded DNA molecules containing unmethylated CpG dinucleotides and a phosphorothioate backbone. Class B CpG ODNs activate robust innate immune responses through a TLR9-dependent NF-κB signaling pathway. This feature is attractive to exploit in the context of vaccine design and cancer immunotherapy. Soluble CpG-ODNs cause hepatic toxicity, which reduces its therapeutic applicability. The formulation of class B CpG ODN1826 in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) containing an ionizable cationic lipid that complexes CpG through electrostatic interaction is reported. Upon local administration, LNP-formulated CpG drains to lymph nodes and triggers robust innate immune activation. Unformulated, soluble, CpG, by contrast, is unable to induce robust innate activation in draining lymph nodes and is distributed systemically. In a vaccination setting, LNP-formulated CpG, admixed with a protein antigen, induces higher antigen-specific antibody titers and T cell responses than antigen admixed with unformulated soluble CpG.

Smart hydrogels delivered by high pressure aerosolization can prevent peritoneal adhesions

Postoperative peritoneal adhesions occur in the majority of patients undergoing intra-abdominal surgery and are one of the leading causes of hospital re-admission. There is an unmet clinical need for effective anti-adhesive biomaterials, which can be applied evenly across the damaged tissues. We examined three different responsive hydrogel types, i.e. a thermosensitive PLGA-PEG-PLGA, a pH responsive UPy-PEG and a shear-thinning hexapeptide for this purpose. More specifically, their potential to be homogeneously distributed in the peritoneal cavity by high pressure nebulization and prevent peritoneal adhesions was evaluated. Solutions of each polymer type could be successfully nebulized while retaining their responsive gelation behavior in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, none of the polymers caused in vitro toxicity on SKOV3-IP2 cells. Following intraperitoneal administration, both the PLGA-PEG-PLGA and the hexapeptide hydrogels resulted in local inflammation and fibrosis and failed in preventing peritoneal adhesions 7 days after adhesion induction. In contrast, the pH sensitive UPy-PEG formulation was well tolerated and could significantly reduce the formation of peritoneal adhesions, even outperforming the commercially available Hyalobarrier® as positive control. To conclude, local nebulization of the bioresponsive UPy-PEG hydrogel can be considered as a promising approach to prevent postsurgical peritoneal adhesions.

In Situ Tumor Vaccination with Calcium-Linked Degradable Coacervate Nanocomplex Co-Delivering Photosensitizer and TLR7/8 Agonist to Trigger Effective Anti-Tumor Immune Responses

In situ anti-tumor vaccination is an attractive type of cancer immunotherapy which relies on the effectiveness of dendritic cells (DCs) to engulf tumor antigens, become activated, and present antigens to T cells in lymphoid tissue. Here, a multifunctional nanocomplex based on calcium crosslinked polyaspartic acid conjugated to either a toll-like receptor (TLR)7/8 agonist or a photosensitizer is reported. Intratumoral administration of the nanocomplex followed by laser irradiation induces cell killing and hence generation of a pool of tumor-associated antigens, with concomitant promotion of DCs maturation and expansion of T cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes. Suppression of tumor growth is observed both at the primary site and at the distal site, thereby hinting at successful induction of an adaptive anti-tumor response. This strategy holds promise for therapeutic application in a pre-operative and post-operative setting to leverage to mutanome of the patient's own tumor to mount immunological memory to clear residual tumor cells and metastasis.

Delivery of STING agonists for adjuvanting subunit vaccines

Adjuvant is an essential component in subunit vaccines. Many agonists of pathogen recognition receptors have been developed as potent adjuvants to optimize the immunogenicity and efficacy of vaccines. Recently discovered cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway has attracted much attention as it is a key mediator for modulating immune responses. Vaccines adjuvanted with STING agonists are found to mediate a robust immune defense against infections and cancer. In this review, we first discuss the mechanisms of STING agonists in the context of vaccination. Next, we present recent progress in novel STING agonist discovery and the delivery strategies. We next highlight recent work in optimizing the efficacy while minimizing toxicity of STING agonist-assisted subunit vaccines for protection against infectious diseases or treatment of cancer. Finally, we share our perspectives of current issues and future directions in further developing STING agonists for adjuvanting subunit vaccines.

Switchable immune modulator for tumor-specific activation of anticancer immunity

Immune stimulatory antibodies and cytokines elicit potent antitumor immunity. However, the dose-limiting systemic toxicity greatly hinders their clinical applications. Here, we demonstrate a chemical approach, termed “switchable” immune modulator (Sw-IM), to limit the systemic exposure and therefore ameliorate their toxicities. Sw-IM is a biomacromolecular therapeutic reversibly masked by biocompatible polymers through chemical linkers that are responsive to tumor-specific stimuli, such as high reducing potential and acidic pH. Sw-IMs stay inert (switch off) in the circulation and healthy tissues but get reactivated (switch on) selectively in tumor via responsive removal of the polymer masks, thus focusing the immune boosting activities in the tumor microenvironment. Sw-IMs applied to anti–4-1BB agonistic antibody and IL-15 cytokine led to equivalent antitumor efficacy to the parental IMs with markedly reduced toxicities. Sw-IM provides a highly modular and generic approach to improve the therapeutic window and clinical applicability of potent IMs in mono- and combinational immunotherapies.

Sterilizing Immunity against SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Mice by a Single-Shot and Lipid Amphiphile Imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 Agonist-Adjuvanted Recombinant Spike Protein Vaccine*

The search for vaccines that protect from severe morbidity and mortality because of infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a race against the clock and the virus. Here we describe an amphiphilic imidazoquinoline (IMDQ-PEG-CHOL) TLR7/8 adjuvant, consisting of an imidazoquinoline conjugated to the chain end of a cholesterol-poly(ethylene glycol) macromolecular amphiphile. It is water-soluble and exhibits massive translocation to lymph nodes upon local administration through binding to albumin, affording localized innate immune activation and reduction in systemic inflammation. The adjuvanticity of IMDQ-PEG-CHOL was validated in a licensed vaccine setting (quadrivalent influenza vaccine) and an experimental trimeric recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein vaccine, showing robust IgG2a and IgG1 antibody titers in mice that could neutralize viral infection in vitro and in vivo in a mouse model.

Lipid-Polyglutamate Nanoparticle Vaccine Platform

Peptide-based subunit vaccines are attractive in view of personalized cancer vaccination with neo-antigens, as well as for the design of the newest generation of vaccines against infectious diseases. Key to mounting robust antigen-specific immunity is delivery of antigen to antigen-presenting (innate immune) cells in lymphoid tissue with concomitant innate immune activation to promote antigen presentation to T cells and to shape the amplitude and nature of the immune response. Nanoparticles that co-deliver both peptide antigen and molecular adjuvants are well suited for this task. However, in the context of peptide-based antigen, an unmet need exists for a generic strategy that allows for co-encapsulation of peptide and molecular adjuvants due to the stark variation in physicochemical properties based on the amino acid sequence of the peptide. These properties also strongly differ from those of many molecular adjuvants. Here, we devise a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) platform that addresses these issues. Key in our concept is poly(l-glutamic acid) (PGA), which serves as a hydrophilic backbone for conjugation of, respectively, peptide antigen (Ag) and an imidazoquinoline (IMDQ) TLR7/8 agonist as a molecular adjuvant. Making use of the PGA's polyanionic nature, we condensate PGA-Ag and PGA-IMDQ into LNP by electrostatic interaction with an ionizable lipid. We show in vitro and in vivo in mouse models that LNP encapsulation favors uptake by innate immune cells in lymphoid tissue and promotes the induction of Ag-specific T cells responses both after subcutaneous and intravenous administration.

Sterilizing Immunity against SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Mice by a Single-Shot and Modified Imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 Agonist-Adjuvanted Recombinant Spike Protein Vaccine

The search for vaccines that protect from severe morbidity and mortality as a result of infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a race against the clock and the virus. Several vaccine candidates are currently being tested in the clinic. Inactivated virus and recombinant protein vaccines can be safe options but may require adjuvants to induce robust immune responses efficiently. In this work we describe the use of a novel amphiphilic imidazoquinoline (IMDQ-PEG-CHOL) TLR7/8 adjuvant, consisting of an imidazoquinoline conjugated to the chain end of a cholesterol-poly(ethylene glycol) macromolecular amphiphile). This amphiphile is water soluble and exhibits massive translocation to lymph nodes upon local administration, likely through binding to albumin. IMDQ-PEG-CHOL is used to induce a protective immune response against SARS-CoV-2 after single vaccination with trimeric recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the BALB/c mouse model. Inclusion of amphiphilic IMDQ-PEG-CHOL in the SARS-CoV-2 spike vaccine formulation resulted in enhanced immune cell recruitment and activation in the draining lymph node. IMDQ-PEG-CHOL has a better safety profile compared to native soluble IMDQ as the former induces a more localized immune response upon local injection, preventing systemic inflammation. Moreover, IMDQ-PEG-CHOL adjuvanted vaccine induced enhanced ELISA and in vitro microneutralization titers, and a more balanced IgG2a/IgG1 response. To correlate vaccine responses with control of virus replication in vivo, vaccinated mice were challenged with SARS-CoV-2 virus after being sensitized by intranasal adenovirus-mediated expression of the human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) gene. Animals vaccinated with trimeric recombinant spike protein vaccine without adjuvant had lung virus titers comparable to non-vaccinated control mice, whereas animals vaccinated with IMDQ-PEG-CHOL-adjuvanted vaccine controlled viral replication and infectious viruses could not be recovered from their lungs at day 4 post infection. In order to test whether IMDQ-PEG-CHOL could also be used to adjuvant vaccines currently licensed for use in humans, proof of concept was also provided by using the same IMDQ-PEG-CHOL to adjuvant human quadrivalent inactivated influenza virus split vaccine, which resulted in enhanced hemagglutination inhibition titers and a more balanced IgG2a/IgG1 antibody response. Enhanced influenza vaccine responses correlated with better virus control when mice were given a lethal influenza virus challenge. Our results underscore the potential use of IMDQ-PEG-CHOL as an adjuvant to achieve protection after single immunization with recombinant protein and inactivated virus vaccines against respiratory viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses.

Imidazoquinoline-Conjugated Degradable Coacervate Conjugate for Local Cancer Immunotherapy

Strategies that can reduce the harmful side effects of potent immunomodulatory drugs are in high demand to facilitate clinical translation of the newest generation of immunotherapy. Indeed, uncontrolled triggering of the immune system can lead to life-threatening cascade reactions, such as e.g. cytokine storm. In particular, drug formulations that combine simplicity and degradability are of formidable relevance. Imidazoquinolines are an excellent example of such small molecule immunomodulatory drugs that exhibit in unformulated form a highly undesirable pharmacokinetic profile. Imidazoquinolines are potent inducers of type I interferons that are of great interest in the context of anticancer and antiviral therapy through triggering of Toll like receptors 7 and 8. In this work we aimed to alter the pharmacokinetic profile of imidazoquinolines using a simple, yet efficient, strategy that holds high potential for clinical translation. Hereto, we conjugated an imidazoquinoline to the backbone of poly(aspartate) and further formulated this into a degradable coacervate through complex coacervation with a nontoxic degradable polycation. The intrinsic TLR activity of the imidazoquinoline was well preserved and our formulation strategy offered spatial control over its biological activity in vivo.

Nanomedicine-mediated alteration of the pharmacokinetic profile of small molecule cancer immunotherapeutics

The advent of immunotherapy is a game changer in cancer therapy with monoclonal antibody- and T cell-based therapeutics being the current flagships. Small molecule immunotherapeutics might offer advantages over the biological drugs in terms of complexity, tissue penetration, manufacturing cost, stability, and shelf life. However, small molecule drugs are prone to rapid systemic distribution, which might induce severe off-target side effects. Nanotechnology could aid in the formulation of the drug molecules to improve their delivery to specific immune cell subsets. In this review we summarize the current efforts in changing the pharmacokinetic profile of small molecule immunotherapeutics with a strong focus on Toll-like receptor agonists. In addition, we give our vision on limitations and future pathways in the route of nanomedicine to the clinical practice.

Potent and Prolonged Innate Immune Activation by Enzyme-Responsive Imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 Agonist Prodrug Vesicles

Synthetic immune-stimulatory drugs such as agonists of the Toll-like receptors (TLR) 7/8 are potent activators of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), however, they also induce severe side effects due to leakage from the site of injection into systemic circulation. Here, we report on the design and synthesis of an amphiphilic polymer-prodrug conjugate of an imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 agonist that in aqueous medium forms vesicular structures of 200 nm. The conjugate contains an endosomal enzyme-responsive linker enabling degradation of the vesicles and release of the TLR7/8 agonist in native form after endocytosis, which results in high in vitro TLR agonist activity. In a mouse model, locally administered vesicles provoke significantly more potent and long-lasting immune stimulation in terms of interferon expression at the injection site and in draining lymphoid tissue compared to a nonamphiphilic control and the native TLR agonist. Moreover, the vesicles induce robust activation of dendritic cells in the draining lymph node in vivo.

Design of pH-Degradable Polymer-Lipid Amphiphiles Using a Ketal-Functionalized RAFT Chain Transfer Agent

Conjugation of small molecule drug to lipid-polymer amphiphiles is a powerful strategy to alter the pharmacokinetic profile of these molecules by promoting binding to albumin or other serum molecules. Incorporation of a responsive linker between the lipid anchor and the polymer chain can be of interest to avoid indefinite binding of the conjugates to hydrophobic pockets of serum proteins or phospholipid membranes when reaching a target cell or tissue. Here, the synthesis of pH-sensitive lipid-polymer conjugates by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization using a RAFT chain transfer agent that is equipped with a pH-sensitive ketal bond between a cholesterol moiety and the trithiocarbonate RAFT chain transfer group is reported. It is demonstrated that in native form these conjugates exhibit a high affinity to albumin and cell membranes but loose this ability in response to a mild acidic trigger in aqueous medium.

Zebrafish Embryos Allow Prediction of Nanoparticle Circulation Times in Mice and Facilitate Quantification of Nanoparticle-Cell Interactions

The zebrafish embryo is a vertebrate well suited for visualizing nanoparticles at high resolution in live animals. Its optical transparency and genetic versatility allow noninvasive, real-time observations of vascular flow of nanoparticles and their interactions with cells throughout the body. As a consequence, this system enables the acquisition of quantitative data that are difficult to obtain in rodents. Until now, a few studies using the zebrafish model have only described semiquantitative results on key nanoparticle parameters. Here, a MACRO dedicated to automated quantitative methods is described for analyzing important parameters of nanoparticle behavior, such as circulation time and interactions with key target cells, macrophages, and endothelial cells. Direct comparison of four nanoparticle (NP) formulations in zebrafish embryos and mice reveals that data obtained in zebrafish can be used to predict NPs' behavior in the mouse model. NPs having long or short blood circulation in rodents behave similarly in the zebrafish embryo, with low circulation times being a consequence of NP uptake into macrophages or endothelial cells. It is proposed that the zebrafish embryo has the potential to become an important intermediate screening system for nanoparticle research to bridge the gap between cell culture studies and preclinical rodent models such as the mouse.

Potent Lymphatic Translocation and Spatial Control Over Innate Immune Activation by Polymer-Lipid Amphiphile Conjugates of Small-Molecule TLR7/8 Agonists

Uncontrolled systemic inflammatory immune triggering has hampered the clinical translation of several classes of small-molecule immunomodulators, such as imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 agonists for vaccine design and cancer immunotherapy. By taking advantage of the inherent serum-protein-binding property of lipid motifs and their tendency to accumulate in lymphoid tissue, we designed amphiphilic lipid-polymer conjugates that suppress systemic inflammation but provoke potent lymph-node immune activation. This work provides a rational basis for the design of lipid-polymer amphiphiles for optimized lymphoid targeting.

Enhanced Permeability and Retention-like Extravasation of Nanoparticles from the Vasculature into Tuberculosis Granulomas in Zebrafish and Mouse Models

The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is the only described mechanism enabling nanoparticles (NPs) flowing in blood to reach tumors by a passive targeting mechanism. Here, using the transparent zebrafish model infected with Mycobacterium marinum we show that an EPR-like process also occurs allowing different types of NPs to extravasate from the vasculature to reach granulomas that assemble during tuberculosis (TB) infection. PEGylated liposomes and other NP types cross endothelial barriers near infection sites within minutes after injection and accumulate close to granulomas. Although ∼100 and 190 nm NPs concentrated most in granulomas, even ∼700 nm liposomes reached these infection sites in significant numbers. We show by confocal microscopy that NPs can concentrate in small aggregates in foci on the luminal side of the endothelium adjacent to the granulomas. These spots are connected to larger foci of NPs on the ablumenal side of these blood vessels. EM analysis suggests that NPs cross the endothelium via the paracellular route. PEGylated NPs also accumulated efficiently in granulomas in a mouse model of TB infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, arguing that the zebrafish embryo model can be used to predict NP behavior in mammalian hosts. In earlier studies we and others showed that uptake of NPs by macrophages that are attracted to infection foci is one pathway for NPs to reach TB granulomas. This study reveals that when NPs are designed to avoid macrophage uptake, they can also efficiently target granulomas via an alternative mechanism that resembles EPR.

Nano-targeted induction of dual ferroptotic mechanisms eradicates high-risk neuroblastoma

High-risk neuroblastoma is a devastating malignancy with very limited therapeutic options. Here, we identify withaferin A (WA) as a natural ferroptosis-inducing agent in neuroblastoma, which acts through a novel double-edged mechanism. WA dose-dependently either activates the nuclear factor-like 2 pathway through targeting of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (noncanonical ferroptosis induction) or inactivates glutathione peroxidase 4 (canonical ferroptosis induction). Noncanonical ferroptosis induction is characterized by an increase in intracellular labile Fe(II) upon excessive activation of heme oxygenase-1, which is sufficient to induce ferroptosis. This double-edged mechanism might explain the superior efficacy of WA as compared with etoposide or cisplatin in killing a heterogeneous panel of high-risk neuroblastoma cells, and in suppressing the growth and relapse rate of neuroblastoma xenografts. Nano-targeting of WA allows systemic application and suppressed tumor growth due to an enhanced accumulation at the tumor site. Collectively, our data propose a novel therapeutic strategy to efficiently kill cancer cells by ferroptosis.

The relevance of shear, sedimentation and diffusion during spin freezing, as potential first step of a continuous freeze-drying process for unit doses

Recently, a continuous freeze-drying process for the production of unit doses was presented and evaluated. In this concept, the freezing step is modified compared to traditional batch freeze-drying, as glass vials filled with a liquid formulation, are rotated around their longitudinal axis while cooled and frozen with a cold, sterile and inert gas (i.e. spin freezing). Finally, a thin frozen product layer spread over the entire vial wall is achieved. The aim of this paper is twofold: firstly, the relation between the rotation velocity and the relative difference between top and bottom of the frozen product layer thickness was determined for different vial types. Secondly, the impact of shear and centrifugal forces generated during spinning was examined, to find out whether they might cause pharmaceutical instability and sedimentation, respectively. Mechanistic and experimental evaluation showed that shear has no effect on proteins. Calculations showed that the sedimentation and diffusion velocity is too low to cause inhomogeneity in the product layer. In addition, Global Sensitivity Analysis (GSA) and Uncertainty Analysis (UA) were performed in order to account for the uncertainty of the used mechanistic model.

A versatile method for the selective core-crosslinking of hyaluronic acid nanogels via ketone-hydrazide chemistry: from chemical characterization to in vivo biodistribution

Nanogels show long in vivo blood circulation time and high tumor accumulation.

Acrylamides with hydrolytically labile carbonate ester side chains as versatile building blocks for well-defined block copolymer micelles via RAFT polymerization

Hydrophobic modification of N-(2-hydroxyethyl)acrylamide yields a class of building blocks that is attractive for biomaterial synthesis.