Greenspace use during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal population mobility study in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus pandemic greatly disrupted the lives of people. Restrictions introduced worldwide to limit the spread of infection included stay-at-home orders, closure of venues, restrictions to travel and limits to social contacts. During this time, parks and outdoor greenspaces gained prominent attention as alternative location for respite. Population mobility data offers a unique opportunity to understand the impact of the pandemic on outdoor behaviour. We examine the role of the restrictions on park use throughout the full span of the pandemic while controlling for weather and region.

METHODS

This study provides a longitudinal population analysis of park visitation using Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports data in the UK. Daily park visitation was plotted and ANOVA analyses tested season and year effects in visitation. Then, regressions examined park visitation beyond weather (temperature and rain), according to COVID-19 restrictions, while controlling for region specificities through unit fixed effect models.

RESULTS

Time series and ANOVA analyses documented the significant decrease in park visitation in the spring of 2020, the seasonal pattern in visitation, and an overall sustained and elevated use over nearly three years. Regressions confirmed park visitation increased significantly when temperature was greater and when it rained less. More visitation was also seen when there were fewer COVID-19 cases and when the stringency level of restrictions was lower. Of special interest, a significant interaction effect was found between temperature and stringency, with stringency significantly supressing the effect of higher temperature on visitation.

CONCLUSIONS

COVID-19 restrictions negatively impacted park visitation on warm days. Given the general health, social, and wellbeing benefits of greenspace use, one should consider the collateral negative impact of restrictions on park visitation. When social distancing of contacts is required, the few remaining locations where it can safely occur should instead be promoted.

Historical redlining and park use during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from big mobility data

BACKGROUND

Despite the health benefits of urban green space, disparities in its access and use have long existed. Emerging evidence suggests an adverse impact of redlining, a discriminatory practice decades ago, on multiple health outcomes. However, whether and to what degree redlining contributes to these disparities remains unknown particularly during a pandemic. With newly available mobility data tracking the locations of large numbers of mobile devices, this study links historical redlining with changes in green space use during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines how changes in park visits during the lockdown period (3/23/2020-8/2/2020) are associated with redlining across census tracts in three large U.S. cities.

METHODS

HOLC neighborhood redlining grade data were merged with SafeGraph mobility data at census tract level for New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Ordinary Least Square regressions were conducted to assess the association between dominant redlining grade and relative change in park visits in census tracts by comparing the lockdown period to the reference period. Spatial error and lag models were also used to account for potential spatial autocorrelation.

RESULTS

Park visits during the lockdown period in 2020 decreased by at least one-third in the three cities. The influence of redlining varied across neighborhoods and cities. In New York City, neighborhoods with more redlined areas experienced the largest drop, sharper decreases concentrated in neighborhoods previously graded as "best" or "still desirable" in Philadelphia, but the effect was barely present in Chicago. In addition, changes in park visits are positively correlated between neighborhoods in New York City and Chicago, but it's not observed in Philadelphia.

IMPACT STATEMENT

Using emerging big mobility data, our study revealed large drops in park visits, a better measure than commonly-used access measures in capturing green space exposure, during the lockdown period. We found that historical redlining has a lasting impact on current green space use. More decreases in park visits were observed in the redlined areas in New York City, but patterns vary by neighborhood and city due to local-specific neighborhood dynamics. And changes in park visits were spatially, positively correlated across places.

Associations between COVID-19 transmission rates, park use, and landscape structure

The COVID-19 pandemic has had severe impacts on global public health. In England, social distancing measures and a nationwide lockdown were introduced to reduce the spread of the virus. Green space accessibility may have been particularly important during this lockdown, as it could have provided benefits for physical and mental wellbeing. However, the associations between public green space use and the rate of COVID-19 transmission are yet to be quantified, and as the size and accessibility of green spaces vary within England's local authorities, the risks and benefits to the public of using green space may be context-dependent. To evaluate how green space affected COVID-19 transmission across 299 local authorities (small regions) in England, we calculated a daily case rate metric, based upon a seven-day moving average, for each day within the period June 1st - November 30th 2020 and assessed how baseline health and mobility variables influenced these rates. Next, looking at the residual case rates, we investigated how landscape structure (e.g. area and patchiness of green space) and park use influenced transmission. We first show that reducing mobility is associated with a decline in case rates, especially in areas with high population clustering. After accounting for known mechanisms behind transmission rates, we found that park use (showing a preference for park mobility) was associated with decreased residual case rates, especially when green space was low and contiguous (not patchy). Our results support that a reduction in overall mobility may be a good strategy for reducing case rates, endorsing the success of lockdown measures. However, if mobility is necessary, outdoor park use may be safer than other forms of mobility and associated activities (e.g. shopping or office-based working).

Associations between COVID-19 transmission rates, park use, and landscape structure

The COVID-19 pandemic has had severe impacts on global public health. In England, social distancing measures and a nationwide lockdown were introduced to reduce the spread of the virus. Green space accessibility may have been particularly important during this lockdown, as it could have provided benefits for physical and mental wellbeing. However, the associations between public green space use and the rate of COVID-19 transmission are yet to be quantified, and as the size and accessibility of green spaces vary within England's local authorities, the risks and benefits to the public of using green space may be context-dependent. To evaluate how green space affected COVID-19 transmission across 299 local authorities (small regions) in England, we calculated a daily case rate metric, based upon a seven-day moving average, for each day within the period June 1st - November 30th 2020 and assessed how baseline health and mobility variables influenced these rates. Next, looking at the residual case rates, we investigated how landscape structure (e.g. area and patchiness of green space) and park use influenced transmission. We first show that reducing mobility is associated with a decline in case rates, especially in areas with high population clustering. After accounting for known mechanisms behind transmission rates, we found that park use (showing a preference for park mobility) was associated with decreased residual case rates, especially when green space was low and contiguous (not patchy). Our results support that a reduction in overall mobility may be a good strategy for reducing case rates, endorsing the success of lockdown measures. However, if mobility is necessary, outdoor park use may be safer than other forms of mobility and associated activities (e.g. shopping or office-based working).

Associations of park access, park use and physical activity in parks with wellbeing in an Asian urban environment: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Relationships between park access, park use, and wellbeing remain poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to investigate: (1) perceived and objective park access in relation to park use and physical activity in parks; and; (2) perceived and objective park access, park use and physical activity in parks and their associations with wellbeing.

METHODS

An interviewer-assisted survey collected data on perceived time to walk to parks, park use time, park physical activity time and wellbeing (using a scale containing nine domains) amongst adult participants of the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort. Geospatial maps of parks and the "walkable" street networks were created for the city-state of Singapore to objectively determine distances to accessible points on park boundaries. Multiple linear regression models estimated the importance of park access to park use and associations of park access and park use with wellbeing, adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Participants' (n = 3435) average age was 48.8 years (SD, 12.8), 44.8% were male and 72.6% were of Chinese ethnicity. Better perceived but not true park access was significantly associated with greater park use. Park access (perceived or true) was not associated with physical activity time in parks. Greater participant park time and physical activity time in parks were associated with higher wellbeing scores (p < 0.001). The differences in wellbeing scores between the reference groups, who spent negligible time in parks, and the highest quartiles of time in parks (10.8 h/month) and physical activity in parks (8.3 h/month) were 3.2 (95% CI 2.1-4.4) and 4.2 (95% CI 4.1-6.3) points out of 100 respectively. These associations were similar for most domains of wellbeing, with clear dose-response relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

While perceived park access was strongly associated with park use and well-being, true park access was not, and neither park access measure was associated with park physical activity. Future studies could investigate the influence of park attributes on park use, physical activity in parks and wellbeing. The consistent associations of park use and particularly physical activity in parks with wellbeing suggest that promoting park use, and especially physical activity in parks, is a promising strategy for improving wellbeing in urban settings.

ParkIndex: Validation and application of a pragmatic measure of park access and use

Composite metrics integrating park availability, features, and quality for a given address or neighborhood are lacking. The purposes of this study were to describe the validation, application, and demonstration of ParkIndex in four diverse communities. This study occurred in Fall 2018 in 128 census block groups within Seattle(WA), Brooklyn(NY), Raleigh(NC), and Greenville County(SC). All parks within a half-mile buffer were audited to calculate a composite park quality score, and select households provided data about use of proximal parks via an online, map-based survey. For each household, the number of parks, total park acreage, and average park quality score within one half-mile were calculated using GIS. Logistic regression was used to identify a parsimonious model predicting park use. ParkIndex values (representing the probability of park use) were mapped for all study areas and after scenarios involving the addition and renovation/improvement of parks. Out of 360 participants, 23.3% reported visiting a park within the past 30 days. The number of parks (OR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.15-1.62), total park acreage (OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.07-1.19), and average park quality score (OR = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.01-1.06) within one half-mile were all associated with park use. Composite ParkIndex values across the study areas ranged from 0 to 100. Hypothetical additions of or renovations to study area parks resulted in ParkIndex increases of 22.7% and 19.2%, respectively. ParkIndex has substantial value for park and urban planners, citizens, and researchers as a common metric to facilitate awareness, decision-making, and intervention planning related to park access, environmental justice, and community health.

Park use, perceived park proximity, and neighborhood characteristics: Evidence from 11 cities in Latin America

This study examines how park use may be associated with perceived park proximity, neighborhood-built environment and perceived social disorder in Latin American cities. The study uses self-reported data from the 2016 CAF survey, including 7,970 urban residents from 11 cities across Latin America. Results show positive graded associations between perceived park proximity and use, holding all others constant. Additional factors that were found to be associated with park use are neighborhood formality and related built-environment characteristics, including paved streets and sidewalks. Park use was mostly unrelated to perceived social disorder, with the exception of indigence, with which it is was positively associated. Stronger associations between park proximity and use were observed among those who reported higher prevalence of indigence or begging in their household block. These findings stress the importance of perceived park proximity in enhancing their use in urban Latin America, and challenge the role of social disorder and crime as a barrier for park use.

Positive HABITATS for physical activity: Examining use of parks and its contribution to physical activity levels in mid-to older-aged adults

Studies of parks and physical activity rarely identify the actual spaces participants use. Using data from the HABITAT project, a longitudinal cohort of mid-to older-aged (40-70 years) respondents (n = 11,036) living in Brisbane Australia, this study examined (1) the demographic characteristics of users and non-users of parks; (2) the park used and the characteristics and features of the most popular reported spaces; and (3) the level of physical activity undertaken in the reported parks and whether users had higher total physical activity levels than non-users. Park use was significantly higher (p < 0.01) among dog walkers, couples (over 40) living with children, and those living in least disadvantaged areas. Regular park use was significantly higher among users of larger-sized neighbourhood and district-catchment parks. Park users were 35% more likely to meet the physical activity guidelines (OR = 1.35, 95%CI 1.21-1.50, p < 0.001) compared with those who indicated they did nto regularly use a park. The size of the park used was positively associated with participation in physical activity. Users of larger-sized parks spent more time doing vigorous activity and engaged in more activity sessions than non-users. Future data obtained from large populations, including spatial examination of the actual parks used and their characteristics, are essential to facilitate planning for park provision, optimising the use of these spaces for recreation and physical activity by mid-to older-aged adults, and creating healthy communities.

Use of SOPARC to assess physical activity in parks: do race/ethnicity, contextual conditions, and settings of the target area, affect reliability?

Background

Since its introduction in 2006, SOPARC (Systematic Observation of Play and Recreation in Communities) has become a fundamental tool to quantify park visitor behaviors and characteristics. We tested SOPARC reliability when assessing race/ethnicity, physical activity, contextual conditions at the time of observation, and settings of target areas to understand its utility when trying to account for individual characteristics of users.

Methods

We used 4725 SOPARC observations completed simultaneously by two independent observers to evaluate intraclass correlation and agreement rate between the two observers when trying to assess sex, age group, race/ethnicity, and level of physical activity of urban park users in different park settings. Observations were in 20 New York City parks during Spring and Summer 2017 within the PARC³ project.

Results

Observers counted 25,765 park users with high interobserver reliability (ICC = .94; %Agreement.75). Reliability scores were negatively affected by the population being observed, the intensity of physical activity, and the contextual conditions and settings of the target area at the time of observation. Specific challenges emerged when assessing the combination of physical activity and race/ethnicity.

Conclusions

SOPARC training should aim to improve reliability when assessing concurrent measures such as physical activity, race/ethnicity, age, and sex. Similarly, observing crowded park areas with many active users areas may require more observation practice hours.

How Does Park Use and Physical Activity Differ between Childhood and Adolescence? A Focus on Gender and Race-Ethnicity

Physical activity typically declines between childhood and adolescence. Despite urban parks being a great venue for physical activity, children change both the frequency of park use and their park use habits as they age into adolescence. However, little is known about how these differences vary by gender and how distinct race/ethnicity groups differentially change their park habits. This study analyzed the differences in park use and per capita energy expenditure between children and teenagers of different gender and race/ethnicity backgrounds. Using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC), systematic observations were conducted in 20 New York City parks in 2017, located in low-income areas with high presence of Latino or Asian residents. A total of 9963 scans in 167 distinct target areas counted 16,602 children (5-10 years old) and 11,269 teenagers (11 or older). Using adjusted marginal means, we estimated the number of park users of each age range, gender, and race/ethnicity expected to be found in each park activity setting. Teenagers of both genders and most race/ethnicity groups were less likely to be in a park and had lower per capita energy expenditure, compared with children. The difference in park attendance was greater than the difference in per capita energy expenditure. Dissimilarities were clearly gendered and race/ethnicity dependent. Asian and Latino females showed the greatest divergence between childhood and adolescence. African American boys were the only group to show a positive age contrast in park attendance and per capita energy expenditure.

Short-term associations between objective crime, park-use, and park-based physical activity in low-income neighborhoods

Crime and safety perceptions are commonly cited barriers to park use and physical activity (PA). Given the importance of parks as settings for outdoor recreation and physical activity, the presence of crime may have a detrimental effect on public health. This study uses objective police crime reports and observational park use data to assess type of crime and the time when the crime was committed effects on park user behaviors in 20 parks located in low-income neighborhoods in New York City. The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) was used to assess the number of park users and their physical activity during 78 park visits in Spring 2017. The association between crime rates and park use was assessed using two types of crimes (violent and property crimes). The timing of the crime was assessed using the crimes committed within periods of one week, one month, and three months prior to the visit to the park. By including objective measures of crime together with the exact time on which they were committed, we were able to analyze the short and long term effects of crime on park behavior. Overall, there was a consistent negative association between crime and park use. This relationship was stronger at the 1 month and 3 months' period and weaker at the 1-week period. Violent crimes were strongly associated with lower park use, and crimes proved to be associated with child park use to a greater degree. Girls were more affected by crime than boys.

How Do Racial/Ethnic Groups Differ in Their Use of Neighborhood Parks? Findings from the National Study of Neighborhood Parks

The current study examined racial/ethnic differences in use of parks and park facilities and features and self-reported park use and perceptions. We conducted observations in a nationally representative sample of 193 neighborhood parks in 27 US cities over a 1-week period between April and August of 2016 using the System of Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC). To determine the propensity of different racial/ethnic groups to use parks relative to expectation based on their representation in the surrounding neighborhood, we calculated the percentages of park users of each race/ethnicity and compared these to the percentages of racial/ethnic groups residing in the neighborhood within a 1-mile radius of the park based on 2010 U.S. Census data. In the same parks, we administered an intercept survey to assess park users' self-reported use and perceptions of the park (N = 1872). We examined racial/ethnic differences in self-reported use and perceptions of parks using GEE models that adjusted for several individual- and park-level covariates. Hispanics comprised a disproportionate percentage of observed park users. Racial/ethnic groups generally did not differ in their self-reported park use and perceptions, except for the social context of park visits. In adjusted models, Hispanics had significantly higher odds of visiting with a child family member (OR = 1.44) and lower odds of visiting alone than non-Hispanic whites (OR = .55). Findings highlight Hispanics' greater propensity to use parks and indicate that parks may serve a communal purpose for Hispanics that they do not serve for other racial/ethnic groups.

Racial-Ethnic Variation in Park Use and Physical Activity in the City of Los Angeles

Racial-ethnic disparities in physical activity present important challenges to population health. Public parks provide access to free or low-cost physical activity opportunities, but it is unclear to what extent parks are utilized by various race-ethnic groups in diverse urban settings. Here, we examine racial ethnic differences in park use and physical activity among adult residents (n = 7506) living within 1 mi of 50 parks in the city of Los Angeles. In multivariate analyses, we find few differences among race-ethnic groups in terms of their frequency of having visited the park in the past 7 days; however, we find numerous differences in how the groups used the park and in their levels of physical activity: Blacks and English-speaking Latinos were less likely than whites to report being physically active, exercising in the park, and exercising outside the park; Spanish-speaking Latinos were equally likely as whites to report exercising in park but less likely to report exercising outside the park and more likely to report using the parks for social interactions; Asians/Pacific Islanders (PI)/others were more likely than whites to report visiting the park in the past 7 days and using the parks for social interactions. Urban parks appear to be an important resource for physical activity and socialization, in particular among Spanish-speaking Latino and Asians/PI groups. Additional efforts may be needed for other racial-ethnic minorities to experience the same benefits.