Lead exposure by E-waste disposal and recycling in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

BACKGROUND

Agbogbloshie in Ghana is the world's biggest dumpsite for the informal recycling of electronic waste (e-waste). E-waste is dismantled by rudimentary methods without personal or environmental protection. Workers and occupants are exposed to lead. There are no data so far about the extent and the consequences. We therefore analyzed blood lead levels (BLL) and creatinine levels (CL).

METHODS

Full blood samples and basic data (i.e. age, job, length of stay) were collected from dumpsite volunteers. BLL were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry; CL were assessed using the standard clinical laboratory procedures of Aachen Technical University. European BLL reference values were used as Ghana lacks its own. Statistical analysis was by non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U test), with p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Participants of both sexes (n = 327; 12-68 years; median age 23 years) were assessed. Most workers were aged <30 years. The collective's BLL was in pathological range for 77.7%; 14% had a BLL >10.0 μg/dl with symptoms consistent with high lead exposure including severe (6.5%) and intermediate (39%) renal disorder. BLL above 15.0 μg/dl were found in 5.9% of all workers which is the German threshold for those working with lead. Elevated CL in a pathological range were found in 254 participants. This is problematic as 75% of the lead entering the body is excreted via urine.

CONCLUSION

Most of our volunteers had pathological BLL and CL. Preventive strategies are necessary to reduce health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations (i.e. children, pregnant women).

Environmental Injustice and Electronic Waste in Ghana: Challenges and Recommendations

Electronic waste (e-waste) or discarded electronic devices that are unwanted, not working, or have reached their end of life pose significant threats to human and environmental health. This is a major concern in Africa, where the majority of e-waste is discarded. In the year 2021, an estimated 57.4 million metric tons of e-waste were generated worldwide. Globally, COVID-19 lockdowns have contributed to increased e-waste generation. Although Africa generates the least of this waste, the continent has been the dumping ground for e-waste from the developed world. The flow of hazardous waste from the prosperous 'Global North' to the impoverished 'Global South' is termed "toxic colonialism". Agbogbloshie, Ghana, an e-waste hub where about 39% of e-waste was treated, was listed among the top 10 most polluted places in the world. The discard of e-waste in Ghana presents an issue of environmental injustice, defined as the disproportionate exposure of communities of color and low-income communities to pollution, its associated health and environmental effects, and the unequal environmental protection provided through policies. Despite the economic benefits of e-waste, many civilians (low-income earners, settlers, children, and people with minimal education) are exposed to negative health effects due to poverty, lack of education, and weak regulations. We critically examine the existing literature to gather empirical information on e-waste and environmental injustice. Comprehensive policies and regulations are needed to manage e-waste locally and globally.

Iron- and protein rich diets may boost hemoglobin levels among informal electronic waste recyclers exposed to metals at Agbogbloshie, Ghana

While human exposure to metals may play a role in the pathogenesis of anemia, consumption of balanced diets may boost blood hemoglobin (Hb) levels in humans. Although informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling processes have recently drawn attention as an important source of pollution, there is almost no empirical evidence on the relationship between diet, metals exposure and anemia among e-waste recyclers. Therefore, we evaluated possible ameliorating effects of diet on metal exposure related anemia, as measured by Hb levels of e-waste recyclers and a reference population in Ghana. This repeated measure study used data collected from e-waste recyclers (n=142) and a reference population (n=65) between March 2017 and October 2018. Stored whole blood samples were analyzed for the following metals; Cd, Pb, Rb, Tb, Tl, and Eu. Next, Hb levels were analysed using the URIT-810® semiautomatic biochemistry analyzer. Furthermore, a 48-hour dietary recall questionnaire was administered to assess dietary intake parameters such as protein, folate, carbohydrates, Fe, Ca, Mg, Se, Zn, and Cu. Ordinary regression models were used to estimate joint effects of metals and nutrients on Hb levels. At baseline, the mean Hb was lower among recyclers (12.99 ± 3.17 g/dL) than the reference group (13.02 ±2.37 g/dL). Blood Pb, Cd, Rb, Eu and Tb were associated with significant decreases in Hb levels of e-waste recyclers. Dietary intake of proteins and Fe was associated with concomitant increase in Hb levels of both groups as well as when analysis was restricted to recyclers. Despite the high exposure of e-waste recyclers to a myriad of metals, consumption of Fe-rich diets appears to ameliorate anemia and improved Hb levels (β=0.229; 95% CI: 0.013, 0.445; p=0.04). Therefore, the consumption of Fe and protein-rich foods may boost blood Hb levels in e-waste recyclers, even though exposure to high levels of metals is a predictor of anemia among this worker-group.

Human health risk associated with metal exposure at Agbogbloshie e-waste site and the surrounding neighbourhood in Accra, Ghana

Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana, was a center for informal e-waste recycling until it was closed recently. This study investigated the potential health risks of toxic metals (including As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn) found in the surface soils based on their concentrations and in vitro bioaccessibility. Mean concentrations at the burning sites were As: 218; Cd: 65; Cr: 182; Cu: 15,841; Ni: 145; Pb: 6,106; Sb: 552; and Zn: 16,065 mg/kg while the dismantling sites had mean concentrations of As: 23; Cd: 38; Cr: 342; Cu: 3239; Ni: 96; Pb: 681; Sb: 104; and Zn: 1658 mg/kg. The findings confirmed the enrichment of potentially toxic metals at the dismantling and burning sites, exceeding international environmental soil quality guidelines. Based on the total metal concentrations, bioaccessibility, and calculated risk indices, the risks associated with incidental ingestion of soil-borne metal contaminants at the dismantling and burning sites were very high. Despite evidence of higher metal concentrations in the communities near the burning and dismantling sites, the human health risk associated with soil ingestion was significantly lower in the surrounding neighborhood.

Biomonitoring of metals in blood and urine of electronic waste (E-waste) recyclers at Agbogbloshie, Ghana

There is growing evidence that e-waste recyclers may be exposed to potentially high levels of metals though associations between such exposures and specific work activities is not well established. In addition, studies have focused on metals traditionally biomonitored and there is no data on the exposure of recyclers to elements increasingly being used in new technologies. In the current study, levels of metals were measured in blood and urine of e-waste recyclers at Agbogbloshie (Ghana) and a control group. Blood and urine samples (from 100 e-waste recyclers and 51 controls) were analyzed for 17 elements (Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Ce, Cr, Eu, La, Mn, Nd, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Tb, Tl, Y) using the ICP-MS. Most e-waste recyclers reported performing at least 4 different tasks in decreasing order as e-waste dismantling (54%), trading/selling of e-waste (45%), burning wires only (40%), and collecting wires after burning (34%). Mean levels of blood Pb, Sr, Tl, and urinary Pb, Eu, La, Tb, and Tl were significantly higher in recyclers versus controls. In general, the collectors and sorters tended to have higher elemental levels than other work groups. Blood Pb levels (mean 92.4 μg/L) exceeded the U.S. CDC reference level in 84% of the e-waste recyclers. Likewise, blood Cd, Mn, and urinary As levels in recyclers and controls were higher than in reference populations elsewhere. E-waste recyclers are exposed to metals traditionally studied (e.g., Pb, Cd, As) and several other technology-critical and rare earth elements which previously have not been characterized through human biomonitoring.

Occupational and Environmental Health Effects of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling - A Focus on Agbogbloshie, Ghana

The unregulated and unorganized structure of informal electronic waste recycling worksites exposes workers to numerous occupational hazards. This context also presents research challenges in collecting exposure data to establish linkages with adverse health effects and development of risk-mitigating strategies. This paper presents some findings from a 5-year multinational and multi-institutional collaboration of academic and government partners, which documented extensive occupational and environmental health conditions at the Agbogbloshie electronic waste site in central Accra, Ghana.

A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL WORK EXPOSURES AMONG ELECTRONIC WASTE WORKERS AT AGBOGBLOSHIE, ACCRA GHANA

Occupational exposure associated with unstructured, informal e-waste recycling has received very limited attention. This study aimed to quantify the occupational physical exposures among informal e-waste workers at the largest e-waste site in Africa. A cross-sectional field survey of 163 male e-waste workers was conducted using a self-report occupational physical activity questionnaire, along with direct work observations, and pedometer estimates of walking activity for a subset of workers (n = 42). Results indicated significant differences in self-reported 7-day work exposures among the three main e-waste job categories, namely, collectors (n = 70), dismantlers (n = 73) and burners (n = 20). Prolonged walking, sitting and standing on five or more days in the workweek was frequently reported by collectors (87%), dismantlers (82%) and burners (60%), respectively. Nearly 90% of collectors and burners and 60% of dismantlers reported lifting and carrying on five or more days in the workweek. The exposure combinations identified suggest a risk for musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Findings call attention to the need for research examining potential associations between physical exposures and MSDs affecting e-waste workers in Agbogbloshie. The high exposure variability both between and within workers has implications for future exposure assessments conducted in unregulated, informal work settings.

Musculoskeletal Disorder Symptoms among Workers at an Informal Electronic-Waste Recycling Site in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

Informal recycling of electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) has myriad environmental and occupational health consequences, though information about the chronic musculoskeletal health effects on workers is limited. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and intensity of self-reported musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) symptoms among e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie in Ghana-the largest informal e-waste dumpsite in West Africa-relative to workers not engaged in e-waste recycling. A standardized musculoskeletal discomfort questionnaire was administered to 176 e-waste workers (73 collectors, 82 dismantlers, and 21 burners) and 41 workers in a reference group. The number of body parts with musculoskeletal discomfort were 1.62 and 1.39 times higher for collectors and dismantlers than burners, respectively. A 1-week discomfort prevalence was highest for collectors (91.8%) followed by dismantlers (89%), burners (81%), and the reference group (70.7%). The discomfort prevalence for e-waste workers was highest in the lower back (65.9%), shoulders (37.5%), and knees (37.5%). Whole-body pain scores (mean ± SE) were higher for collectors (83.7 ± 10.6) than dismantlers (45.5 ± 7.6), burners (34.0 ± 9.1), and the reference group (26.4 ± 5.9). Differences in prevalence, location, and intensity of MSD symptoms by the e-waste job category suggest specific work-related morbidity. Symptom prevalence and intensity call attention to the high risk for MSDs and work disability among informal e-waste workers, particularly collectors and dismantlers.

Informal e-waste recycling and plasma levels of non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) - A cross-sectional study at Agbogbloshie, Ghana

Informal e-waste recycling leads to a contamination of the workers with several hazardous substances, in particular heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) belong to the group of POPs and are suspected to be associated with adverse health effects. In particular lower chlorinated PCBs, such as the congeners PCB 28 and PCB 52 are a marker of occupational exposure. The aim of our study was to assess the occupational PCB exposure in e-waste workers in relation to their specific recycling task (e.g. dismantling, burning). Altogether, n = 88 e-waste workers and n = 196 control subjects have been included in this study. All plasma participant's samples were evaluated for the PCB congeners PCB 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180 and sum of NDL-indicator congeners by human biomonitoring. A significant difference could be detected for the lower chlorinated PCB congeners (PCB 28, 52, and 101) for e-waste workers in comparison to the control group. Analyzing specific recycling tasks, workers who dismantle and those who burn e-waste showed the highest plasma levels of PCB 28 and 52. In conclusion, e-waste workers showed occupational related elevated PCB levels. Although those levels did not exceed the BAT value, workers were contaminated with PCBs during their task. Occupational health and safety measure are therefore necessary to protect the worker's health.

Effect of Particulate Matter Exposure on Respiratory Health of e-Waste Workers at Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana

Background: Direct and continuous exposure to particulate matter (PM), especially in occupational settings is known to impact negatively on respiratory health and lung function. Objective: To determine the association between concentrations of PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) in breathing zone and lung function of informal e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie. Methods: To evaluate lung function responses to PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm), we conducted a longitudinal cohort study with three repeated measures among 207 participants comprising 142 healthy e-waste workers from Agbogbloshie scrapyard and 65 control participants from Madina-Zongo in Accra, Ghana from 2017–2018. Lung function parameters (FVC, FEV1, FEV1/FVC, PEF, and FEF 25-75) and PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) concentrations were measured, corresponding to prevailing seasonal variations. Socio-demographic data, respiratory exposures and lifestyle habits were determined using questionnaires. Random effects models were then used to examine the effects of PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) on lung function. Results: The median concentrations of PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) were all consistently above the WHO ambient air standards across the study waves. Small effect estimates per IQR of PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) on lung function parameters were observed even after adjustment for potential confounders. However, a 10 µg increase in PM (2.5, 2.5–10 and 10 µm) was associated with decreases in PEF and FEF 25–75 by 13.3% % [β = −3.133; 95% CI: −0.243, −0.022) and 26.6% [β = −0.266; 95% CI: −0.437, 0.094]. E-waste burning and a history of asthma significantly predicted a decrease in PEF by 14.2% [β = −0.142; 95% CI: −0.278, −0.008) and FEV1 by 35.8% [β = −0.358; 95% CI: −0.590, 0.125] among e-waste burners. Conclusions: Direct exposure of e-waste workers to PM predisposes to decline in lung function and risk for small airway diseases such as asthma and COPD.

Health Consequences for E-Waste Workers and Bystanders-A Comparative Cross-Sectional Study

Informal e-waste recycling is associated with several health hazards. Thus far, the main focus of research in the e-waste sector has been to assess the exposure site, such as the burden of heavy metals or organic pollutants. The aim of this study was to comprehensively assess the health consequences associated with informal e-waste recycling. A questionnaire-based assessment regarding occupational information, medical history, and current symptoms and complaints was carried out with a group of n = 84 e-waste workers and compared to a control cohort of n = 94 bystanders at the e-waste recycling site Agbogbloshie. E-waste workers suffered significantly more from work-related injuries, back pain, and red itchy eyes in comparison to the control group. In addition, regular drug use was more common in e-waste workers (25% vs. 6.4%). Both groups showed a noticeable high use of pain killers (all workers 79%). The higher frequency of symptoms in the e-waste group can be explained by the specific recycling tasks, such as burning or dismantling. However, the report also indicates that adverse health effects apply frequently to the control group. Occupational safety trainings and the provision of personal protection equipment are needed for all workers.

Coital Frequency and Male Concurrent Partnerships During Pregnancy and Postpartum in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

During pregnancy and postpartum, women in high HIV prevalence regions continue to be at high risk for acquiring HIV, due to both behavioral and biological mechanisms, despite declines in coital frequency as a pregnancy advances. We estimated differences in rates of partnership concurrency for men with and without pregnant or postpartum sexual partners. We used monthly retrospective panel data from Ghana from three perspectives: couple-level data, female reports of pregnancy and male partner concurrency, and male reports of concurrent partnerships and female partner pregnancy. Coital frequency increased during the first trimester and then declined with advancing pregnancy. However, in all three analyses, there was no compelling evidence that men with pregnant or postpartum partners had additional concurrent partnerships. Our findings suggest that even though women's sexual activity likely declines during pregnancy and postpartum, they may not be at increased risk of HIV/STI due to their partners seeking additional partnerships.

Source characterization and risk of exposure to atmospheric polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Ghana

With recent evidence that persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are emerging in environmental media in some developing countries that otherwise have sparing production and usage history, it has become important to identify such contemporary source factors of PCBs and the risks this may pose, in line with the global consensus on POP management and elimination. The present study investigated contaminations from atmospheric PCBs in Ghana, deciphered source factors, and accessed risk of exposure to dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs). Atmospheric PCBs were monitored by deployment of PUF-disk passive air samplers (PAS) at several sites across Ghana for 56 days. Atmospheric ∑₁₉₀PCB concentration in Ghana ranged from 0.28 ng/m³ in Kumasi to 4.64 ng/m³ at Agbogbloshie, a suburb in Accra noted for informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling activities. As high as 11.10 ng/m³ of PCB concentration was measured in plumes from uncontrolled open burning of e-wastes at Agbogbloshie. Applying statistical source characterization tools, it emerged that e-wastes were a major contributor to the environmental burden of atmospheric PCBs in Ghana. The risk of DL-PCB toxicity via inhalation in the Agbogbloshie area was 4.2 pg TEQ/day, within similar order of magnitude of an estimated risk of 3.85 pg TEQ/day faced by e-waste workers working averagely for 8 h per day. It is suggested that elimination of e-waste sites would help to significantly reduce PCB-related toxicity issues in Ghana. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Pilot study on the internal exposure to heavy metals of informal-level electronic waste workers in Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana

Informal-level electronic waste (e-waste)-processing activities are performed at hotspots in developing countries such as India, China, and Ghana. These activities increase the ambient burden of heavy metals and contribute to the toxic exposure of the general population. However, few data exist on the internal exposure of populations involved in these informal activities and in close contact with fumes from the direct combustion of electronic waste products in these countries. Therefore, in a cross-sectional study design, we analyzed blood, urine, and hair samples from 75 e-waste workers residing in and/or working on a large e-waste recycling site in Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana, and compared the results against those of 40 individuals living in a suburb of Accra without direct exposure to e-waste recycling activities. A comparative analysis using the Mann-Whitney U test showed significantly higher median concentrations of blood lead (88.5 vs. 41.0 μg/l, p < 0.001), cadmium (0.12 vs. 0.10 μg/g_crea, p = 0.023), chromium (0.34 vs. 0.23 μg/g_crea, p < 0.001), and nickel (3.18 vs. 2.03 μg/g_crea, p < 0.001) in the urine of e-waste workers than those of controls. There was no difference in blood cadmium concentrations between the groups (0.51 vs. 0.57 μg/l, p = 0.215) or in urine mercury levels (0.18 vs. 0.18 μg/g_crea, p = 0.820). Hair mercury levels were higher in the controls than in the e-waste workers (0.43 vs. 0.72, p < 0.001). We compared our data with those from European populations, specifically using the German reference values, and found that the internal concentrations of the participants exceeded the German reference values in 59.3 vs. 3.1% (e-waste workers vs. controls) for blood lead, 56.9 vs. 52.5% for urine nickel, 22.2 vs. 20.0% for urine chromium, and 17.8 vs. 62.2% for hair mercury. In particular, the high blood lead levels of up to several hundred micrograms per liter are a cause for concern because many of the workers in Agbogbloshie are children or adolescents who are in developmental stages and are at a particular risk for negative health effects. We conclude that exposure to some of the heavy metals tended to be a citywide phenomenon, but populations directly exposed to e-waste recycling are experiencing higher exposure levels and have concentration levels much higher than those of the general population and much higher than those found in European populations. To achieve environmental sustainability and to minimize the impact of e-waste-processing activities in developing countries, national authorities must formalize the rapidly growing informal-level e-waste management sector in these countries by deploying cleaner and easy-to-operate e-waste processing technologies.

Exposure to toxicants in soil and bottom ash deposits in Agbogbloshie, Ghana: human health risk assessment

Recycling of e-waste using informal or crude techniques poses serious health risk not only to the workers but also to the environment as whole. It is against this background that this paper sought to measure health risk faced by informal e-waste workers from exposure to toxicants such as lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, arsenic, tin, zinc and cobalt via oral and dermal contact with bottom ash and soil. Using random sampling techniques, 3 separate sites each (where burning and manual dismantling of e-wastes are usually carried) were identified, and a total of 402 samples were collected. The samples were analysed using standard methods for chemical analysis prescribed by the American Water Works Association (AWWA). Concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, As, Sn, Zn and Co in bottom ash samples from location ASH1 are 5388 ± 0.02 mg/kg (Pb), 2.39 ± 0.01 mg/kg (Cd), 42 ± 0.05 mg/kg (Cr), 7940 ± 0.01 mg/kg (Cu), 20 ± 0.07 mg/kg (As), 225 ± 0.04 mg/kg (Sn), 276 ± 0.04 mg/kg (Zn) and 123 ± 0.04 mg/kg (Co), while concentrations of the aforementioned toxicants in soil samples at location ASG1 are as follows: 1685 ± 0.14 mg/kg (Pb), 26.89 ± 0.30 mg/kg (Cd), 36.86 ± 0.02 mg/kg (Cr), 1427 ± 0.08 mg/kg (Cu), 1622 ± 0.12 mg/kg (As), 234 ± 0.25 mg/kg (Sn), 783 ± 0.31 mg/kg (Zn) and 135 ± 0.01 mg/kg (Co); used as input parameters in assessing health risk faced by workers. The results of cancer health risk faced by e-waste workers due to accidental ingestion of As in bottom ash at ASH1 is 4.3 × 10^-3 (CTE) and 6.5 × 10^-2 (RME), i.e. approximately 4 out of 1000 e-waste workers are likely to suffer from cancer-related diseases via central tendency exposure (CTE parameters), and 7 out of every 100 e-waste worker is also likely to suffer from cancer cases by reasonable maximum exposure (RME) parameters, respectively. The cancer health risk results for the other sampling sites were found to have exceeded the acceptable USEPA cancer risk value of 1 × 10^-4 to 1 × 10^-6 (i.e. 1 case of cancer per every 10,000 people to 1 case of cancer per every 1,000,000 people). The non-cancer health risk results for all the toxicants were higher in all the locations for both adult and children working the e-waste site. From the findings of this study, the government of Ghana has to immediately put in place policies that would address the safety of the e-waste workers as well as protect the environment.

Levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and biphenyls (PCBs) in blood of informal e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Ghana, and controls

The formation and environmental release of highly toxic organohalogen compounds associated with informal recycling of waste electric and electronic equipment (e-waste) is a growing problem at e-waste dumps/recycling sites (EWRSs) in many developing countries worldwide. We chose a cross-sectional study design to measure the internal exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) as well as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) of individuals working on one of the largest EWRSs of Africa, located at Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana, and in controls from a suburb of Accra without direct exposure to EWRS activities. In whole blood samples of 21 age matched male exposed individuals (mean age: 24.7 years, SD 6.0) and 21 male controls (mean age: 24.4 years, SD 5.7) 17 PCDD/F congeners were determined. Moreover three indicator PCB congeners (#138, #153 and #180) were measured in blood of 39 exposed (mean age: 27.5 years, SD 11.7) and 19 non-exposed (mean age: 26.8 years, SD 9.7) patients. Besides a health examination, biometric and demographic data, residential and occupational history, occupational exposures and working conditions were recorded using a standardized questionnaire. In the exposed group, median PCDD/F-concentrations were 6.18 pg/g lipid base WHO2005-TEq (range: 2.1-42.7) and significantly higher compared to the control group with 4.60 pg/g lipid base WHO2005-TEq (range: 1.6-11.6). Concentrations were different for 2,3,7,8-TetraCDD, three HexaCDD and all 10 PCDF congeners, indicating a combustion pattern. Using a multivariate regression analysis exposure to EWRS activities was the most important determinant for PCDD/F exposure. Median PCB levels for the indicator congeners #138, #153 and #180 were 0.011, 0.019 and 0.008 μg/l whole blood (ranges: 0.002-0.18, 0.003-0.16, 0.002-0.078) in the exposed group and, surprisingly, significantly higher in the controls (0.037, 0.062 and 0.022; ranges: 0.005-0.46, 0.010-0.46, 0.004-0.21). In a multivariate regression approach e-waste related activities had no positive influence on internal PCB exposure, but rather the time living in Accra. The internal PCB exposure is in particular notable for a country where PCBs have historically never been produced or used. The impact of EWRS activities on organohalogen compound exposure of individuals working at and living in the surroundings of the Agbogbloshie EWRS, and the surprisingly high PCB exposure of people living in Accra not involved in e-waste activities require further investigation.

High levels of PAH-metabolites in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Ghana

The informal recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) is an emerging source of environmental pollution in Africa. Among other toxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major health concern for exposed individuals. In a cross-sectional study, the levels of PAH metabolites in the urine of individuals working on one of the largest e-waste recycling sites of Africa, and in controls from a suburb of Accra without direct exposure to e-waste recycling activities, were investigated. Socioeconomic data, basic health data and urine samples were collected from 72 exposed individuals and 40 controls. In the urine samples, concentrations of the hydroxylate PAH metabolites (OH-PAH) 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (1-OH-phenanthrene), the sum of 2- and 9-hydroxyphenanthrene (2-/9-OH-phenanthrene), 3-hydroxyphenanthrene (3-OH-phenanthrene), 4-hydroxyphenanthrene (4-OH-phenanthrene) and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-pyrene), as well as cotinine and creatinine, were determined. In the exposed group, median urinary concentrations were 0.85 μg/g creatinine for 1-OH-phenanthrene, 0.54 μg/g creatinine for 2-/9-OH-phenanthrene, 0.99 μg/g creatinine for 3-OH-phenanthrene, 0.22 μg/g creatinine for 4-OH-phenanthrene, and 1.33 μg/g creatinine for 1-OH-pyrene, all being significantly higher compared to the control group (0.55, 0.37, 0.63, 0.11 and 0.54 μg/g creatinine, respectively). Using a multivariate linear regression analysis including sex, cotinine and tobacco smoking as covariates, exposure to e-waste recycling activities was the most important determinant for PAH exposure. On physical examination, pathological findings were rare, but about two thirds of exposed individuals complained about cough, and one quarter about chest pain. In conclusion, we observed significantly higher urinary PAH metabolite concentrations in individuals who were exposed to e-waste recycling compared to controls who were not exposed to e-waste recycling activities. The impact of e-waste recycling on exposure to environmental toxins and health of individuals living in the surroundings of e-waste recycling sites warrant further investigation.