Sex Differences in Emotion- and Reward-Related Neural Responses Predicting Increases in Substance Use in Adolescence

Adolescent substance use is a significant public health problem and there is a need for effective substance use preventions. To develop effective preventions, it is important to identify neurobiological risk factors that predict increases in substance use in adolescence and to understand potential sex differences in risk mechanisms. The present study used functional magnetic resonance imaging and hierarchical linear modeling to examine negative emotion- and reward-related neural responses in early adolescence predicting growth in substance use to middle adolescence in 81 youth, by sex. Adolescent neural responses to negative emotional stimuli and monetary reward receipt were assessed at age 12-14. Adolescents reported on substance use at age 12-14 and at 6 month, and 1, 2, and 3 year follow-ups. Adolescent neural responses did not predict initiation of substance use (yes/no), but, among users, neural responses predicted growth in substance use frequency. For girls, heightened right amygdala responses to negative emotional stimuli in early adolescence predicted growth in substance use frequency through middle adolescence. For boys, blunted left nucleus accumbens and bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex responses to monetary reward predicted growth in substance use frequency. Findings suggest different emotion and reward-related predictors of the development of substance use for adolescent girls versus boys.

Emotion-focused teaching practices and preschool children's social and learning behaviors

Preschool classrooms are rich with emotions, from a teacher's enthusiastic praise for a child's work to a child's anger at another child who is using wanted materials. A wide variety of teaching behaviors may help children learn about their own and others' emotional states as well as regulation strategies to manage their emotions. In the present study, we relate teachers' emotion-focused teaching behaviors (including how teachers model emotions, instruct about emotions, and respond to children's emotions) using a new observational tool, the EMOtion TEaching Rating Scale (EMOTERS). In addition, social and learning behaviors with teachers, peers, and tasks were observed for 77 children in 18 classrooms. We used the EMOTERS to predict children's social and learning behaviors within time (fall, spring) and over time (from fall to spring). Results affirm that emotion-focused teaching practices (modeling, responding, instructing) vary across classrooms. We also found instances of these practices being related-within time and over time-to children's social interactions with teachers and peers, and engagement in tasks. Most significant associations were found with emotion instructing, despite its relatively infrequent use in classrooms. Findings offer valuable initial evidence about EMOTERS as a tool for measuring emotion-focused teaching behaviors and potentially as a tool for supporting professional development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of A Parenting-Focused Mindfulness Intervention on Adolescent Substance Use and Psychopathology: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Substance use and psychopathology symptoms increase in adolescence. One key risk factor for these is high parent stress. Mindfulness interventions reduce stress in adults and may be useful to reduce parent stress and prevent substance use (SU) and psychopathology in adolescents. This study tested the feasibility and effects of a mindfulness intervention for parents on adolescent SU and psychopathology symptoms. Ninety-six mothers of 11-17 year olds were randomly assigned to a mindfulness intervention for parents (the Parenting Mindfully [PM] intervention) or a brief parent education [PE] control group. At pre-intervention, post-intervention, 6-month follow-up, and 1-year follow-up, adolescents reported on SU and mothers and adolescents reported on adolescent externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Primary intent to treat analyses found that the PM intervention prevented increases in adolescent SU over time, relative to the PE control group. The PM intervention also prevented increases in mother-reported externalizing symptoms over time relative to the PE control group. However, PM did not have a significant effect on internalizing symptoms. PM had an indirect effect on adolescent-reported externalizing symptoms through greater mother mindfulness levels at post-intervention, suggesting mother mindfulness as a potential intervention mechanism. Notably, while mothers reported high satisfaction with PM, intervention attendance was low (31% of mothers attended zero sessions). Secondary analyses with mothers who attended >  = 50% of the interventions (n = 48) found significant PM effects on externalizing symptoms, but not SU. Overall, findings support mindfulness training for parents as a promising intervention and future studies should work to promote accessibility for stressed parents.Clinical Trials Identifier: NCT02038231; Date of Registration: January 13, 2014.

Survivor-Centered Practice and Survivor Empowerment: Evidence From A Research–Practitioner Partnership

In the domestic violence field, a survivor-centered approach to services is a shared ideal, but there is little empirical work demonstrating its importance. This study filled that gap, focusing on a key outcome—safety-related empowerment. We gathered data from 177 intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors seeking community-based services, and after one session with an advocate, results revealed a significant change in two of three subscales of the Measure of Victim Empowerment Related to Safety (MOVERS) measure: Internal Tools and Expectations of Support. There was no change in Trade-Offs (pursuing safety causing new problems). More survivor-defined practice predicted greater changes in empowerment, over and above severity of violence, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and demographics.

Protective Buffering by Service Members During Military Deployments: Associations with Psychological Distress and Relationship Functioning

To shield a romantic partner from potential distress due to stressors occurring during deployment, service members (SMs) may engage in protective buffering, or withholding information or concerns from a romantic partner. This study utilized data from 54 couples collected before, during, and after a military deployment to assess whether SMs engaged in protective buffering while deployed and the possible associations between buffering and psychological, relationship, and contextual factors. Only 2% of SMs indicated never engaging in protective buffering during a deployment. In bivariate analyses, only partners' psychological distress prior to deployment was significantly associated (negatively) with protective buffering. In multilevel models with time nested within individuals, and individuals nested within couples, higher buffering was associated with less partner distress during deployment, but was also associated with higher SM distress both during and after deployment. In these multilevel models, protective buffering was not significantly associated with SM or partner marital satisfaction.

Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Predict Depressive Symptom Trajectory from Early to Middle Adolescence

Major depressive disorder begins to increase in early adolescence and is associated with significant impairment (e.g., suicidality). Difficulties in emotion regulation (ER) have been associated with depressive symptoms; however, little research has examined this relation over time beginning in early adolescence. Starting when they were 11-14 years old, 246 adolescents (n_boys = 126; n_white = 158) completed self-report questionnaires on their ER at Time 1 and depressive symptoms every year for 2 years. Results revealed that overall difficulties in ER (and limited access to ER strategies) at Time 1 predicted depressive symptoms both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Gender moderated this relation cross-sectionally, such that higher overall ER difficulties at Time 1 was more strongly associated with higher depressive symptoms for girls than for boys. These findings suggest that depression prevention efforts should promote adaptive ER in early adolescence, particularly for girls, in order to prevent the increases in depressive symptoms seen into middle adolescence.

Is the Child Really What’s Being Rated? Sources of Variance in Teacher Ratings of Socioemotional Skills

This study examined three potential sources of variance in teacher ratings of the socioemotional skills of children: occasion, child, and teacher. The ratings were prepared using the Devereux Student Strengths Assessment. In total, 344 children were assessed in both the fall and spring of kindergarten and first grade, providing a total of 1,067 ratings across 106 teachers. We employed cross-classified random effects models to account for multiple occasions of measurement that were nested within both children and teachers, which allowed us to determine the amounts of variance attributable to occasion, children, and teachers. Overall, occasion accounted for the greatest proportion of variance (43%-50%) across a variety of socioemotional subscales, followed by child (36%-46%), and teacher (11%-16%). Findings suggest that caution is warranted when using these scales for high-stake decisions.

Chinese teachers’ perceptions of early childhood school readiness

Children’s school readiness, especially in the early school years, is a significant indicator for school success as it establishes a positive school trajectory. However, less is known about the generalizability of these findings to contexts outside the United States. The present study examined kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of school readiness in China. We surveyed 101 third-year preschool teachers and 160 first-grade teachers in China, asking about their perceptions of school readiness. Results suggested that third-year preschool and first grade teachers in China viewed many of their students as not ready for school and also thought that the students had difficulties with academic and social–emotional skills. In addition, Chinese teachers placed a higher value on social–emotional skills versus academic skills. Our interpretation of the current findings also includes preliminary comparisons between our data set and one from 531 American kindergarten teachers using the same survey.

Are All Program Elements Created Equal? Relations Between Specific Social and Emotional Learning Components and Teacher-Student Classroom Interaction Quality

School-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs are presented to educators with little understanding of the program components that have the greatest leverage for improving targeted outcomes. Conducted in the context of a randomized controlled trial, the present study used variation in treatment teachers' (N = 143) implementation of four core components of the Responsive Classroom approach to examine relations between each component and the quality of teachers' emotional, organizational, and instructional interactions in third, fourth, and fifth grade classrooms (controlling for pre-intervention interaction quality and other covariates). We also examined the extent to which these relations varied as a function of teachers' baseline levels of interaction quality. Indices of teachers' implementation of Morning Meeting, Rule Creation, Interactive Modeling, and Academic Choice were derived from a combination of teacher-reported surveys and classroom observations. Ratings of teacher-student classroom interactions were aggregated across five observations conducted throughout the school year. Structural path models indicated that teachers' use of Morning Meeting and Academic Choice related to higher levels of emotionally supportive interactions; Academic Choice also related to higher levels of instructional interactions. In addition, teachers' baseline interaction quality moderated several associations such that the strongest relations between RC component use and interaction quality emerged for teachers with the lowest baseline interaction quality. Results highlight the value of examining individual program components toward the identification of program active ingredients that can inform intervention optimization and teacher professional development.

Variance in Teacher Ratings of Children’s Adjustment

This study examined the variance in teacher ratings attributable to teacher, occasion, and child on the original Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). Teachers rated approximately 1,100 girls (52%) and boys (48%) at four public elementary schools over 3 years. About half of the students were rated twice and about a seventh 3 times. Approximately 30% of students were White, 50% African American, 9% Hispanic, 2% multiracial, and 2% Asian. Children were in kindergarten to fifth grade. Cross-classified random effects models were used to account for multiple occasions of data nested within both children and teachers. Overall, the child accounted for the largest amount of variance in ratings (52.3%) followed by occasion (34.2%) and teacher (13.5%). However, large differences existed across composites and scales. The findings suggest that teachers’ ratings of adaptive competencies, externalizing behaviors, and school problems are based primarily on child behavior/characteristics. Ratings of internalizing problems may be more situational.

A Daily Diary Study of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Romantic Partner Accommodation

Little is known about the role of romantic partner symptom accommodation in PTSD symptom maintenance. To explore the bidirectional associations of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and romantic partner symptom accommodation over time, military servicemen (n=64) with symptoms of PTSD and their cohabiting heterosexual civilian romantic partners (n=64) completed a 2-week daily diary study. Cross-lagged, autoregressive models assessed the stability of men's PTSD symptoms and partners' accommodation, as well as the prospective associations of earlier PTSD symptoms with later accommodation and vice versa. Analyses used Bayesian estimation to provide point estimates (b) and Credible Intervals (CIs). In all models, PTSD symptoms (total and individual clusters) were highly stable (b=0.91; CI: 0.88-0.95), and accommodation was moderately stable (b=0.48; CI: 0.40-0.54). In all models, earlier PTSD symptoms (total and clusters) were significantly, positively associated with later accommodation (b=0.04; CI: 0.02-0.07). In contrast, earlier accommodation was significantly associated only with later situational avoidance (b=0.02; CI: 0.00-0.07). Thus, PTSD symptoms may lead to subsequent accommodating behaviors in romantic partners, but partner accommodation seems to contribute only to survivors' future situational avoidance symptoms. The findings reinforce the notion that PTSD symptoms have an impact on relationship behaviors, and that accommodation from partners may sustain avoidant behaviors in particular. Clinicians should attend to romantic partners' accommodating behaviors when working with survivors.

Randomized pilot trial of a cognitive-behavioral alcohol, self-harm, and HIV prevention program for teens in mental health treatment

Adolescents with mental health conditions represent a high-risk group for substance use, deliberate self-harm (DSH), and risky sexual behavior. Mental health treatment does not uniformly decrease these risks. Effective prevention efforts are needed to offset the developmental trajectory from mental health problems to these behaviors. This study tested an adjunctive cognitive-behavioral family-based alcohol, DSH, and HIV prevention program (ASH-P) for adolescents in mental healthcare. A two group randomized design was used to compare ASH-P to an assessment only control (AO-C). Participants included 81 adolescents and a parent. Assessments were completed at pre-intervention as well as 1, 6, and 12-months post-enrollment, and included measures of family-based mechanisms and high-risk behaviors. ASH-P relative to AO-C was associated with greater improvements in most family process variables (perceptions of communication and parental disapproval of alcohol use and sexual behavior) as well as less DSH and greater refusal of sex to avoid a sexually transmitted infection. It also had a moderate (but non-significant) effect on odds of binge drinking. No differences were found in suicidal ideation, alcohol use, or sexual intercourse. ASH-P showed initial promise in preventing multiple high-risk behaviors. Further testing of prevention protocols that target multiple high-risk behaviors in clinical samples is warranted.

Live Versus Video Observations

When conducting classroom observations, researchers are often confronted with the decision of whether to conduct observations live or by using pre-recorded video. The present study focuses on comparing and contrasting observations of live and video administrations of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System–PreK (CLASS-PreK). Associations between versions, mean differences, reliability, and predictive validity were examined. Results generally indicated high correlations between versions. Video codes were slightly lower on average than live codes. Reliability was generally acceptable in terms of Cronbach’s alpha, but multigroup confirmatory factor models suggested some differences between observation types. Finally, CLASS scores based on each observation type indicated some predictive validity of children’s academic achievement, but no observation type was uniformly better. The discussion focuses on why the codes might differ and the implications of those differences.

Temperament in the classroom

Based on the emotion socialization and bioecological models, the present study examined the contributions of teacher emotion socialization (i.e., teacher reactions to child emotions) on children’s social–emotional behaviors, and the moderating effect of child temperamental surgency on these relations in the preschool context. A total of 337 children and 80 teachers from private and public preschools/childcares participated in the study. To account for the nested nature of our data, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was utilized. The results indicated that several types of teacher reactions to children’s emotions significantly predicted children’s social–emotional behaviors, after adjusting for prior levels of the behaviors. In addition, significant interactions between child surgency and teacher emotion socialization behaviors on children’s social–emotional behaviors were found. These interactions indicated that children with low surgency were more sensitive to teachers’ positive and negative socialization, compared to children with high surgency. Our results highlight the importance of discrete emotion socialization behaviors by teachers to children’s social–emotional development.

Relations among motor, social, and cognitive skills in pre-kindergarten children with developmental disabilities

Despite the comorbidity between motor difficulties and certain disabilities, limited research has examined links between early motor, cognitive, and social skills in preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities. The present study examined the relative contributions of gross motor and fine motor skills to the prediction of improvements in children's cognitive and social skills among 2,027 pre-kindergarten children with developmental disabilities, including specific learning disorder, speech/language impairment, intellectual disability, and autism spectrum disorder. Results indicated that for pre-kindergarten children with developmental disabilities, fine motor skills, but not gross motor skills, were predictive of improvements in cognitive and social skills, even after controlling for demographic information and initial skill levels. Moreover, depending on the type of developmental disability, the pattern of prediction of gross motor and fine motor skills to improvements in children's cognitive and social skills differed. Implications are discussed.

Frontal Electroencephalogram Asymmetry and Temperament Across Infancy and Early Childhood: An Exploration of Stability and Bidirectional Relations

The stability of frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry, temperamental activity level and fear, as well as bidirectional relations between asymmetry and temperament across the first 4 years of life, were examined in a sample of 183 children. Children participated in annual laboratory visits through 48 months, providing EEG and maternal report of temperament. EEG asymmetry showed moderate stability between 10 and 24 months. Analyses revealed that more left asymmetry predicted later activity level across the first 3 years. Conversely, asymmetry did not predict fear. Rather, fear at 36 months predicted more right asymmetry at 48 months. Results highlight the need for additional longitudinal research of infants and children to increase understanding of bidirectional relations between EEG and temperament in typically developing populations.

Longitudinal associations of friend-based social support and PTSD symptomatology during a cannabis cessation attempt

Research supports bidirectional associations between social support and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), whereby social support may buffer against PTSD, and individuals with PTSD may experience decreasing support over time. Research examining contexts that may affect these relations is needed. This study examined the longitudinal associations between PTSD and social support from friends over a 6-month period in 116 veterans with cannabis dependence who had recently initiated an attempt to quit cannabis use. A cross-lagged autoregressive model revealed a significant, negative relation between earlier PTSD symptoms and later support. An exploratory multigroup analysis comparing those with and without a relapse in the first month after their quit attempt revealed that the significant negative association between PTSD and future support was present only in those who relapsed. Although this analysis was limited by a small sample size, results suggest that substance use may be an influential contextual variable that impacts the longitudinal associations between PTSD and support.

Emotion Regulation and Perceptions of Hostile and Constructive Criticism in Romantic Relationships

Perceptions of hostile criticism (PHC) from close others are associated with poor individual functioning and low relationship satisfaction, whereas perceptions of constructive criticism (PCC) are associated with better relationship satisfaction. There is little empirical knowledge, however, regarding individual factors that contribute to such perceptions. The present study examined associations of overall emotion regulation difficulties, as well as the specific use of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal, with PHC and PCC. Both partners of 63 community couples completed global self-report measures. Sixty-one couples also completed similar measures immediately following each of three discussions during a laboratory session. Multilevel modeling analyses of global data indicated that individuals' reports of PHC were higher when they used more suppression and when both they and their partners reported greater difficulty in emotion regulation. Results with discussion-specific data were similar: Participants reported higher PHC in discussions when both they and their partners reported using more suppression or when they had more difficulties in emotion regulation during the discussions. Individuals reported higher levels of PCC when their partners reported using less suppression, both globally and in discussions. Finally, participants also reported higher levels of PCC in discussions when they reported using more reappraisal.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese Behavior Problems Inventory-01 in children and adolescents with or at risk for intellectual disabilities

As the world's most populous country, China is likely to have the highest number of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) in the world. As many people with ID are susceptible to serious and persistent behavior problems, research by Chinese scientists on this public health issue is needed. However, there are only very few reliable Chinese-language behavior assessment instruments for problem behaviors. To fill this gap we translated the Behavior Problems Inventory-01 (BPI-01; Rojahn, Matson, Lott, Esbensen, & Smalls, 2001) into Chinese. The BPI-01 is an informant-based behavior rating instrument that was designed to assess self-injurious behavior (SIB), stereotyped behavior, and aggressive/destructive behavior in individuals with ID. We then assessed the behavior of 222 children and young adults (age range 1.5-21.5 years) with or at risk for ID from three special needs service programs in mainland China. Teachers or staff members, respectively, served as respondents. The Chinese version of the BPI-01 showed good reliability (internal consistency) and good factor validity tested by confirmatory factorial analysis. We conclude that the Chinese version of the BPI-01 can be used for research and clinical evaluation of Chinese children and adolescents with ID.

Disentangling fine motor skills' relations to academic achievement: the relative contributions of visual-spatial integration and visual-motor coordination

Recent research has established a connection between children's fine motor skills and their academic performance. Previous research has focused on fine motor skills measured prior to elementary school, while the present sample included children ages 5-18 years old, making it possible to examine whether this link remains relevant throughout childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, the majority of research linking fine motor skills and academic achievement has not determined which specific components of fine motor skill are driving this relation. The few studies that have looked at associations of separate fine motor tasks with achievement suggest that copying tasks that tap visual-spatial integration skills are most closely related to achievement. The present study examined two separate elements of fine motor skills--visual-motor coordination and visual-spatial integration--and their associations with various measures of academic achievement. Visual-motor coordination was measured using tracing tasks, while visual-spatial integration was measured using copy-a-figure tasks. After controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, IQ, and visual-motor coordination, and visual-spatial integration explained significant variance in children's math and written expression achievement. Knowing that visual-spatial integration skills are associated with these two achievement domains suggests potential avenues for targeted math and writing interventions for children of all ages.

Behavioral Exchanges between Teachers and Children Over the Course of a Typical Preschool Day: Testing Bidirectional Associations

In the present study, 314 preschool classrooms and 606 children were observed to understand the behavioral exchanges between teachers and children. Teachers' emotionally and organizationally supportive behaviors and children's engagement were explored for longitudinal associations throughout a day. Observations were conducted in each classroom wherein emotional and organizational supports were assessed, followed by observations of two children's positive engagement with teachers, tasks, and peers as well as negative classroom engagement. Cross-lagged autoregressive models were used to test for time-lagged associations which could be unidirectional or bidirectional. Results indicated teachers' emotionally and organizationally supportive behaviors were related to later child engagement in seven of eight models. Furthermore, in two of those seven models, we found evidence of bidirectional associations whereby children's engagement was associated with later teacher emotional and organizational supports. Findings are discussed in terms of understanding classroom processes over the course of a day in preschool.

The progression of severe behavior disorder in young children with intellectual and developmental disabilities

Behavior disorders, such as self-injurious, stereotypic, and aggressive behavior are common among individuals with intellectual or developmental disabilities. While we have learned much about those behaviors over the past few decades, longitudinal research that looks at developmental trajectory has been rare. This study was designed to examine the trajectory of these three forms of severe behavior disorders over a one year time period. The behaviors were measured on two dimensions: frequency of occurrence and severity. Participants were 160 infants and toddlers at risk for developmental delays in Lima, Peru. Using structural equation modeling, we found that the frequency of self-injury and stereotypic behavior and the severity of aggressive behavior remained stable over the 12-month period. Uni-directional structural models fit the data best for self-injurious and aggressive behavior (with frequency being a leading indicator of future severity of self-injury and severity being a leading indicator of future frequency for aggression). For stereotypic behavior, a cross-lagged autoregressive model fit the data best, with both dimensions of frequency and severity involved as leading indicators of each other. These models did not vary significantly across diagnostic groups, suggesting that toddlers exhibiting behavior disorders may be assisted with interventions that target the specific frequencies or severities of behaviors, regardless of diagnostic category.

Concurrent trajectories of change in adolescent and maternal depressive symptoms in the TORDIA study

Depression has a heightened prevalence in adolescence, with approximately 15 % of adolescents experiencing a major depressive episode by age 18. Depression in adolescence also poses a risk for future distress and impairment. Despite treatment advances, many adolescents relapse after initial remission. Family context may be an important factor in the developmental trajectory of adolescent depression, and thus in enhancing treatment. This study examined concurrent change over time in adolescent and maternal depressive symptoms in the context of the Treatment of Resistant Depression in Adolescents study. Participants were 334 adolescents (mean age: 16; SD: 1.6; 70 % female, 84 % Caucasian), and their mothers (n = 241). All adolescents were clinically depressed when they entered the study and had received previous selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment. Adolescents received acute treatment for 12 weeks and additional treatment for 12 more weeks. Adolescent depression and suicidal ideation were assessed at 0, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 weeks, while maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at 0, 12, 24, 48 and 72 weeks. Latent basis growth curve analyses showed a significant correlation over 72 weeks between trajectories of maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms, supporting the hypothesis of concurrent patterns of change in these variables. The trajectories were correlated more strongly in a subsample that included only dyads in which mothers reported at least one depressive symptom at baseline. Results did not show a correlation between trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent suicidal ideation. These findings suggest that adolescent and maternal depressive symptoms change in tandem, and that treatment for adolescent depression can benefit the wider family system. Notably, most mothers in this sample had subclinical depressive symptoms. Future research might explore these trajectories in dyads with more severely depressed mothers.

Relations among Teachers' Emotion Socialization Beliefs and Practices, and Preschoolers' Emotional Competence

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Utilizing a three-part model of emotion socialization that includes Modeling, Contingent Responding, and Teaching, this study examined the associations between 44 teachers' self-reported and observed emotion socialization practices and 326 preschoolers' emotion knowledge and observed emotional behavior. Multi-level analyses revealed that the majority of the variance in the children's emotion knowledge scores and observed emotional behavior was predicted by factors within, rather than between, classrooms. Teachers' use of all three emotion socialization techniques did contribute to the prediction of the children's scores; however, the nature of these associations differed by children's age and gender.

PRACTICE OR POLICY

The development of children's emotional competence is a complex, multi-faceted process in which many interaction partners play a role; early childhood teachers act as emotion socialization agents for the children in their care by modeling emotions, responding either supportively or punitively to children's expressions of emotions, and engaging in direct instruction regarding emotional experience. This research may provide a basis for potential future interventions designed to assist teachers in developing their own emotion socialization skills so that they can be more effective emotion socialization agents for the children in their care.

Patterns of sustained attention in infancy shape the developmental trajectory of social behavior from toddlerhood through adolescence

The current study examined the relations between individual differences in sustained attention in infancy, the temperamental trait behavioral inhibition in childhood, and social behavior in adolescence. The authors assessed 9-month-old infants using an interrupted-stimulus attention paradigm. Behavioral inhibition was subsequently assessed in the laboratory at 14 months, 24 months, 4 years, and 7 years. At age 14 years, adolescents acted out social scenarios in the presence of an unfamiliar peer as observers rated levels of social discomfort. Relative to infants with high levels of sustained attention, infants with low levels of sustained attention showed increasing behavioral inhibition throughout early childhood. Sustained attention also moderated the relation between childhood behavioral inhibition and adolescent social discomfort, such that initial levels of inhibition at 14 months predicted later adolescent social difficulties only for participants with low levels of sustained attention in infancy. These findings suggest that early individual differences in attention shape how children respond to their social environments, potentially via attention's gate-keeping role in framing a child's environment for processing.