Subjective and physiological effects after controlled Sativex and oral THC administration

Sativex is a cannabis-plant extract delivering nearly 1:1 Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) by oromucosal spray. It has been suggested that CBD attenuates THC-induced tachycardia, anxiety, and euphoria. In this study, pharmacodynamic effects were compared over 10.5 h in nine cannabis smokers randomly assigned to receive placebo, 5 and 15 mg oral synthetic THC, and low (5.4 mg THC, 5.0 mg CBD) and high (16.2 mg THC, 15.0 mg CBD) doses of Sativex. At therapeutic doses, no substantial CBD-induced modulation of THC's effects was evident. Oral THC and Sativex produced similar, clinically insignificant increases in heart rate, anxiety, and "good drug effects" with no serious adverse events. Oral and oromucosal THC have slower absorption, lower rate of THC delivery to the brain, and fewer associated adverse events as compared with smoked cannabis. These results indicate that Sativex has a pharmacodynamic safety profile comparable to that of oral THC at low, therapeutic doses.

A comparison of Roche Kinetic Interaction of Microparticles in Solution (KIMS) assay for cannabinoids and GC-MS analysis for 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol

In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of the Roche Kinetic Interaction of Microparticles in Solution (KIMS) screening assay for cannabinoid metabolites. Urine specimens (N = 1689) were collected during elimination of cannabinoids from 25 subjects with a history of marijuana use. Specimens were analyzed concurrently for cannabinoid metabolites by a customized Department of Defense (DOD) cannabinoid KIMS kit (50-ng/mL cutoff) and for 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) by GC-MS (15-ng/mL cutoff). As compared to GC-MS results, the sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of the KIMS assay were 69.7%, 99.8%, and 88.6%, respectively. Many of the false-negative results had GC-MS concentrations between 15 and 26 ng/mL (N = 151). The cannabinoid screening results for the DOD samples tested by the laboratory during the same 8-month period were also evaluated. The linear regression analyses of GC-MS results in the 15-50 ng/mL range and KIMS data resulted in regression coefficients of 0.689 for the research specimens and 0.546 for DOD specimens. The results suggest that the KIMS cannabinoid screening assay is deficient in detecting positives around the cutoff (15-25 ng/mL THC-COOH). This limitation of the KIMS cannabinoid screening method compromises the identification of true positive specimens, therefore reducing the effectiveness of the assay. The success of the DOD program is dependent on sensitive and specific screening assays; the high prevalence of false-negative cannabinoid results compromises the program's primary objective of drug deterrence.

Urinary excretion profiles for total morphine, free morphine, and 6-acetylmorphine following smoked and intravenous heroin

Heroin is one of the major target drugs in workplace drug-testing programs because of its history of abuse, liability, and continued negative social impact. This study was a comprehensive examination of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, detection times, opiate immunoassay performance, and urine excretion profiles following single doses of heroin administered to human subjects via smoking and intravenous routes. Studies of the first four components of this investigation were previously published. This article describes the urine excretion profiles. Total morphine (Tmor), free morphine (Fmor), and 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in 920 urine samples collected from 11 male human subjects following single doses of heroin. Eight received intravenous doses of 3, 6, and 12 mg heroin HCI and four smoked 3.5-, 5.2-, 7-, 10.5-, or 13.9-mg doses of heroin (base). In addition, 183 urine-based blind quality-control samples were added to the study set to assess assay performance. Creatinine was also measured in each sample by a colorimetric technique. The parameters studied were not significantly dependent on route of administration. Excretion half-life mean +/- SD for Tmor was 3.11 +/- 0.30 h. Range (median) of peak urine concentrations, time to peak, time to last positive sample for low cutoff (300 ng/mL) and high cutoff (2000 ng/mL) for Tmor following lower doses (< or = 7 mg) were, respectively, 1392-9250 (3620) ng/mL, 1.2-6.2 (2.3) h, 7.4-31.9 (7.4) h, and 0-10.1 (4.3) h. Following higher doses (> 10 mg) they were 2065-29,030 (16,470) ng/mL, 2.3-9.3 (4.5) h, 10.7-53.5 (34.4) h, 2.3-22.3 (8.3) h. Fmor peaked in the same sample as Tmor. Range (median) of peak Fmor concentrations and time to last positive using a cutoff of 100 ng/mL for low and high doses were, respectively, 117-1160 (415) ng/mL, 1.2-10.1 (4.5) h and 150-2580 (1400) ng/mL, 2.3-29.1 (9.3) h. The range (median) of peak urine concentrations for 6-AM was 6.1-568 (124) ng/mL. In general, the first urine void had the peak 6-AM concentration and was the only specimen positive at a 10-ng/mL cutoff. As previously reported urine concentrations varied greatly between subjects and within subjects with time after dosing but were much more predictable when values were reported as amount of drug per unit of creatinine. The range (median) values for percent of heroin excreted into urine as Tmor was 12.8-88.5% (51.0).

Detection times and analytical performance of commercial urine opiate immunoassays following heroin administration

The Federal Workplace Drug Testing Program changed urine screening and confirmation cutoff concentrations for opiate testing from 300 to 2000 ng/mL in 1998. Morphine was the designated target compound. An additional heroin metabolite, 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM), was added to the testing procedure with a cutoff concentration > or = 10 ng/mL. Testing of 6-AM was required if morphine was positive to assist in medical review. A comparison of the new opiate cutoff concentrations was made with the older cutoff concentration at 300 ng/mL. Six commercial opiate immunoassays, four with a 300-ng/mL cutoff, ONLINE, EMIT, CEDIA and AxSym, and two with 2000-ng/mL cutoffs, ONLINE and EMIT, were selected to test 920 urine samples collected from 11 male human subjects following single doses of heroin. Eight received intravenous doses of 3, 6, and 12 mg heroin HCl and four smoked 3.5-, 5.2-, 10.5-, or 13.9-mg doses of heroin (base). In addition, 183 urine-based blind quality-control specimens were added to the study set to assess linearity, cross-reactivity, and interference. Total morphine, free morphine, and 6-AM were measured in each sample by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Linearity, cross-reactivity, and interference results for each immunoassay are described. Detection times, sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of each assay were determined using data from the specimens collected after heroin administration. Detection times for morphine using the 300-ng/mL cutoff assays was approximately 12 h for low dose and 24 to 48 h for higher doses of heroin. For the two 2000-ng/mL cutoff concentration assays detection time was about 12 h. This was also the detection time for 6-AM by GC-MS. ONLINE had the lowest sensitivity, 60-74%, highest specificity, 98.8-100%, and least interference from a selection of common over-the-counter drugs and opioids. Increasing the cutoff to 2000 ng/mL from 300 ng/mL increased efficiencies of the assays from 72.7 to 82.6% to over 97%.

Cocaine metabolism and urinary excretion after different routes of administration

Cocaine abusers frequently self-administer cocaine by different routes of administration. A controlled-dosing study was performed to assess the effect of different routes of administration on the excretion profile of cocaine and metabolites in urine. Single bioequivalent doses of cocaine were administered by the intravenous, intranasal, and smoked routes to six human subjects. Urine specimens were collected for 3 days after drug administration and were analyzed for cocaine, metabolites, and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, the thermal degradation product of cocaine, by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cocaine was rapidly absorbed, metabolized, and excreted in urine. Peak cocaine concentrations were generally present in the first specimen collected; thereafter, concentrations declined quickly and were usually below the limit of detection (approximately 1 ng/ml) within 24 hours. The metabolite benzoylecgonine was present in the highest concentration and represented approximately 39%, 30%, and 16%, of the administered dose by the intravenous, intranasal, and smoked routes, respectively. Combined amounts of ecgonine methyl ester and six minor metabolites (norcocaine, benzoylnorecgonine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, and p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine) accounted for approximately 18%, 15%, and 8% of the administered dose by the intravenous, intranasal, and smoked routes, respectively. Anhydroecgonine methyl ester was present in trace amounts (0.02% dose) in specimens collected after smoked cocaine administration. Because many of these metabolites exhibit pharmacologic activity, their presence in urine may indicate that they play complex biologic roles in the overall activity of cocaine.

In vivo adulteration: excess fluid ingestion causes false-negative marijuana and cocaine urine test results

Drug users can be highly motivated to obtain negative results on urine drug tests and may attempt to subvert the process by in vivo adulteration. The use of herbal products for "flushing" and "detoxification" is frequently advertised as an effective means of passing drug tests. Accordingly, a study was designed to determine the effects of ingestion of two herbal products, Naturally Klean Herbal Tea and Golden Seal root, and a diuretic medication, hydrochlorothiazide. The herbal tea was prepared in 1 gal of water as specified by the manufacturer. All other products were consumed with 1 gal of water. Two control conditions in which the subject consumed only water (1 gal; 12 oz) were included. The 1-gal liquid treatments were divided into 4-qt aliquots, and 1-qt was consumed each hour for 4 h. All treatments were begun approximately 22 h after smoking of a marijuana cigarette (3.58% THC) and 22 h after intranasal administration of cocaine hydrochloride. Following all treatments with excess fluid, creatinine and specific gravity dropped in 1.5-2.0 h to levels indicative of diluted specimens (<20 mg/dL creatinine, <1.003 specific gravity). Marijuana and cocaine metabolite concentrations by immunoassay (EMIT and TDx) also dropped rapidly, and the results frequently switched from positive to negative. By the time subjects had consumed 2 qt of any fluid, they were generally producing false-negative results. For example, ingestion of excess water produced dilute specimens (<20 mg/dL creatinine; <1.003 specific gravity) in an average time plus or minus the standard error of the mean of 1.47 +/- 0.17 h (N = 5) and 1.45 +/- 0.2 h (N = 5) following smoked marijuana and intranasal cocaine, respectively. In comparison, ingestion of Klean Tea produced dilute specimens in 1.36 +/- 0.07 h (N = 4) and 1.39 +/- 0.11 h (N = 4) following marijuana and cocaine administration. Recovery of urine test measures to pre-treatment levels occurred over a period of 8-10 h. Average detection times for marijuana metabolite appeared to be slightly shorter following ingestion of 1 gal of fluids compared with ingestion of 12 oz of water as a result of the time of testing being near the end of the cannabinoid metabolite excretion phase. Consequently, negative cannabinoid results induced by fluid ingestion rarely returned to positive after excess water was eliminated. In contrast, negative cocaine results reverted to positive quickly after the dilution effects disappeared. It was concluded that excess water ingestion can produce false-negative test results, but the claims of herbal products to be an aid in passing a urine test appear to be unfounded.

Cocaine disposition in saliva following intravenous, intranasal, and smoked administration

Saliva concentrations of cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, and anhydroecgonine methyl ester were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in six healthy male subjects following cocaine administration by the intravenous, intranasal, and smoked routes of administration. Cocaine appeared in saliva rapidly following all routes of administration. Saliva/plasma (S/P) ratios were generally greater than 1, and there was evidence of moderate to extreme contamination of saliva by cocaine immediately following intranasal and smoked routes of administration. Contamination of the oral cavity and saliva cleared rapidly. Saliva obtained 2 h after dosing appeared to be free of contamination and demonstrated S/P ratios comparable with intravenous administration. Benzoylecgonine and ecgonine methyl ester concentrations were consistently low and were only comparable with cocaine concentrations at times when cocaine concentrations had declined to below 100 ng/mL. Anhydroecgonine methyl ester was detectable in saliva following smoked drug administration, but it was quickly cleared. Terminal half-life estimates for cocaine administered by the intranasal and smoked routes were significantly shorter in saliva compared with those measured in plasma. Half-life estimates following intravenous administration tended to be lower for saliva than plasma, but the differences were not significant. The duration of pharmacologic effects was generally the same as or shorter than detection times of cocaine in plasma and saliva. Overall, the study demonstrated the usefulness of saliva as a test matrix for the detection and measurement of cocaine following administration by different routes of administration.

Cocaine disposition in meconium from newborns of cocaine-abusing mothers and urine of adult drug users

The analysis of meconium for cocaine and metabolites has proved to be a reliable method for the detection of fetal cocaine exposure. Better sensitivity and a larger gestational window of detection have been demonstrated for meconium testing as compared with neonatal urine testing. Cocaine and cocaine metabolites, including benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, cocaethylene, norcocaine, benzoylnorecgonine, and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, have been identified in meconium. The origin of these metabolites, whether maternal or fetal, has not been established. This study was conducted to compare the disposition of cocaine and metabolites in meconium from fetuses exposed to cocaine with that of urine from cocaine abusers. Meconium specimens were obtained from six neonates of mothers positive for cocaine use by urinalysis or self-reporting or both during pregnancy. Urine specimens were obtained from 17 adult female and 17 adult male cocaine users enrolled in a treatment program. Specimens were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for cocaine and 12 related analytes. The following analytes were identified and measured in meconium and urine: anhydroecgonine methyl ester; ecgonine methyl ester; ecgonine ethyl ester; cocaine; cocaethylene; benzoylecgonine; norcocaine; norcocaethylene; benzoylnorecgonine; m-and p-hydroxycocaine; and m-and p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine. In addition, both m-and p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine were found to exhibit approximately equal cross-reactivity with benzoylecgonine in the EMIT and TDx assays. The presence of p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine in meconium suggested that this newly identified metabolite, like m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, might serve as a valuable marker of fetal cocaine exposure during pregnancy. The presence of cocaine and anhydroecgonine methyl ester in meconium was attributed to transfer across the placenta from the mother. However, the origin of the hydrolytic and oxidative metabolites of cocaine could not be established because they were also identified in urine specimens of adult female cocaine users and could have arisen in meconium from either fetal or maternal metabolism.

Human pharmacokinetics of intravenous, sublingual, and buccal buprenorphine

Buprenorphine is a potent opioid analgesic used in the treatment of moderate to severe pain. At higher doses, it has demonstrated potential for treating heroin dependence. This study was undertaken to investigate buprenorphine pharmacokinetics by different routes of administration at dosages approximating those used in opioid-dependence studies. Six healthy men who were nondependent but who had a history of heroin use were administered buprenorphine in a crossover design study by intravenous (1.2 mg), sublingual (4.0 mg), and buccal (4.0 mg) routes of administration. Plasma samples were collected up to 96 h and assayed for buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine by negative chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Plasma concentrations of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine were analyzed by nonlinear regression analysis with standard noncompartmental methods. Buprenorphine biovailability by the sublingual and buccal routes was estimated as 51.4% and 27.8%, respectively, although there was considerable interindividual variability by both routes of administration. The terminal elimination half-lives were longer for the sublingual and buccal routes than for the intravenous route. The extended elimination half-lives may be due to a shallow depot effect involving sequestration of buprenorphine in the oral mucosa. Norbuprenorphine mean peak plasma concentrations were less than 1 ng/mL and were highly variable among different routes of administration and individuals. The terminal elimination half-life of norbuprenorphine was longer than buprenorphine.

Forensic drug testing for opiates. VII. Urinary excretion profile of intranasal (snorted) heroin

The urinary excretion profile of free and conjugated morphine and 6-acetylmorphine was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and immunoassay for six healthy male subjects after intranasal administration of 6 and 12 mg of heroin HCI. Results were compared with heroin administration (6 mg) by the intramuscular route. Heroin metabolites were rapidly excreted with peak concentrations appearing in the first or second specimen collection after drug administration. Concentrations of total morphine and 6-acetylmorphine after intranasal heroin were similar to those after intramuscular administration, but free morphine concentrations after the lower intranasal dose were significantly lower than the same dose given intramuscularly. Detection times for total morphine by GC-MS and immunoassay (300-ng/mL cutoff concentration) were generally 24-36 h, but were reduced to less than 12 h at the higher cutoff concentration of 2000 ng/mL. 6-Acetylmorphine concentrations were highly variable and short-lived; detection times (10 ng/mL) were approximately 2-3 h for most subjects, but some failed to produce positive specimens. Of 14 specimens with 6-acetylmorphine concentrations of 10 ng/mL or more, ten were associated with total morphine concentrations greater than 2000 ng/mL, and four specimens had total morphine concentrations less than 2000 ng/mL. Overall, intranasal administration of heroin produced a similar profile of excretion of heroin metabolites to intramuscular administration.

Cocaine contamination of United States paper currency

The exchange of illicit cocaine for money by drug dealers is an everyday occurrence in cities in the United States. There is ample opportunity during the exchange, storage, and use of cocaine for paper currency to become contaminated. Because currency is exchanged frequently, it is likely that contaminated currency would be found in common use. We examined ten single dollar bills from several cities in the United States for the presence of cocaine. Individual bills were extracted with methanol (10 mL). Cocaine was purified from the methanol extract by solid-phase extraction (SPE). The SPE extract was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Standard curves were constructed with new, uncirculated currency. Cocaine was identified qualitatively by full scan and quantitated by selected ion monitoring. Cocaine was present in 79% of the currency samples analyzed in amounts above 0.1 micrograms and in 54% of the currency in amounts above 1.0 micrograms. Contamination was widespread and was found in currency from all sites examined. Cocaine amounts were highly variable and ranged from nanogram to milligram amounts. The highest amount of cocaine detected on a single one-dollar bill was 1327 micrograms. These results indicated that cocaine contamination of currency is widespread throughout the United States and is likely to be primarily a result of cross-contamination from other contaminated currency and from contaminated money-counting machines.

Passive inhalation of cocaine

Six healthy male volunteers were exposed to the vapor of 100 and 200 mg freebase cocaine heated to a temperature of 200 degrees C in an unventilated room (12,600-L volume) for a period of 1 h. No pharmacological effects were detected as a result of the exposure. Blood specimens collected immediately following exposure were negative for cocaine and metabolites. Urine specimens analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry contained peak concentrations of benzoylecgonine that ranged from 22 to 123 ng/mL. The peak excretion time for benzoylecgonine following passive exposure was approximately 5 h. The amount of cocaine inhaled by the subjects during passive exposure was estimated from room air measurements of cocaine to be approximately 0.25 mg. The total amount of cocaine (cocaine plus metabolites) excreted in urine by the six subjects ranged from 0.04 to 0.21 mg. For comparison, the six subjects also received an intravenous injection of 1 mg cocaine hydrochloride. Four of six subjects screened positive (300-ng/mL cutoff concentration) following the injection, indicating that the minimum amount of cocaine in these subjects necessary to produce positive results was approximately 1 mg. A second passive inhalation study was undertaken in which specimens were collected from research staff who assisted in a series of experimental studies with "crack" (freebase cocaine) smokers. The research staff remained in close vicinity while the crack smokers smoked three doses of freebase cocaine (12.5, 25, and 50 mg) over a period of 4 h. As a result, staff members were passively exposed to sidestream smoke from crack pipes and to breath exhalation from the crack smokers. Urine specimens from the staff members contained a maximum of 6 ng/mL benzoylecgonine. Only traces (less than 1 ng/mL) of cocaine were detected in any specimen. Overall, these studies demonstrated that individuals exposed to cocaine smoke under naturalistic or artificial conditions absorbed small amounts of cocaine that were insufficient to produce positive urine specimens at standard Department of Health and Human Services cutoffs. However, passive exposure conditions that would result in absorption of cocaine in amounts exceeding 1 mg could result in the production of cocaine-positive urine specimens.

Validity testing of the accuPINCH THC test

Self-contained drug-testing kits are currently being marketed for a variety of drugs of abuse. These tests are designed to provide rapid access to test results without the need for laboratory facilities. This report describes a validity study of the accuPINCH THC test, a self-contained test for cannabinoids in urine. Three healthy male volunteers with a history of marijuana use participated in the clinical study. Each subject smoked one, two, or four marijuana cigarettes (2.6% THC) on each test day. Urine samples were collected and incorporated into a specimen set consisting of 178 clinical samples, 72 urine samples containing known amounts of drug, and 50 drug-free urine samples. The specimen set was randomized and analyzed under blind conditions by the accuPINCH test and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH). AccuPINCH results were interpreted independently by three readers as positive at either two calibration points (positive A < 100 ng/mL THCCOOH; positive B > or = 100 ng/mL THCCOOH) or negative. Concordance analysis was performed by comparison of the accuPINCH results with GC-MS. In addition, the effects of changes in sample turbidity, temperature, and assay reading time on test outcome were assessed. For the clinical samples, positive B results were associated exclusively with THCCOOH concentrations greater than or equal to 15 ng/mL, whereas positive A and negative results were obtained at all concentrations. All drug-free urine samples were interpreted as either negative or positive A. The test demonstrated relatively low cross-reactivity with THC and other cannabinoids.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Forensic drug testing for opiates. VI. Urine testing for hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, and oxycodone with commercial opiate immunoassays and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Opiate testing for morphine and codeine is performed routinely in forensic urine drug-testing laboratories in an effort to identify illicit opiate abusers. In addition to heroin, the 6-keto-opioids, including hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, and oxycodone, have high abuse liability and are self-administered by opiate abusers, but only limited information is available on detection of these compounds by current immunoassay and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) methods. In this study, single doses of hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, and oxycodone were administered to human subjects, and urine samples were collected before and periodically after dosing. Opiate levels were determined in a quantitative mode with four commercial immunoassays, TDx opiates (TDx), Abuscreen radioimmunoassay (ABUS), Coat-A-Count morphine in urine (CAC), and EMIT d.a.u. opiate assay (EMIT), and by GC-MS. GC-MS assay results indicated that hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, and oxycodone administration resulted in rapid excretion of parent drug and O-demethylated metabolites in urine. Peak concentrations occurred within 8 h after drug administration and declined below 300 ng/mL within 24-48 h. Immunoassay testing indicated that hydromorphone, hydrocodone, and oxycodone, but not oxymorphone, were detectable in urine by TDx and EMIT (300-ng/mL cutoff) for 6-24 h. ABUS detected only hydrocodone, and CAC failed to detect any of the four 6-keto-opioid analgesics. Generally, immunoassays for opiates in urine displayed substantially lower sensitivities for 6-keto-opioids compared with GC-MS. Consequently, urine samples containing low to moderate concentrations of hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, and oxycodone will likely go undetected when tested by conventional immunoassays.

Simultaneous assay of cocaine, heroin and metabolites in hair, plasma, saliva and urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

As part of an ongoing research program on the development of drug detection methodology, we developed an assay for the simultaneous measurement of cocaine, heroin and metabolites in plasma, saliva, urine and hair by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The analytes that could be measured by this assay were the following: anhydroecgonine methyl ester; ecgonine methyl ester;. ecgonine ethyl ester; cocaine; cocaethylene; benzoylecgonine; cocaethylene; norcocaethylene; benzoylnorecgonine; codeine; morphine; norcodeine; 6-acetylmorphine; normorphine; and heroin. Liquid specimens were diluted, filtered and then extracted by SPE. Additional handling steps were necessary for the analysis of hair samples. An initial wash procedure was utilized to remove surface contaminants. Washed hair samples were extracted with methanol overnight at 40 degrees C. Both wash and extract fractions were collected, evaporated and purified by SPE. All extracts were evaporated, derivatized with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) with 1% trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) and analyzed by GC-MS. The limit of detection (LOD) for cocaine, heroin and metabolites in biological specimens was approximately 1 ng/ml with the exception of norcodeine, normorphine and benzoylnorecgonine (LOD = 5 ng/ml). The LOD for cocaine, heroin and metabolites in hair was approximately 0.1 ng/mg of hair with the exception of norcodeine (LOD = 0.3 ng/mg) and normorphine and benzoylnorecgonine (LOD = 0.5 ng/mg). Coefficients of variation ranged from 3 to 26.5% in the hair assay. This assay has been successfully utilized in research on the disposition of cocaine, heroin and metabolites in hair, plasma, saliva and urine and in treatment studies.

Sweat testing for heroin, cocaine, and metabolites

Although a variety of drugs have been detected in sweat, little information is available on the characteristics of drug excretion in sweat under controlled-dosing conditions. A series of clinical studies were designed to determine the identity, concentration, time course, dose dependency, and variability of drug and metabolite excretion in sweat following administration of single doses of cocaine and heroin to human subjects. Sweat was collected by means of a sweat patch that could be worn for a period of several days to several weeks at a time, resulting in accumulation of drug in the patch. Sweat patches were removed at specified times and frozen until analyzed by gas chromatography--mass spectrometry. Cocaine and heroin were the major analytes excreted in sweat following their administration. Smaller amounts of cocaine metabolites were also detected following cocaine administration. 6-Acetylmorphine appeared rapidly after heroin administration and continued to increase while heroin content decreased, suggesting that heroin was undergoing hydrolysis in the sweat patch. Cocaine appeared in sweat within 1-2 hours and peaked within 24 hours in an apparent dose-dependent manner. Analysis of duplicate adjacent patches from individual subjects who had been administered cocaine provided similar quantitative results, suggesting that intrasubject variability was relatively low, whereas intersubject variability was high. These observations regarding the excretion of cocaine and heroin analytes in sweat have important forensic implications to other fields such as hair analysis. Sweat excretion could be an important mechanism by which drugs enter hair. These data also suggest that the sweat patch could serve as a useful monitoring device in surveillance of individuals in treatment and probation programs.

Simultaneous measurement of cocaine, cocaethylene, their metabolites, and "crack" pyrolysis products by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

We developed a sensitive and specific assay for the simultaneous measurement of cocaine, cocaethylene, six of their metabolites, and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, a pyrolysis product, in biological fluids. The assay involves solid-phase extraction columns containing a copolymeric bonded phase for isolation of cocaine analytes, derivatization with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide and 10 g/L trimethylchlorosilane, and measurement with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry operating in the selected-ion monitoring mode. Detector responses for analytes were linear over a concentration range of 3.1-1000 micrograms/L. The limits of detection were approximately 1 microgram/L for cocaine, ecgonine methyl ester, and benzoylecgonine and 3-6 micrograms/L for the remaining analytes. Hydrolysis of cocaine and artifact formation of anhydroecogonine methyl ester during extraction and assay was < 1%. Cocaine and its derivatives appear in different proportions in plasma, saliva, and urine according to the biological fluid and time of measurement. Each biological fluid provides unique information on the disposition of cocaine in human subjects.

Simultaneous measurement of cocaine, cocaethylene, their metabolites, and "crack" pyrolysis products by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

We developed a sensitive and specific assay for the simultaneous measurement of cocaine, cocaethylene, six of their metabolites, and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, a pyrolysis product, in biological fluids. The assay involves solid-phase extraction columns containing a copolymeric bonded phase for isolation of cocaine analytes, derivatization with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide and 10 g/L trimethylchlorosilane, and measurement with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry operating in the selected-ion monitoring mode. Detector responses for analytes were linear over a concentration range of 3.1-1000 micrograms/L. The limits of detection were approximately 1 microgram/L for cocaine, ecgonine methyl ester, and benzoylecgonine and 3-6 micrograms/L for the remaining analytes. Hydrolysis of cocaine and artifact formation of anhydroecogonine methyl ester during extraction and assay was &lt; 1%. Cocaine and its derivatives appear in different proportions in plasma, saliva, and urine according to the biological fluid and time of measurement. Each biological fluid provides unique information on the disposition of cocaine in human subjects.

The occurrence of cocaine, heroin and metabolites in hair of drug abusers

The analysis of hair for drugs of abuse reveals information regarding past drug exposure. We developed methods for washing, extraction and analysis of hair samples for cocaine, heroin and metabolites. Twenty paired head- and arm-hair samples, collected from known heroin/cocaine abusers, were analyzed with a new comprehensive GC/MS assay for cocaine, heroin and metabolites. Cocaine and 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) were the major analytes present in both head- and arm-hair samples. Cocaine was detected in all head- and 17 arm-hair samples. The concentration of cocaine found was 4-760 ng/10 mg in head hair and 0-1090 ng/10 mg in arm hair. Less benzoylecgonine was present in a concentration range of 0-158 ng/10 mg of head hair and 0-125 ng/10 mg of arm hair. Heroin was found in only 2 head-hair samples, whereas 6-AM was present in 14 head and 6 arm-hair samples. The concentration of 6-AM was 0-8 ng/10 mg in head hair and 0-31 ng/10 mg in arm hair. Morphine was present in 3 head-hair samples in a range of 2-9 ng/10 mg and was not detected in arm-hair samples. When results were compared by groups (head hair versus arm hair, Caucasoid versus Africoid), only two significant differences were found. Cocaine concentrations in both head and arm hair were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the Africoid group than in the Caucasoid group. The reasons for these differences were not readily apparent, but could have been due to differences in the level of cocaine use or to ethnic differences in the deposition of drug in hair.

Cocaine and metabolite excretion in saliva under stimulated and nonstimulated conditions

The accessibility of saliva for rapid, noninvasive sampling makes it an attractive biological fluid for detecting drug use. However, little is known about salivary excretion patterns of the major cocaine metabolites, benzoylecgonine (BE) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME). Additionally, there is a general lack of information on the effects of salivary collection conditions on cocaine excretion in saliva. This study documents the profile of cocaine and metabolites in human saliva under stimulated and nonstimulated saliva flow conditions. Saliva samples were obtained periodically from six healthy volunteers who were administered three, equally spaced, single intravenous doses of 25 mg of cocaine during a 6-h test session. On different days, whole saliva was obtained either under nonstimulated or stimulated (sour candy) conditions. The samples were analyzed for cocaine and metabolites by GC/MS. Cocaine, BE, and EME were detected and quantitated in the saliva of all subjects. Cocaine was the predominant analyte identified in all samples. Nonstimulated saliva contained substantially more drug than stimulated samples. The ratio of the area under the curve (AUC) of cocaine in nonstimulated saliva to that of stimulated saliva was variable and ranged from 3.0 to 9.5. The AUC ratios of BE and EME were similar to those observed for cocaine. The lowering of cocaine concentration in saliva in the stimulated flow condition was likely due to an increase in saliva pH associated with increased saliva flow rate; it is known that an increase in saliva pH retards cocaine partitioning into this biological fluid.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intranasal "snorted" heroin

The purity of illicit heroin in the United States has increased steadily over the last several years, while prices have fallen. Associated with this trend, there has been a recent shift among heroin addicts from intravenous injection to intranasal use ("snorting"). Because of the lack of information on this route of administration, we evaluated the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of intranasal heroin. Results were compared to the effects of heroin by the intramuscular route. Six healthy, male volunteers were administered single doses of intranasal heroin hydrochloride (6 and 12 mg), intramuscular heroin hydrochloride (6 mg), and placebo. Blood levels of heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, and morphine were measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Simultaneous physiological, behavioral, and performance measures were obtained. Peak blood levels of heroin were attained within 5 min of heroin administration by the intranasal route, similar to those observed for intramuscular administration. Generally, the pharmacokinetic profile of intranasal heroin was equivalent to that for the intramuscular route. Physiological, behavioral, and performance effects following intranasal administration were similar to the effects following intramuscular administration. The relative potency of intranasal heroin was estimated to be approximately one-half that of intramuscular administration. The efficacy of the intranasal route, combined with decreased heroin cost, reduced fear of infection, and the lack of requirements for additional drug paraphernalia, could make this an attractive route of drug administration to naive or infrequent drug users.

Validity testing of the EZ-SCREEN cannabinoid test

Recently, a number of "quick tests" became available for use in on-site drug testing. These tests offer advantages in simplicity, ease of performance, and rapid access to test results. However, there is a paucity of data on the validity of these tests for the detection of drugs of abuse. This report describes a validity study of the EZ-SCREEN cannabinoid test for the detection of cannabinoids in urine. Three healthy, male volunteers with a history of marijuana use participated in the study. Each subject smoked 1, 2, or 4 marijuana cigarettes (2.6% THC) on each test day. Urine samples were collected and incorporated into a specimen set consisting of 178 clinical urine samples, 72 urine samples containing known amounts of drug, and 50 drug-free urine samples. The specimen set was randomized and analyzed under blind conditions by the EZ-SCREEN test and by GC/MS for 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH). Results were interpreted independently by three readers. Concordance analysis was performed by comparison of results of the EZ-SCREEN test with GC/MS. The EZ-SCREEN test was highly sensitive and produced positive results at a standard THCCOOH concentration of 5 ng/mL. While showing high sensitivity to THCCOOH, the assay demonstrated low cross-reactivity with delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids. No false-positive results were recorded with 50 drug-free urine samples, but one reader recorded eight undecided results. Overall agreement between the three readers for the EZ-Screen results was approximately 80%. Delayed readings and photocopy readings tended to be less accurate than readings obtained at 3 min.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Measurement of heroin and its metabolites by isotope-dilution electron-impact mass spectrometry

A solid-phase extraction procedure was developed for the isolation of heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, and morphine from blood, plasma, saliva, and urine with subsequent assay by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Aprotic solvents, mild elution conditions, and an enzyme inhibitor were used to ensure maximum analyte stability. Samples were extracted and the extract was divided into two equal portions. One portion was assayed directly for heroin; detector response was linear over a concentration range of 1.0 to 250 micrograms/L. The second part of the extract was reacted with N-methyl-bis-trifluoroacetamide and assayed for the trifluoroacetyl derivatives of 6-acetylmorphine and morphine; detector response was linear over a concentration range of 1.0 to 500 micrograms/L. The limit of sensitivity was 1.0 microgram/L for each analyte. Hydrolysis of heroin to 6-acetylmorphine during extraction and analysis was &lt; 5%. The method can be used to corroborate heroin use and to study the pharmacological effects of heroin and its metabolites.

Measurement of heroin and its metabolites by isotope-dilution electron-impact mass spectrometry

A solid-phase extraction procedure was developed for the isolation of heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, and morphine from blood, plasma, saliva, and urine with subsequent assay by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Aprotic solvents, mild elution conditions, and an enzyme inhibitor were used to ensure maximum analyte stability. Samples were extracted and the extract was divided into two equal portions. One portion was assayed directly for heroin; detector response was linear over a concentration range of 1.0 to 250 micrograms/L. The second part of the extract was reacted with N-methyl-bis-trifluoroacetamide and assayed for the trifluoroacetyl derivatives of 6-acetylmorphine and morphine; detector response was linear over a concentration range of 1.0 to 500 micrograms/L. The limit of sensitivity was 1.0 microgram/L for each analyte. Hydrolysis of heroin to 6-acetylmorphine during extraction and analysis was < 5%. The method can be used to corroborate heroin use and to study the pharmacological effects of heroin and its metabolites.

Rapid assay of cocaine, opiates and metabolites by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

The simultaneous assay of cocaine, opiates and metabolites in small biological samples continues to be a difficult task. This report focuses upon tabulation of important techniques (extraction, derivatization, chromatographic conditions, detection mode, data acquisition) reported over the last decade that were used in the development of assays for these analytes. The most prevalent procedures for extraction of cocaine, opiates and metabolites were liquid-liquid and solid-phase extraction isolation methods. Following extraction analytes were derivatized and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The technique most often used for chromatographic separation was fused-silica capillary column gas chromatography. Detection generally was performed by selected ion monitoring in the positive-ion electron-impact ionization mode, although full-scan acquisition and positive- and negative-ion chemical ionization methods have been used. It was apparent from the review that there is a continuing need for greater sensitivity and selectivity in the assay of highly potent opiates and for cocaine and metabolites.

Testing human hair for drugs of abuse. II. Identification of unique cocaine metabolites in hair of drug abusers and evaluation of decontamination procedures

Two unique metabolites of cocaine, cocaethylene and norcocaine, were identified by GC/MS in the hair of cocaine users. Their presence cannot be explained by environmental contamination; thus, their presence together with cocaine provides convincing evidence that cocaine is excreted in hair after active cocaine administration. The amount of cocaine in hair predominated over all metabolites generally by a factor of 5-10. Two washing procedures were evaluated for their efficiency in removal of cocaine from environmentally contaminated hair. Neither procedure completely removed cocaine, suggesting that false positives can result from environmental contamination. Analysis of the methanolic wash of the hair of cocaine users also revealed the presence of cocaine metabolites, indicating that washing removes cocaine from the interior as well as from the exterior surface of hair during decontamination procedures.

Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: urinalysis and room air levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

In two separate studies, 5 drug-free male volunteers with a history of marijuana use were passively exposed to the sidestream smoke of 4 and 16 marijuana cigarettes (2.8% delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) for 1 h each day for 6 consecutive days. A third study was similarly performed with 2 marijuana-naive subjects passively exposed to the smoke of 16 marijuana cigarettes. Passive smoke exposure was conducted in a small, unventilated room. Room air levels of THC and CO were monitored frequently. All urine specimens were collected and analyzed by EMIT d.a.u. assay, Abuscreen radioimmunoassay and GC/MS. The studies show that significant amounts of THC were absorbed by all subjects at the higher level of passive smoke exposure (eg., smoke from 16 marijuana cigarettes), resulting in urinary excretion of significant amounts of cannabinoid metabolites. However, it seems improbable that subjects would unknowingly tolerate the noxious smoke conditions produced by this exposure. At the lower level of passive marijuana-smoke exposure, specimens tested positive only infrequently or were negative. Room air levels of THC during passive smoke exposure appeared to be the most critical factor in determining whether a subject produced cannabinoid-positive urine specimens.

Diazepam and methadone blood levels following concurrent administration of diazepam and methadone

Results of a previous study indicated that the opioid effects of methadone were enhanced by the concurrent administration of diazepam in methadone-maintained subjects. To determine whether a pharmacokinetic interaction might account for this methadone-diazepam interaction, the plasma levels of methadone, diazepam and diazepam metabolites were determined in blood samples collected during that study. Five adult male patients on methadone maintenance (50-60 mg/day) were administrated single doses of placebo, diazepam (20 and 40 mg), methadone (100%, 150% and 200% of the maintenance dose), and four diazepam-methadone dose combinations (20 and 40 mg diazepam in combination with 100% and 150% of the maintenance dose). The results showed that the concurrent administration of methadone and diazepam did not significantly change the time-course or areas under the plasma concentration-time curve of methadone, diazepam or N-desmethyl-diazepam compared to the levels following the administration of either drug alone. Thus, plasma drug level analysis does not indicate a pharmacokinetic interaction between diazepam and methadone.

63Ni electron-capture gas chromatographic assay for buprenorphine and metabolites in human urine and feces

A 63Ni electron-capture gas chromatographic assay is described for buprenorphine, a potent narcotic agonist--antagonist. In addition, the assay is useful for the measurement of the metabolite norbuprenorphine and demethoxybuprenorphine, a rearrangement product resulting when buprenorphine is exposed to acid and heat. An extraction procedure was developed which optimized recovery of buprenorphine from biological samples and produced minimal background interferences and emulsion problems. Extract residues were derivatized with pentafluoropropionic anhydride and assayed by gas chromatography. Samples were analyzed with and without enzyme hydrolysis, thus providing a selective and sensitive assay for both free and conjugated buprenorphine, norbuprenorphine and demethoxybuprenorphine. The lower limits of detection following extraction of a 1-ml sample were ca. 10 ng/ml for buprenorphine and demethoxybuprenorphine and 5 ng/ml for norbuprenorphine. Application of the assay to human samples following a 40-mg oral dose of buprenorphine produced no evidence for the presence of demethoxybuprenorphine in urine or feces. Norbuprenorphine (free and conjugated) was present in urinary and fecal samples; buprenorphine (free and conjugated) was found in high amounts only in feces and in trace amounts in urine as conjugated buprenorphine. The urinary and fecal excretion pattern observed for a human subject following oral dosing of buprenorphine suggests enterohepatic circulation of buprenorphine.

Stability of the 6,14-endo-ethanotetrahydrooripavine analgesics: acid-catalyzed rearrangement of buprenorphine

Buprenorphine (I), a member of the 6,14-endo-ethanotetrahydrooripavine series of analgesics, undergoes an acid-catalyzed rearrangement reaction when exposed to acid and heat. The product was shown by 1H-NMR and GC-MS to have undergone overall elimination of a molecule of methanol with concurrent formation of a tetrahydrofuran ring at C(6)-C(7) of I. Short-term stability studies across a wide range of pH and temperature conditions indicate that I is stable in aqueous solution at pH greater than 3 for 24 h at 36-38 degrees C. Under the more extreme conditions of the autoclave, significant loss of I occurred. Long-term stability studies (10 weeks) of I in aqueous solution (pH 1 and pH 5) at 0-4 degrees C and 26-28 degrees C indicate only minor conversion (4%) to the rearrangement product. Eight other 6,14-endo-ethanotetrahydrooripavine derivatives were subjected to extremes of acid (pH 0) and temperature (autoclave) to determine if similar rearrangement reactions occur. GC-MS indicated that hydrolysis products were produced whose spectra were consistent with the proposed rearrangement structures.

Oxymorphone metabolism and urinary excretion in human, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and dog

Oxymorphone was extensively metabolized by human, rat, dog, and guinea pig and to a lesser extent by rabbit. The most abundant metabolite in urine for all species was conjugated oxymorphone (12.7-81.7% administered dose) followed by 6 beta- and 6 alpha-carbinols produced by 6-keto reduction of oxymorphone. 6 beta-Oxymorphol (0.2-3.1%) was found in the urine of all species, whereas 6 alpha-oxymorphol (0.1-2.8%) was found only in human, rabbit, and guinea pig. Small amounts of free oxymorphone (less than or equal to 10%) were excreted by all species except rabbit, which excreted 31.7%. Overall recoveries of oxymorphone and metabolites from urine ranged from 15-96%, of which greater than 80% was excreted in the first 24 hr by all species except dog. Only 35% was excreted by dog during the first day. Stereoselectivity of 6-keto- reduction was observed for all species with the 6 beta-carbinol metabolite being most abundant in the urine of all but guinea pig. Considerable individual variability occurred in the excretion of free and conjugated oxymorphone by six human subjects following oral dosing. Species trends in the metabolism of 6-keto-opioids are discussed.

Assay for codeine, morphine and ten potential urinary metabolites by gas chromatography--mass fragmentography

A mass fragmentography (MF) assay is described for ten potential, minor urinary metabolites of codeine (C) and morphine (M). Samples were hydrolyzed, extracted, derivatized with Tri-Sil Z and analyzed by methane chemical ionization (CI)-MF. The method is sensitive to ca. 0.01 microgram/ml for all compounds with the exception of normorphine (NM) which was difficult to extract with chloroform. The sensitivity of the MF assay for NM was only ca. 0.10 microgram/ml. Various solvent systems were investigated for optimization of extraction efficiency of all metabolites. A separate method for the extraction of NM is reported which utilizes a solid buffer--solvent combination, i.e., potassium carbonate--isopropanol. This latter method provided the best overall recovery of NM (39.0 +/- 3.4%). Gas chromatographic (GC) retention times of C, M and metabolites are reported for three liquid phases (3%) on Gas-Chrom Q (100-120 mesh). Resolution of metabolites (as trisilyl derivatives) was best on Silar-5CP and this phase was used in metabolic studies of C and M. GC resolution was not complete for all compounds; however, selection of specific ions for monitoring by MF provided the required specificity for all compounds except the 6 alpha- and 6 beta-hydroxy isomers. CI spectra for all metabolites are reported. The MF assay was used for urinary analysis of samples from guinea pigs that received single doses of C (15 mg/kg) or M (8 mg/kg). Following C administration 6 alpha- and 6 beta-hydrocodol, 6 alpha, beta-hydromorphol (undifferentiated), HM and M were measured. Following M administration only 6 alpha, beta-hydromorphol was found. The amount of total metabolite as percent dose for each component was calculated as less than 1%.

Analytical controls in drug metabolic studies. II. Artifact formation during chloroform extraction of drugs and metabolites with amine substituents

Chemical artifacts are readily produced during chloroform extractions of drugs and metabolites with amine substituents by the reaction of chloroform contaminants, phosgene and ethyl chloroformate, to form carbamoyl chlorides and carbamates. Chloroform obtained from three different suppliers was examined with regard to the effects of preservatives and exposure to air on the quantity and nature of these contaminants. Extractions with chloroform obtained from a supplier's sealed bottle and containing ethanol preservative produced the least amount of artifact. With previously opened bottles (prior exposure to air, open), the amount of artifact formation rose substantially. Chloroform without preservative or with a nonpolar hydrocarbon preservative likewise produced large amounts of artifacts during extraction. Attempts to purify chloroform showed that distillation was ineffective for the removal of phosgene or ethyl chloroformate, whereas their effective removal was accomplished by solvent elution through a column of activated alumina or upon standing over calcium hydroxide powder. Possible artifact formation must be considered in drug-metabolism studies and appropriate controls included for the detection and elimination of chemical artifacts.

Detection and measurement of opium alkaloids and metabolites in urine of opium eaters by methane chemical ionization mass fragmentography

A gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric assay for eight opium alkaloids in human urine following opium ingestion is described. The compounds were extracted from urine with methylene chloride-isopropanol (7:3, v/v) at pH 9.5, evaporated, derivatized with Tri-Sil Z and analyzed by methane chemical ionization mass fragmentography. The method in sensitive to ca. 0.01 microgram/ml for morphine and codeine and ca. 0.05 microgram/ml for the other compounds. Adsorption problems on the gas chromatography column prevented obtaining reproducible results for the measurement of noscapine. Extraction efficiencies over the pH range of 8-11 for the eight compounds are reported. Retention times of the opium alkaloids were determined using five different liquid phases (3%) on Gas-Chrom Q (100-120 mesh) and two column lengths (36 cm and 183 cm). The 36-cm column packed with OV-210 was selected for use in the assay. Ions were selected for monitoring for each component from their methane chemical ionization spectrum to provide the needed sensitivity and specificity for analysis of a multi-component mixture. The assay was used for the analysis of an "opium eater's" urine. Morphine, codeine, nomorphine, norcodeine and noscapine were detected; however, no evidence was obtained for thebaine, papaverine or oripavine. Unconjugated morphine (0.64 microgram/ml) was present at nearly twice the concentration of codeine (0.37 microgram/ml) and normorphine and norcodeine were present in equal amounts (ca. 0.15 microgram/ml).

Fluorescence properties of pseudomorphine and congeners: structure-activity relationships

The fluorescence properties of morphine congeners oxidized with potassium ferro-ferricyanide are described. Fluorescence did not occur in congeners with the following structural features: an alkyl or acyl group at the 3-O-position, a C-6 carbonyl group, or absence of the furan oxygen. Masking the carbonyl group by ethylene ketal formation effectively restored fluorescence. Morphine congeners that fluoresced were most sensitive to structural changes at C-6, C-7, anC-8. Details of effects of structural changes on emission maxima, intensity, and Stokes' shift are reported.

Comparative metabolism of codeine in man, rat, dog, guinea-pig and rabbit: identification of four new metabolites

The metabolism and excretion of codeine and its metabolites in untreated urine of man, rat, dog, guinea-pig and rabbit have been examined. Metabolites were identified by gas chromatography mass spectrometry operated in the chemical ionization mode (methane). Concentrations of codeine and metabolites were measured by selected ion monitoring. Both codeine and norcodeine were detected in the urine of all species but a new metabolite, hydrocodone, was found only in the urine from man, guinea-pig and dog. Additional metabolites (presumably resulting from the metabolism of hydrocodone) were also detected in man and guinea-pig. Overall recoveries of drug and metabolites from untreated urine were low for all species.

Comparative metabolism of hydrocodone in man, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and dog

The metabolism of hydrocodone was studied in man, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and dog. Routes of metabolism included O-demethylation, N-dealkylation, and 6-keto-reduction to the corresponding 6-alpha- and 6-beta-hydroxy metabolites, where each metabolic pathway produces an active metabolite. Mean total recovery of drug and metabolites as percentage of administered dose ranged from a low of 10.6% for the rabbit to a high of 46.8% for the guinea pig; man was intermediate at 25.7%. For man, approximately 70% of the total drug recovered was excreted in the first 24 hr, and the remainder by 72 hr. Considerable species differences were observed in the patterns of metabolism of hydrocodone. Also, stereoselectivity of 6-keto reduction to the beta-form was observed for all species in the reduction of hydrocodone and hydromorphone with the exception of the reduction of hydrocodone by man.

Simultaneous determination of hydromorphone, hydrocodone and their 6alpha- and 6beta-hydroxy metabolites in urine using selected ion recording with methane chemical ionization

A selected ion recording using chemical ionization (methane) is described for the simultaneous measurement of hydrocodone, hydromorphone and their respective 6alpha- and 6beta-hydroxymetabolites in human urine. The samples were acid-hydrolyzed, extracted and derivatized by silylation. Only partial resolution of the components on 3% OV-17 was achieved but was sufficient for their determination. The [M+1]+ ions of the drugs and metabolites as well as the [M+29]+ ion of the internal standard were recorded. The assay was sensitive down to c. 0.01 microgram ml-1. The relative standard deviation of standards processed along with the samples ranged from 4.5-8.2%. Hydrocodone was found to be metabolized in man primarily by O-demethylation and 6-keto reduction. Hydromorphone was excreted mainly in the unchanged form (after acid-hydrolysis) with only minor amounts of the 6-hydroxymetabolites being detected. A lack of stereoselectivity in the metabolic reduction ofhydrocodone was observed.