Updated Acoustic Normative Data through the Lifespan: A Scoping Review

OBJECTIVE

To assess the recent literature for voice acoustic data values reported for individuals without voice disorder through the lifespan as a means to develop an updated normative acoustic data resource for children and adults.

METHODS

A scoping review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist. English language, full-text publications were identified through Medline (EBSCO & OVID), PubMed, APA PsycINFO, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ProQuest Theses and Dissertations Global.

RESULTS

A total of 903 sources were retrieved; of these 510 were duplicates. Abstracts of 393 were screened, with 68 full-text review. From the eligible studies, citation review yielded 51 additional resources. Twenty-eight sources were included for data extraction. For the normative acoustic data extracted for males and females across the lifespan, lower fundamental frequency for adult females was observed and few studies collected semitone range, sound level range, or frequency range. Data extraction also indicated a predominately gender binary reporting of acoustic measures with few studies reporting gender identity, race, or ethnicity as variables of interest.

CONCLUSIONS

The scoping review yielded updated acoustic normative data that is of value for clinicians and researchers who rely on this normative data to make determinations about vocal function. The limited availability of acoustic data by gender, race, and ethnicity creates barriers for generalization of these normative values across all patients, clients, and research volunteers.

Three-day exposure to low-dose ethanol alters guanine nucleotide binding protein expression in the developing rat hippocampus

Alcohol-related birth defects result from acute and chronic insults that perturb sequential developmental programs. The molecular targets of EtOH include G-protein coupled signal transduction pathways. In order to test the hypothesis that G-proteins are involved in EtOH-induced hippocampal teratogenesis, rat pups were administered 3.3 g/kg.day of EtOH on postnatal days (PN) 5 to 7 using the pup-in-a-cup model of third trimester "binge" exposure. This exposure paradigm produced a selective 40% decrease in the 52 kDa isoform of the stimulatory form of the heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding protein (G alpha s) in the hippocampus on PN 7 with no significant changes in the levels of G alpha i or G alpha o. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that this decrease occurred in the somas of both hippocampal pyramidal cells and granule cells of the dentate gyrus. Computer-assisted cell counting indicates that this decrease was not due to pyramidal cell death on PN 7. Northern and slot blot analysis demonstrated a 30% decrease in G alpha s messenger RNA in the hippocampus. These results suggest that EtOHs teratogenic effects in the hippocampus may involve disruption of G alpha s-coupled signal transduction pathways, which are critical for normal synaptogenesis, neurotransmitter signaling and the integration of these signals with growth factor signaling pathways.

Synaptogenesis in hippocampal cultures: evidence indicating that axons and dendrites become competent to form synapses at different stages of neuronal development

Hippocampal neurons in culture develop extensive axonal and dendritic arbors and form numerous synapses. Presynaptic specializations occur at sites of contact between axons and somata or dendrites but they do not appear until day 3 in culture, even though numerous contacts between cells develop within the first 24 hr (Fletcher et al., 1991). To determine whether this delay in the appearance of presynaptic specializations could be related to maturational events in the presynaptic axon or in the postsynaptic target, "heterochronic" cocultures were prepared by adding newly dissociated neurons to cultures containing mature neurons. The competence of axons to form presynaptic vesicle clusters in response to contact with the somata or dendrites of mature or immature neurons was determined by immunofluorescent staining for synapsin I or synaptophysin. After only 1 d of coculture, there was a fivefold increase in the number of synapses along the somata and dendrites of the mature neurons, compared to mature neurons cultured alone. If newly dissociated neurons were labeled with a fluorescent dye before coculture, dye-labeled axons frequently were colocalized with presynaptic specializations on mature cells. In contrast, when the axons of mature neurons contacted immature neurons, synapses were first observed only after coculture for 3 d. These results suggest that the axons of hippocampal neurons have the capacity to form presynaptic specializations soon after they emerge, provided they encounter appropriate targets, but that the cell bodies and dendrites of hippocampal neurons are not capable of inducing the formation of presynaptic specializations until they reach a critical stage of maturation.

Ethanol-induced changes in astrocyte gene expression during rat central nervous system development

Disruption of spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression in cells of the developing brain could result in abnormal development. We report that briefly exposing neonatal rats to a moderate dose of ethanol on postnatal days 5 through 7 caused a large, specific increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) mRNA and GFAP. Astrocytes of the cerebral cortex were apparently more sensitive to this effect of ethanol than astrocytes in several other brain regions. As a first step in the characterization of an vitro model of ethanol's effect on GFAP gene expression, ethanol was added to the media of primary cultures of cortical astrocytes in a pattern of exposure and at concentrations equal to pups' peak blood levels. This resulted in an increase in GFAP mRNA whose magnitude and specificity mirrored that observed in the animal model. Together, these results suggest that even brief exposure to ethanol can alter gene expression in astrocytes, and forms the foundation for further characterization of an in vitro model that may be used to determine the mechanism of this effect.

The distribution of synapsin I and synaptophysin in hippocampal neurons developing in culture

As a first step toward elucidating mechanisms involved in the sorting of synaptic vesicle proteins in neurons, we have used immunofluorescence microscopy to determine the distribution of two synaptic vesicle proteins, synapsin I and synaptophysin, in hippocampal neurons developing in culture. In mature cultures, synapsin I and synaptophysin immunoreactivity was concentrated in puncta that were restricted to sites where axons contacted neuronal cell bodies or dendrites. Electron-microscopic immunocytochemistry demonstrated that these puncta corresponded to vesicle-filled axonal varicosities that were exclusively presynaptic. At early stages of development, before cell-cell contact, both synapsin I and synaptophysin were preferentially localized in axons, where they were particularly concentrated in the distal axon and growth cone. In axons that did not contact other cells, immunostaining for these two proteins had a granular appearance, which persisted for at least 7 d, but focal accumulations of vesicles comparable to those seen at sites of synaptic contact were not observed. When neurons contacted one another, numerous puncta of synapsin I and synaptophysin formed within the first week in culture. Double-label immunofluorescence demonstrated that the two vesicle antigens were closely codistributed throughout these stages of development. These observations demonstrate that synaptic vesicle proteins assume a polarized distribution within nerve cells beginning early in development, as soon as the axon can be identified. In contrast, differences in microtubule polarity orientation that distinguish mature axons and dendrites, and that have been proposed to account for the selective sorting of some materials in nerve cells, first appear at a subsequent stage of development. The selective distribution of synaptic vesicle proteins to the axon occurs in isolated cells, independent of interactions with other cells. In contrast, the formation of large clusters of vesicles typical of presynaptic specializations requires contact with an appropriate postsynaptic target. Thus, in cultured hippocampal neurons, the localization of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic specializations is the result of sorting mechanisms intrinsic to individual neurons as well as to mechanisms mediated by cell-cell contact.

The establishment of polarity by hippocampal neurons: the relationship between the stage of a cell's development in situ and its subsequent development in culture

Neurons removed from the embryonic hippocampus and placed into culture develop structurally and functionally distinct axonal and dendritic processes. The central issue addressed in this study concerns the extent to which the sequence of events which results in the differentiation of neurites by hippocampal neurons in culture is influenced by the cell's state of development in situ. [3H]thymidine was administered to pregnant rats either on Embryonic Day 15 (E15) or on E18.5 to label hippocampal neurons at known stages of their development. All fetuses were sacrificed on E19. Some of the fetal brains were sectioned and examined by autoradiography to determine the location of labeled cells in the hippocampus. The remaining brains were used to prepare hippocampal cell cultures. Neurons labeled at E18.5 remained confined to the ventricular zone at E19. Those labeled at E15 had completed their migration to the cortical plate. Other data suggest that the former cells had not yet initiated process outgrowth, while the latter cells had begun to elaborate both axons and dendrites. When introduced into culture, both populations of cells developed axons and dendrites and both compartmentalized MAP2 to the dendritic domain. Moreover, despite marked differences in their developmental state at the time of introduction into culture, both underwent the same sequence of developmental events leading to axonal and dendritic development. In a few cases cells that incorporated [3H]thymidine in situ at E18.5 apparently underwent mitosis in culture. These neurons also developed axons and dendrites appropriately. These results indicate that hippocampal neurons become polarized in culture, even if they have never developed axons or dendrites in situ, and do so as efficiently as cells that have become polarized before being placed into culture. Moreover, they indicate that the same sequence of events leading to the establishment of polarity occurs for hippocampal neurons with different developmental histories prior to culturing.

Structure-activity studies of the carcinogenicities in the mouse and rat of some naturally occurring and synthetic alkenylbenzene derivatives related to safrole and estragole

Twenty-three naturally occurring and synthetic alkenylbenzene derivatives structurally related to the hepatocarcinogen safrole (1-allyl-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene) were assayed for their hepatocarcinogenicity in mice. Some of these compounds (safrole, estragole, eugenol, anethole, methyleugenol, myristicin, elemicin, and dill and parsley apiols) may be ingested in very small amounts by human as natural components of certain spices, essential oils, or vegetables. Estragole (1-allyl-4-methoxybenzene) and its proximate carcinogenic metabolite 1'-hydroxyestragole, previously shown to induce hepatic tumors when administered to male CD-1 mice only during the preweaning period, also induced hepatic tumors on administration for 12 months in the diet of female CD-1 mice. Eugenol (1-allyl-4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzene) and anethole (trans-4-methoxy-1-propenylbenzene) were inactive in this assay; they were also inactive when administered i.p. during the preweaning period at total doses of up to 9.45 mumol/mouse to male CD-1 or C57BL/6 x C3H F1 (hereafter called B6C3F1) mice. Methyleugenol (1-ally-3,4-dimethoxybenzene) and its 1'-hydroxy metabolite had activities similar to those of estragole and its 1'-hydroxy metabolite for the induction of hepatic tumors in male B6C3F1 mice treated prior to weaning; 1-allyl-1'-hydroxy-4-methoxynaphthalene was somewhat less active. At the levels tested, myristicin (1-allyl-5-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene), elemicin (1-allyl-3,4,5-trimethoxybenzene) and its 1'-hydroxy metabolite, dill apiol (1-allyl-2,3-dimethoxy-4,5-methylenedioxybenzene), parsley apiol (1-allyl-2,5-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene), 1'-hydroxyallybenzene, 3'-hydroxyanethole, and benzyl and anisyl alcohols had no detectable activity for the initiation of hepatic tumors on administration to male mice prior to weaning. The acetylenic derivative 1'-hydroxy-2',3'-dehydroestragole was much more active than either 1'-hydroxysafrole or 1'-hydroxyestragole when administered to preweanling mice. The 2',3'-oxides of safrole, estragole, eugenol, and 1'-hydroxysafrole, which are metabolites of these alkenylbenzenes, had little or no activity in this test. The 2',3'-oxides of safrole and estragole and their 1'-hydroxy derivatives likewise had little or no activity for the induction of lung adenomas in female A/J mice or for the induction of tumors on repetitive injections s.c. in male Fischer rats. However, the 2',3'-oxides of safrole, estragole, eugenol, 1'-hydroxysafrole, and 1'-hydroxyestragole, when administered topically to female CD-1 mice at relatively high doses, initiated benign skin tumors that could be promoted with croton oil.

New 9-stubstituted 3-N,O-diacetylhydroxylaminofluorenes: enhanced electrophilicity and mutagenicity. Derivatives of fluorene. 38

The compound 2-acetamidofluorene is a potent hepatocarcinogen; its N-acetoxy derivative (2-NOAc-AAF), a model ultimate form of the carcinogen, is strongly mutagenic and is chemically reactive with nucleophiles. The isomeric 3-acetamidofluorene is a mammary carcinogen, but is not hepatocarinogenic; its N-acetoxy derivative (3-NOAc-AAF) is not reactive with nucleophiles. Derivatives of 3-NOAc-AAF containing electron-donating groups in positions conjugated with the 3-position have been synthesized. These show increased electrophilicity and mutagenicity. Thus, by electronic manipulation of the leaving-group capacity of the -OAc group of 3-NOAc-AAF, we have obtained compounds with increased biological activity, as well as increased chemical reactivity. Future experiments could show whether in vivo effects of these derivatives of 3-NOAc-AAF are more like the effects of 2-NOAc-AAF or of 3-NOAc-AAF.

New compounds: derivatives of fluorene XXXVII: 9-substituted 3-nitrofluorenes

New 9-substituted 3-nitrofluorenes were prepared as potential intermediates in a study of modified electrophilicity and mutagenicity of the carcinogen 3-N,O-diacetylhydroxylaminofluorene. The reported derivatives, together with some already known 9-substituted 3-nitrofluorenes, were too unstable to survive the reducing conditions required to transform the nitro group to the corresponding hydroxylamine.