Effects of processing methods on the aroma of Poria cocos and its changing regulations during processing

Poria cocos is a natural source of fungal food raw materials. Processing method is a key effecting the aroma of Poria cocos. In this study, the aroma compounds of Poria cocos products processed using sweating-low-temperature drying (SW-LD), sweating-high-temperature drying (SW-HD), steaming-low-temperature drying (ST-LD), and steaming-high-temperature drying (ST-HD) were compared by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the changes in aroma compounds of Poria cocos products during processing were analyzed. GC-MS analysis showed SW-HD product had highest content of aroma compounds. Aroma activity value (OAV) analysis indicated that 9 aroma compounds contributed to the overall aroma of Poria cocos. Among 9 compounds of Poria cocos, 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, nonanal, octanal, trans-2-octenal, and heptanal contributed to mushroom, refreshing, sweet and fatty characters. In addition, the aroma compound changes during the processing were analyzed, revealing that steaming and sweating were the key processes affecting the aroma of Poria cocos products. The findings of this study provide valuable theoretical guidance for the development of Poria cocos processing technology.

The therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese medicine on insulin resistance in obese mice by modulating intestinal functions

Introduction

Obesity, mainly caused by excessive accumulation of visceral fat, excessive fat metabolism will cause hormone secretion imbalance and inflammation and other diseases. is extremely detrimental to human health. Although many treatments are available for obesity, most treatments fail to exert a radical effect or are associated with several side effects. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for regulating the intestinal flora, lipid content and inflammation is considered effective. Based on previous studies, Artemisia capillaris, Astragalus propinquus, Phellodendron amurense, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Poria cocos, and Anemarrhena asphodeloides were selected to prepare an innovative herbal formula.

Methods

TCM was characterized by UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS. The anti-inflammatory and lipid-lowering effects of the TCM formula prepared were evaluated in a high-fat diet-fed obese mouse model. The effects of the TCM formula on the intestinal flora were also investigated.

Results

Weights and insulin resistance, as well as inflammation, decreased in the mice after treatment. At the same time, lipid metabolism increased after the mice were gavaged with the TCM formula for 2 weeks. The intestinal motility of the drug administration group was enhanced, with partial restoration of the intestinal flora.

Conclusion

In summary, our innovative Chinese herbal formula significantly reduced weight, reduced intestinal inflammation, improved intestinal motility, and improved lipid metabolism in obese mice. Furthermore, the innovative formula effectively prevented relevant obesity-induced metastatic diseases in the mice.

Poria cocos Attenuated DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis via NF-κB Signaling Pathway and Regulating Gut Microbiota

Ulcerative colitis (UC), as a chronic inflammatory disease, presents a global public health threat. However, the mechanism of Poria cocos (PC) in treating UC remains unclear. Here, LC-MS/MS was carried out to identify the components of PC. The protective effect of PC against UC was evaluated by disease activity index (DAI), colon length and histological analysis in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced UC mice. ELISA, qPCR, and Western blot tests were conducted to assess the inflammatory state. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry techniques were employed to evaluate the expression of tight junction proteins. The sequencing of 16S rRNA was utilized for the analysis of gut microbiota regulation. The results showed that a total of fifty-two nutrients and active components were identified in PC. After treatment, PC significantly alleviated UC-associated symptoms including body weight loss, shortened colon, an increase in DAI score, histopathologic lesions. PC also reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, as evidenced by the suppressed NF-κB pathway, restored the tight junction proteins ZO-1 and Claudin-1 in the colon, and promoted the diversity and abundance of beneficial gut microbiota. Collectively, these findings suggest that PC ameliorates colitis symptoms through the reduction in NF-κB signaling activation to mitigate inflammatory damage, thus repairing the intestinal barrier, and regulating the gut microbiota.

Effect of Poria cocos Terpenes: Verifying Modes of Action Using Molecular Docking, Drug-Induced Transcriptomes, and Diffusion Network Analyses

We characterized the therapeutic biological modes of action of several terpenes in Poria cocos F.A Wolf (PC) and proposed a broad therapeutic mode of action for PC. Molecular docking and drug-induced transcriptome analysis were performed to confirm the pharmacological mechanism of PC terpene, and a new analysis method, namely diffusion network analysis, was proposed to verify the mechanism of action against Alzheimer's disease. We confirmed that the compound that exists only in PC has a unique mechanism through statistical-based docking analysis. Also, docking and transcriptomic analysis results could reflect results in clinical practice when used complementarily. The detailed pharmacological mechanism of PC was confirmed by constructing and analyzing the Alzheimer's disease diffusion network, and the antioxidant activity based on microglial cells was verified. In this study, we used two bioinformatics approaches to reveal PC's broad mode of action while also using diffusion networks to identify its detailed pharmacological mechanisms of action. The results of this study provide evidence that future pharmacological mechanism analysis should simultaneously consider complementary docking and transcriptomics and suggest diffusion network analysis, a new method to derive pharmacological mechanisms based on natural complex compounds.

Chemical structures, extraction and analysis technologies, and bioactivities of edible fungal polysaccharides from Poria cocos: An updated review

Poria cocos is a popular medicinal food. Polysaccharides are the key component of Poria cocos, forming 70-90 % of the dry sclerotia mass. Recent studies indicate that Poria cocos polysaccharides (PCP-Cs) have multiple beneficial functions and applications. A literature search was conducted using the Web of Science Core Collection and PubMed databases. For this review, we provided an updated research progress in chemical structures, various extraction and analysis technologies, bioactivities of PCP-Cs, and insights into the directions for future research. The main polysaccharides identified in Poria cocos are water-soluble polysaccharides and acidic polysaccharides. Hot water, alkali, supercritical fluid, ultrasonic, enzyme, and deep eutectic solvent-based methods are the most common methods for PCP-Cs extraction. Technologies such as near-infrared spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, and ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, are commonly used to evaluate the qualities of PCP-Cs. In addition, PCP-Cs have antioxidant, immunomodulatory, neuroregulatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and gut microbiota regulatory properties. Future research is needed to focus on scaling up extraction, enhancing quality control, elucidating mechanisms of bioactivities, and the utilisation of PCP-Cs in food industries. Overall, Poria cocos is a good source of edible fungi polysaccharides, which can be developed into functional foods with potential health benefits.

Structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity of a water-soluble polysaccharide from Poria cocos

In order to investigate the structural characteristics and immunomodulatory effects of Poria cocos polysaccharides, a water-soluble homogeneous polysaccharide (PCP-2) was isolated by water extraction and alcohol precipitation and further purified by Cellulose DEAE-52 and Sephacryl S-100HR column chromatography. PCP-2 is a heteropolysaccharide composed of glucose, galactose, mannose, and fucose in a molar ratio of 42.0: 35.0: 13.9: 9.1. It exhibits a narrow molecular weight distribution at 2.35 kDa with a branching degree of 37.1 %. The main chain types of PCP-2 include 1,3-β-D-Glc and 1,6-β-D-Glc as the backbone glucans and 1,6-α-D-Gal as the backbone heterogalactan. In vitro experiments demonstrate that PCP-2 directly stimulate RAW264.7 cell proliferation and secretion of inflammatory factors such as NO and TNF-α. In cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced mice, it promotes the development of thymus and spleen immune organs, elevates the blood levels of IgG, IgA, IgM and CD3+CD4+ T cells, increases the intestinal villus height/ crypt depth ratio and improves gut barrier dysfunctions. These findings suggest that PCP-2 is a natural fungal polysaccharide with broad spectrum of immunoenhancing effects, which can significantly ameliorate the immunocompromised state.

Integrated analysis and separation of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors from triterpenes of Poria cocos using bioaffinity ultrafiltration UPLC-Q-Exactive, molecular docking and target-based multiple complex networks

Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf (P. cocos) has been widely used as medical plant in East Asia with remarkable anti-Alzheimer's disease (anti-AD) activity. However, the underlying mechanisms are still confused. In this study, based on the β-Amyloid deposition hypothesis of AD, an integrated analysis was conducted to screen and separation 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) inhibitors from triterpenoids of P. cocos and investigate the anti-AD mechanisms, containing bioaffinity ultrafiltration UPLC-Q-Exactive, molecular docking, and multiple complex networks. Five triterpenoids were identified as potential 5-LOX inhibitors, including Tumulosic acid, Polyporenic acid C, 3-Epi-dehydrotumulosic acid, Pachymic acid and Dehydrotrametenolic acid. Five potential 5-LOX inhibitors were screened by ultrafiltration affinity assay in P. cocos. The molecular docking simulation results are consistent with the ultrafiltration experimental results, which further verifies the accuracy of the experiment. The commercial 5-LOX inhibitor that Zileuton was used as a positive control to evaluate the inhibitory effect of active ingredients on 5-LOX. Subsequently, the established separation method allowed the five active ingredients (Pachymic acid, 3-Epi-dehydrotumulosic acid, Dehydrotrametenolic acid, Tumulosic acid and Polyporenic acid C) with high purity to be isolated. Targeting network pharmacology analysis showed that five active ingredients correspond to a total of 286 targets. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis found that target cells were mainly enriched in Pathways in cancer, Lipid and atherosclerosis. Our results indicate that P. cocos extract has the potential to be used in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This will help elucidate the mechanisms of action of various medicinal plants at the molecular level and provide more opportunities for the discovery and development of new potential treatments from health food resources.

Study of Herbs Cortex Moutan, Poria cocos, and Alisma orientale and Periodontitis

INTRODUCTION

The Chinese traditional herbs Cortex Moutan, Poria cocos, and Alisma orientale are considered to have potential to ameliorate periodontitis, although the possible underlying mechanisms remain mostly unknown. Due to the complex formulation of Chinese herbs, it is important to understand the mechanisms of pharmacologic effects of traditional herbs for better application in modern medical treatment.

METHODS

Network pharmacology was applied to explore the mechanism of Cortex Moutan, Poria cocos, and Alisma orientale. First we analysed their chemical ingredients using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database and identified 20 active ingredients. Then we analysed the target genes of these 20 active ingredients as well as genes associated with periodontitis and found 74 co-target genes. We further analysed the protein-protein interaction network of these 74 co-target genes using the STRING database and enriched the pathways using Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis.

RESULTS

The top 10 core targets elicited were vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), interlukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor (TNF), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (AKT1), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2), kinase insert domain receptor (KDR), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), and serpin family E member 1 (SERPINE1). Using these a network of "herbs-ingredients-targetgenes-KEGG pathways." was constructed.

CONCLUSIONS

The target and bioprocess network suggested that the pharmacologic effects of Cortex Moutan, Poria cocos, and Alisma orientale may be mainly dependent on their anti-inflammatory potential. Further work is required to eucidate their detailed mechanisms of activity.

Identification of squalene epoxidase in triterpenes biosynthesis in Poria cocos by molecular docking and CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing

BACKGROUND

Squalene epoxidase is one of the rate-limiting enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway of membrane sterols and triterpenoids. The enzyme catalyzes the formation of oxidized squalene, which is a common precursor of sterols and triterpenoids.

RESULT

In this study, the squalene epoxidase gene (PcSE) was evaluated in Poria cocos. Molecular docking between PcSE and squalene was performed and the active amino acids were identified. The sgRNA were designed based on the active site residues. The effect on triterpene synthesis in P. cocos was consistent with the results from ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadruplex time-of-flight-double mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) analysis. The results showed that deletion of PcSE inhibited triterpene synthesis. In vivo verification of PcSE function was performed using a PEG-mediated protoplast transformation approach.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this study provide a foundation for further studies on heterologous biosynthesis of P. cocos secondary metabolites.

The extraction, structure characterization and hydrogel construction of a water-insoluble β-glucan from Poria cocos

Most reported polysaccharides from Poria cocos (PCPs) in traditional Chinese medicine decoctions were water-soluble heteropolysaccharides while the water-insoluble PCPs were scarcely researched due to the poor water-solubility. In this study, a water-insoluble polysaccharide with high yield of 59%, and high purity with a glucan content of 98.8%, was isolated by diluted sodium hydroxide at low temperature and coded as PCPA. The chemical structure of PCPA was identified as a liner β-glucan with 1, 3-linked glycosidic bond by the fourier infrared spectrum (FT-IR), ion chromatography (ICP), gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements. Importantly, PCPA was successfully used to construct hydrogels (PCPA-Gs) with good thermal stability, water retention ability and swelling property through simple physical cross-linking, due to the abundance of hydroxyl groups on glucan chains. Moreover, the rheology analysis of PCPA-Gs showed a rapid transition between gel and sol as well as the shear-thinning property. The hydrogel developed in this study holds promise for applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic fields.

Poria cocos Lanostane Triterpenoids Extract Promotes Collagen and Hyaluronic Acid Production in D-Galactose-Induced Aging Rats

The global aging population is expanding at an increasingly rapid pace, with approximately one-fourth of the world's population expected to be composed of elderly individuals by 2050. Aging skin is one of the major characteristics expressed in the elderly. The study comprehensively utilizes both cell and animal experiments to confirm the skin anti-aging effects of Poria cocos (P. cocos), which is one of the most important traditional Chinese medicines classified as tonic Chinese medicine, commonly used to treat physical weakness and aging-associated diseases. We demonstrate in this study that P. cocos lanostane triterpenoids extract (Lipucan®) ameliorates aging skin and promotes collagen accumulation and hyaluronic acid production in galactose-induced aging rats. Purified lanostane triterpenoids were initially identified as active components in P. cocos, which significantly increased collagen and hyaluronic acid levels in cultured human skin cells.

Efficacy of Poria Cocos Extract on Sleep Quality Enhancement: A Clinical Perspective with Implications for Functional Foods

BACKGROUND

Since the outbreak of the pandemic started, an increase in the number of sleep disorders, including insomnia and poor sleep quality, has been seen. The pattern will probably continue.

METHODS

This study focuses on the preparation and clinical testing of Poria cocos extract in treating suboptimal sleep quality. The optimal extraction method utilized a 75% ethanol concentration, and the clinical investigation involved subjects with defined poor sleep taking 800 mg of the extract nightly, assessed using the Sleep Questionnaire and polysomnography. The non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for statistical analysis due to the non-normal distribution of the collected data.

RESULTS

The study involved 21 insomnia sufferers with a mean age of 55 who were administered Poria cocos extracts. The findings of the study indicate a statistically significant rise in the overall duration of sleep (from 327.395 ± 43.2 min to 356.516 ± 63.21 min, p = 0.014). Additionally, there was a notable decrease in the level of arousal during sleep (from 76.316 ± 44.78 min to 47.989 ± 42.38 min, p = 0.009), and an improvement in the sleep severity index of the sleep questionnaire test.

CONCLUSIONS

Poria cocos as a natural substance could improve quality of sleep, based on the findings. The study investigates Pachymic acid, a substance found in Poria cocos, as a potential indicator for the development of sleeping aids.

Water-Insoluble Polysaccharide Extracted from Poria cocos Alleviates Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea Based on Regulating the Gut Microbiota in Mice

Antibiotics are very effective in treating a variety of bacterial infections, while clinical overuse of antibiotics can lead to diseases such as antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Numerous studies have shown that natural polysaccharides can be used as prebiotics to alleviate antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD). Poria cocos is a medicinal and edible mushroom widely used for thousands of years in China, and our former study demonstrated that water-insoluble polysaccharide (PCY) has the potential prebiotic function. Therefore, we simulated the digestion and fermentation of PCY using feces from volunteers, and then administered it to C57BL/6 mice with AAD to study its effects on the gut microbiota and metabolites. The results indicated that PCY effectively alleviated the symptoms of AAD in mice, restored the intestinal barrier function, improved the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), decreased the level of inflammatory cytokines, and changed the structure of gut microbiota by increasing the relative abundance of norank_f__Muribaculaceae and unclassified_f__Lachnospiraceae, and decreasing that of Escherichia-Shigella, Staphylococcus and Acinetobacter. This study further demonstrated that PCY is an effective functional prebiotic for improving AAD disease, and provided a new avenue and insight for developing PCY as a functional food or prebiotic for alleviating gastrointestinal diseases.

[Origin identification of Poria cocos based on hyperspectral imaging technology]

To realize the non-destructive and rapid origin discrimination of Poria cocos in batches, this study established the P. cocos origin recognition model based on hyperspectral imaging combined with machine learning. P. cocos samples from Anhui, Fujian, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Henan and Yunnan were used as the research objects. Hyperspectral data were collected in the visible and near infrared band(V-band, 410-990 nm) and shortwave infrared band(S-band, 950-2 500 nm). The original spectral data were divided into S-band, V-band and full-band. With the original data(RD) of different bands, multiplicative scatter correction(MSC), standard normal variation(SNV), S-G smoothing(SGS), first derivative(FD), second derivative(SD) and other pretreatments were carried out. Then the data were classified according to three different types of producing areas: province, county and batch. The origin identification model was established by partial least squares discriminant analysis(PLS-DA) and linear support vector machine(LinearSVC). Finally, confusion matrix was employed to evaluate the optimal model, with F1 score as the evaluation standard. The results revealed that the origin identification model established by FD combined with LinearSVC had the highest prediction accuracy in full-band range classified by province, V-band range by county and full-band range by batch, which were 99.28%, 98.55% and 97.45%, respectively, and the overall F1 scores of these three models were 99.16%, 98.59% and 97.58%, respectively, indicating excellent performance of these models. Therefore, hyperspectral imaging combined with LinearSVC can realize the non-destructive, accurate and rapid identification of P. cocos from different producing areas in batches, which is conducive to the directional research and production of P. cocos.

Effect of plant polysaccharides (Poria cocos and Astragalus polysaccharides) on immune responses and intestinal microbiota of Dabry's sturgeons

Searching for non-toxic and harmless feed ingredients that can improve growth performance and host immunity has always been the focus of attention in the protected areas for artificially bred Dabry's sturgeons. The present study explored the effect of dietary Poria cocos and Astragalus polysaccharides on the antioxidant status, expression of immune related genes, and composition and putative functions of gut bacterial communities in Dabry's sturgeons for the first time. In this study, Dabry's sturgeons were randomly divided into 3 groups and fed diets of normal, P. cocos polysaccharide-added (200 mg/kg), and Astragalus polysaccharide-added (200 mg/kg) food for 14 days. The results indicated that dietary Astragalus polysaccharide can increase the final body weight of Dabry's sturgeon. Compared with normal breeding individuals, feeding diets containing the P. cocos and Astragalus polysaccharides up-regulated the activity of superoxide dismutase, lysozyme, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase while also decreasing the levels of malondialdehyde. In addition, the Astragalus polysaccharide group had higher gene expression of two inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha and immunoglobulin M, than the control group. Analysis of intestinal microbiota revealed that the dietary Astragalus polysaccharide improved the richness and diversity of major gut microbiota in Dabry's sturgeons, while the structure in the P. cocos polysaccharide group was clearly distinguished from that of the control group. Our results preliminarily indicated that dietary supplementation of P. cocos and Astragalus polysaccharides may contribute to better performance in growth, development, and inflammatory response for Dabry's sturgeons, and they provide basic guidance for plant polysaccharide additives in artificial breeding of sturgeons.

Flat micro heat pipe-based shell and tube storage unit for indirect solar dryer: a pilot study

Poria cocos has been dried in an indirect solar drying system composed of a roughened solar air heater (RSAH), a shell and tube storage unit assisted with flat micro heat pipes fins, and a drying chamber. The main novelty in this study is using FMHPs as fins in shell and tube storage unit with paraffin wax and lack of investigations on Poria cocos solar drying as medicinal material used in Chinese medicine. First and second laws of thermodynamics are used to assess the performance of the system and the results indicated that the RSAH average thermal ([Formula: see text]) and exergy efficiency ([Formula: see text]) were 73.9% and 5.1%, respectively, with averaged incident solar radiation of 671 W/m² under airflow rate of 0.0381 m³/s. Furthermore, the storing system showed 37.6% as averaged overall [Formula: see text] and 17.2% as averaged overall [Formula: see text], as well as, discharging prolonged to 4 h with effective drying temperature. The overall [Formula: see text] of the dryer was 27.6% with specific energy consumption (SEC) of 8.629 kWh/kg moisture. The payback period of the system is 1.7 years.

Evaluation of phytochemicals of Poria cocos against tyrosinase protein: a virtual screening, pharmacoinformatics and molecular dynamics study

Tyrosinase inhibitors are commonly used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries for skin lightening and hypopigmentation. The current inhibitors of tyrosinase induce strong safety concerns which necessitate the discovery of new inhibitors. Natural compounds are a promising solution to discover potential candidate for anti-melanogenic activity as they possess less safety concerns and high therapeutic effect. The current study aimed to screen and identify potential phytochemicals from Poria cocos for tyrosinase inhibition. The phytochemicals were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine System Pharmacology Database and screened for druglikeness score and toxicity class and then subjected to in-silico virtual screening and molecular dynamics. 7,9-(11)-Dehydropachymic acid established hydrogen interaction with the tyrosinase protein and was found to be highly stable as validated with MD simulations. The pharmacokinetic results showed that this compound has adequate toxicity and ADME profile that can be exploited for anti-melanogenic effects. Our study identified 7,9-(11)-dehydropachymic acid as an efficient candidate for tyrosinase inhibition.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03626-8.

A Comparative Study on the Effects of Different Sources of Carboxymethyl Poria Polysaccharides on the Repair of DSS-Induced Colitis in Mice

Carboxymethyl poria polysaccharide plays important anti-tumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory roles. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the healing impacts of two different sources of carboxymethyl poria polysaccharides [Carboxymethylat Poria Polysaccharides I (CMP I) and Carboxymethylat Poria Polysaccharides II (CMP II)] on ulcerative colitis in mice caused by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). All the mice were arbitrarily split into five groups (n = 6): (a) control (CTRL), (b) DSS, (c) SAZ (sulfasalazine), (d) CMP I, and (e) CMP II. The experiment lasted for 21 days, and the body weight and final colon length were monitored. A histological analysis of the mouse colon tissue was carried out using H&E staining to assess the degree of inflammatory infiltration. The levels of inflammatory cytokines [interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-4 (IL-4)] and enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD) and myeloperoxidase (MPO)] in the serum were examined using ELISA. Additionally, 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing was used to analyze the microorganisms in the colon. The results indicated that both CMP I and CMP II alleviated weight loss, colonic shortening, and inflammatory factor infestation in colonic tissues caused by DSS (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the ELISA results revealed that both CMP I and CMP II reduced the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and MPO, and elevated the expression of IL-4 and SOD in the sera of the mice (p < 0.05). Moreover, 16S rRNA sequencing showed that CMP I and CMP II increased the plenitude of microorganisms in the mouse colon relative to that in the DSS group. The results also indicated that the therapeutic effect of CMP I on DSS-induced colitis in the mice was superior to that of CMP II. This study demonstrated that carboxymethyl poria polysaccharide from Poria cocos had therapeutic effects on DSS-induced colitis in mice, with CMP I being more effective than CMP II.

Geographical region traceability of Poria cocos and correlation between environmental factors and biomarkers based on a metabolomic approach

The edible values of P. cocos from different origins vary significantly, therefore, it is important to investigate the traceability of geographical regions and identify the geographical biomarkers of P. cocos. The metabolites of P. cocos of the different geographical origins were assessed using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry, principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The OPLS-DA could clearly discriminate the metabolites of P. cocos from the three cultivation regions (YN, Yunnan; AH, Anhui; JZ, Hunan). Finally, three carbohydrates, four amino acids, and four triterpenoids were selected as biomarkers for P. cocos origin tracing. Correlation matrix analysis revealed that the contents of biomarkers were closely related to geographical origin. Altitude, temperature, and soil fertility were the main factors responsible for the differences in biomarker profiles in P. cocos. The metabolomics approach provides an effective strategy for tracing and identifying the biomarkers of P. cocos from different geographical origins.

The differences between the water- and alkaline-soluble Poria cocos polysaccharide: A review

Poria cocos (PC) refers to a fungal species which is also known as "Fuling" in China. For >2000 years, PC has demonstrated its therapeutic values as a kind of traditional medicine. It is believed that the various biological benefits created by PCs highly rely on the Poria cocos polysaccharide (PCP). This review recapitulates the recent progress made in PCP in four aspects: i) the methods of extraction, separation, and purification, ii) structural characterization and identification, iii) the related bioactivities and mechanism of action, and iv) structure-activity relationships. Through discussion about the objective as mentioned above, it can be found out that PCP is categorized into water-soluble polysaccharide (WPCP) and alkaline-soluble polysaccharide (APCP), which are totally different in structure and bioactivity. The structures of WPCP are multiplicity whose backbone can be (1,6)-α-galactan and (1,3)-β-mannoglucan etc. to perform various bioactivities including anti-tumor effect, anti-depressant effect, anti-Alzheimer effect, anti-atherosclerosis effect, hepatoprotection etc. The structures of APCP are much more single with backbone of (1,3)-β-D-glucan and the studies of activity concentrate on anti-tumor effect, anti-inflammatory effect and immunomodulation. Besides, the future opportunities of WPCP are primary structure identification. For APCP, scholars can focus on the conformation of polysaccharide and its relationship with activity.

The Effect of Poria cocos Polysaccharide PCP-1C on M1 Macrophage Polarization via the Notch Signaling Pathway

The homogeneous galactoglucan PCP-1C extracted from Poria cocos sclerotium has multiple biological activities. The present study demonstrated the effect of PCP-1C on the polarization of RAW 264.7 macrophages and the underlying molecular mechanism. Scanning electron microscopy showed that PCP-1C is a detrital-shaped polysaccharide with fish-scale patterns on the surface, with a high sugar content. The ELISA assay, qRT-PCR assay, and flow cytometry assay showed that the presence of PCP-1C could induce higher expression of M1 markers, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-12 (IL-12), when compared with the control and the LPS group, and it caused a decrease in the level of interleukin-10 (IL-10), which is the marker for M2 macrophages. At the same time, PCP-1C induces an increase in the CD86 (an M1 marker)/CD206 (an M2 marker) ratio. The results of the Western blot assay showed that PCP-1C induced activation of the Notch signaling pathway in macrophages. Notch1, ligand Jagged1, and Hes1 were all up-regulated with the incubation of PCP-1C. These results indicate that the homogeneous Poria cocos polysaccharide PCP-1C improves M1 macrophage polarization through the Notch signaling pathway.

Network Pharmacological Analysis of a New Herbal Combination Targeting Hyperlipidemia and Efficacy Validation In Vitro

The network pharmacology (NP) approach is a valuable novel methodology for understanding the complex pharmacological mechanisms of medicinal herbs. In addition, various in silico analysis techniques combined with the NP can improve the understanding of various issues used in natural product research. This study assessed the therapeutic effects of Arum ternata (AT), Poria cocos (PC), and Zingiber officinale (ZO) on hyperlipidemia after network pharmacologic analysis. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of forty-one key targets was analyzed to discover core functional clusters of the herbal compounds. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway and gene ontology (GO) term enrichment analysis identified significant categories of hypolipidemic mechanisms. The STITCH database indicated a high connection with several statin drugs, deduced by the similarity in targets. AT, PC, and ZO regulated the genes related to the energy metabolism and lipogenesis in HepG2 cells loaded with free fatty acids (FFAs). Furthermore, the mixture of three herbs had a combinational effect. The herbal combination exerted superior efficacy compared to a single herb, particularly in regulating acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1). In conclusion, the network pharmacologic approach was used to assess potential targets of the herbal combination for treatment. Experimental data from FFA-induced HepG2 cells suggested that the combination of AT, PC, and ZO might attenuate hyperlipidemia and its associated hepatic steatosis.

Facile preparation of a novel nanoemulsion based hyaluronic acid hydrogel loading with Poria cocos triterpenoids extract for wound dressing

Diabetic wounds have been a serious concern for human health owing to their long chronic inflammation and reduced vascularization. Herein, we report novel oil-in-water (o/w) nanoemulsions (NEs) containing Poria cocos triterpenes extract (PTE) to fabricate hyaluronic acid hydrogels (PTE-NEs) for the treatment of diabetic wounds. The size and morphology of NEs are analyzed by transmission electron microscope (TEM) and Zeta potential, respectively. Furthermore, the rheological behavior and morphology of synthesized hydrogels are also determined. It is found that PTE-NEs gel has a homogeneous and porous structure with good elastic properties. In addition, in vitro experiments show that the cell viability of PTE-NEs gel is >85 % without cytotoxicity. In vivo experiments of diabetic rats demonstrate that the PTE-NEs gel can not only significantly accelerate diabetic wound healing, collagen deposition, M2 macrophage polarization, and angiogenesis, but also inhibit inflammation. In conclusion, PTE plays a significant role in wound healing and exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, demonstrating its great potential in treating diabetic wounds.

Efficient Combination of Complex Chromatography, Molecular Docking and Enzyme Kinetics for Exploration of Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors from Poria cocos

Poria cocos (P. cocos) is a traditional Chinese medicinal product with the same origin as medicine and food. It has diuretic, anti-inflammatory and liver protection properties, and has been widely used in a Chinese medicine in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study was conducted to explore the activity screening, isolation of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), and in vitro inhibiting effect of P. cocos. The aim was to develop a new extraction process optimization method based on the Matlab genetic algorithm combined with a traditional orthogonal experiment. Moreover, bio-affinity ultrafiltration combined with molecular docking was used to screen and evaluate the activity of the AChEIs, which were subsequently isolated and purified using high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) and semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (semi-preparative HPLC). The change in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was tested using an enzymatic reaction kinetics experiment to reflect the inhibitory effect of active compounds on AChE and explore its mechanism of action. Five potential AChEIs were screened via bio-affinity ultrafiltration. Molecular docking results showed that they had good binding affinity for the active site of AChE. Meanwhile, the five active compounds had reversible inhibitory effects on AChE: Polyporenic acid C and Tumulosic acid were non-competitive inhibitors; 3-Epidehydrotumulosic acid was a mixed inhibitor; and Pachymic acid and Dehydrotrametenolic acid were competitive inhibitors. This study provided a basis for the comprehensive utilization of P. cocos and drug development for the treatment of AD.

Healthy adults supplemented with a nutraceutical formulation containing Aloe vera gel, rosemary and Poria cocos enhances the effect of influenza vaccination in a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial

The study objective was to examine the role of a formulation, UP360, containing rosemary and Poria cocos extracts and Aloe vera gel powder, in healthy adults on supporting immune function with influenza vaccination. A 56-day randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study consisted of a 28-day pre-vaccination period, an influenza vaccination on Day 28 and a 28-day post-vaccination period. Men and women ages 40-80 who had not yet been vaccinated for the flu were randomized to UP360 or Placebo (n = 25/group). At baseline, Days 28 and 56, blood lymphocyte populations, immunoglobulins (Ig), and cytokines were measured, and quality of life (QoL) questionnaires administered. The Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS)-24 was completed daily by participants to measure incidence of upper respiratory tract infection (URTIs). In the post-vaccination period, TCR gamma-delta (γδ+) cells, known as γδ T cells, increased with UP360 supplementation compared to Placebo (p < 0.001). The UP360 group had a 15.6% increase in influenza B-specific IgG levels in the post-vaccination period (p = 0.0006). UP360 significantly increased the amount of circulating glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) from baseline at Day 28 (p = 0.0214), an enzyme that is important for neutralizing free radicals. While UP360 supplementation initially decreased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-1RA in the pre-vaccination period, IL-1RA levels were increased in the post-vaccination period (p ≤ 0.0482). Levels of IL-7 increased from baseline at Day 56 with UP360 supplementation (p = 0.0458). Despite these changes in immune markers, there were no differences in URTI symptoms or QoL between UP360 and Placebo. These results suggest UP360 supplementation was beneficial in eliciting a healthy, robust immune response in the context of vaccination. No changes in subjective measures of URTI illness or QoL demonstrated that participants' QoL was not negatively impacted by UP360 supplementation. There were no differences in clinical chemistry, vitals or adverse events confirming the good safety profile of UP360. The trial was registered on the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ISRCTN15838713).

Untargeted metabolomics analysis reveals dynamic changes in co-fermentation with human milk-derived probiotics and Poria cocos

Introduction

To develop functional foods with traditional medicines and homologous food ingredients as well as human milk-derived probiotics, the co-fermentation process of two probiotics, Lactobacillus plantarum R9 and Lactobacillus gasseri B1-27, isolated from the human milk of healthy parturients and the traditional medicine and food homologous ingredient Poria cocos, were separately investigated.

Results

The Poria cocos fermentation broth at 2.5% significantly enhanced the total number of L. plantarum R9 (p = 0.001) and L. gasseri B1-27 (p = 0.013) after 20 h of fermentation, and Non-targeted metabolomics assays conducted before and after fermentation of the human milk-derived L. plantarum R9 and L. gasseri B1-27 using the 2.5% Poria cocos fermentation broth revealed 35 and 45 differential metabolites, respectively. A variety of active substances with physiological functions, such as L-proline, L-serine, beta-alanine, taurine, retinol, luteolin, and serotonin, were found to be significantly increased. Mannitol, a natural sweetener with a low glycemic index, was also identified. The most significantly altered metabolic pathways were pyrimidine metabolism, pentose phosphate, yeast meiosis, ABC transporter, insulin signaling, and mineral absorption, suggesting that co-fermentation of human milk-derived probiotics and Poria cocos may affect the metabolism of trace minerals, sugars, organic acids, and amino acids.

Discussion

Overall, we determined that the optimal concentration of Poria cocos to be used in co-fermentation was 2.5% and identified more than 35 differentially expressed metabolites in each probiotic bacteria after co-fermentation. Moreover, several beneficial metabolites were significantly elevated as a result of the co-fermentation process indicating the valuable role of Poria cocos as a functional food.

Poria cocos Extract from Mushrooms Stimulates Aquaporin-3 via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Background

Poria cocos (PC), a fungus, has been used for more than 2000 years as a food and medicine in China. PC and its components have various pharmacological effects on the skin, including immunomodulatory activities, barrier function improvement, and anti-tumor effects. However, the effect of PC in aquaporin-3 (AQP3) expression, which is essential for epidermal water permeability barrier maintenance, was not reported.

Methods

This study examined the mechanism through which the ethanol extract of the sclerotium of PC (EPC) promoted the expression of AQP3 in cultured human keratinocytes. Western blotting was used to investigate the expression of AQPs and the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt-related signaling molecules in HaCaT cells. Cells were treated with inhibitors of PI3K/Akt and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) prior to EPC treatment.

Results

EPC promoted the expression of AQP3 in HaCaT cells without affecting AQP1 and AQP2 expression. Phosphorylated Akt levels were increased by EPC treatment, and the inhibition of PI3K by LY2940002 resulted in a reduction in EPC-induced AQP3 expression. Furthermore, EPC stimulated the phosphorylation of p70S6K and Akt^Ser473, which are downstream targets of mTORC1 and mTORC2, respectively. The mTOR complex inhibitors, rapamycin and Torin 1, partially reduced EPC-induced AQP3 expression.

Conclusion

These results suggest that EPC increased expression of AQP3, which is important for skin moisturization, by activating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in human keratinocytes.

Beneficial Effect of Gastrodia elata Blume and Poria cocos Wolf Administration on Acute UVB Irradiation by Alleviating Inflammation through Promoting the Gut-Skin Axis

Bioactive compounds in some herbs can, directly and indirectly, protect against photoaging. We evaluated the effects of Gastrodia elata Blume (GE) and Poria cocos Wolf (PC) water extracts on ultraviolet (UV) B-induced skin lesions by acute UVB exposure in ICR mice and explored their mechanism of action. After removing the hair on the back of the mice, UVB (280–310 nm) was exposed to the back for 30 min to induce skin damage. Four UVB exposure groups were divided into the following according to the local application (1,3-butanediol extract) on the dorsal skin and oral intake (0.3 g water extract/kg body weight/day): 1,3-butanediol and cellulose(control; UV-Con), retinoic acid (positive-control; UV-Positive), PC extracts (UV-PC), and GE extracts (UV-GE). The fifth group had no UVB exposure with the same treatment as the UV-Con (Normal-control). The erythema, burns, erosion, and wounds of the UV-PC and UV-PC groups were alleviated, and the most significant improvements occurred in the UV-PC group. PC and GE reduced the thickness of the dorsal skin tissue, the penetration of mast cells, and malondialdehyde contents. The mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-13, and IL-4, inflammatory factors, were also reduced significantly in the dorsal skin of the UV-PC and UV-GE groups. UV-PC, UV-GE, and UV-Positive showed improvements in UV-induced intestinal tissue inflammation. UV-Con deteriorated the intestinal morphology, and PC and GE alleviated it. The α-diversity of the fecal microbiota decreased in the UV-control, and UV-PC and UV-GE prevented the decrease. Fecal metagenome analysis revealed increased propionate biosynthesis in the UV-PC group but decreased lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis in the UV-PC and UV-GE groups compared to UV-Con. In conclusion, the local application and intake of PC and GE had significant therapeutic effects on acute UV-induced skin damage by reducing oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines, potentially promoting the gut-microbiota-gut-skin axis.

Quantitative analysis of nutrients for nucleosides, nucleobases and amino acids hidden behind five distinct regions-derived Poria cocos using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry

Poria cocos is an edible fungus used as a health product and traditional Chinese medicinal preparation. Nevertheless, little is known about its nutrients. In this study, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole linear ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry was conducted to quantify nucleosides, nucleobases, and amino acids in 32 batches of Poria cocos samples collected from Anhui, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Guizhou. Subsequently, the linearity, precision, repeatability, stability, and recovery of our methods were validated. Samples from different regions were clearly separated by partial least squares discriminant analysis and cluster analysis. Our results suggested that Poria cocos samples from different geographical environments differed in nucleosides, nucleobases, and amino acids. The plot of variable importance for projection disclosed differential compositions of L-Leucine, Uridine, L-Asparagine, L-Glutamine, L-phenylalanine, L-Ornithine monohydrochloride, L-Hydroxyproline, Taurine and Inosine in Poria cocos from five regions. We found the highest content of total analytes, total amino acids and total non-essential amino acids in Poria cocos from Anhui, total essential amino acids in the Sichuan samples and total nucleosides in Hunan samples. Overall, we determined the content of Poria cocos-derived nucleosides, nucleobases, and amino acids, providing the foothold for further chemical mining and use of Poria cocos. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Integrated 16S rDNA, metabolomics, and TNF-α/NF-κB signaling pathway analyses to explain the modulatory effect of Poria cocos aqueous extract on anxiety-like behavior

BACKGROUND

Poria cocos is an ancient medicine and modern functional food, which exerts excellent effects on anxiety, although its mechanism is unknown.

PURPOSE

To explore the mechanisms of the aqueous extract of P. cocos (PCD) in ameliorating anxiety-like behavior caused by chronic sleep deprivation (CSD).

METHODS

PCD chemical composition was analyzed by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. A CSD rat model was established over 21 days. We examined the effects and mechanisms after 10 days of CSD using open-field tests (OFTs), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, 16S rDNA, non-targeted metabolomics, and Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

Sixty-two triterpenoids were identified in PCD. CSD-induced anxiety-like behavior was significantly attenuated by PCD treatment. PCD improved hypothalamic neurotransmitters, decreased proinflammatory cytokines, and depressed the proteins expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway. The full-length 16S rDNA sequence of bacterial cells was also sequenced by high-throughput analysis. CSD caused significant changes in the intestinal flora. PCD improved the species diversity and bacterial abundance in the intestines of rats with anxiety. Metabolomics analysis indicated that 12 PCD-related metabolites in serum and 32 PCD-related metabolites in feces were identified, respectively. Metabolite analysis in serum, PCD treatment affected taurine, hypotaurine, cysteine, methionine, glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, among others. Metabolite analysis in feces showed significant effects of PCD treatment on the metabolism of vitamin B6, tyrosine, drugs, and glycerophospholipid. Additionally, the correlation analysis of heatmaps showed a tight relationship between inflammatory factors, metabolic parameters, and gut microbial phylotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

PCD relieved anxiety by regulating intestinal flora, regulating metabolic disorders, and inhibiting inflammatory pathways in chronic sleep-deprived rats.

Structure and physicochemical properties of polysaccharides from Poria cocos extracted by deep eutectic solvent

Poria cocos, a famous traditional Chinese medicine and a well-known food or food supplement, has shown therapeutic potential against cancer and the uneasiness of the mind. In addition, polysaccharides (PCPs) in this fungus were found to be various bioactive. In this work, one such PCP, PCP-1, extracted by deep eutectic solvent (DES) and separated using Sephadex G-15 columns, was characterized using GC-MS, HPGPC, FT-IR, and NMR, while also tested for physicochemical properties. Results indicated that PCP-1 contained 96.89 ± 3.21% total sugars and was a glucan with molecular weight of 3.2 kD. The main glycosidic linkage was 1,3-linked Glcp with 96.82 mol% content and a triple helix structure, and β-D-Glcp-(1 → linkage connected to the main chain through an O-6 atom was the backbone structure. In terms of the physicochemical property, PCP-1 was soluble in water, but not in organic solvent, and processed a relative high water-holding capacity (8.64 ± 0.14 g/g) and low oil-holding capacity (2.52 ± 0.21 g/g). In addition, in vitro, PCP-1 was found to have the ability of scavenging DPPH, hydroxyl free radical, superoxide anion radical and reducing ferric at different levels. This research would be useful for the further application of PCP-1.

A new direct compression mechanism of structural transition in Poria cocos extract composite particles

The structural transition to generate amorphous translucent grains in Poria cocos dry extract (PCE) composite particles was found and studied as a new direct compression mechanism. The pressure and displacement sensing techniques were used to obtained stress-strain profiles during compression. The Exponential function, Kawakita model, Shapiro model and Heckel model were used to analysis mechanical properties of powders. 12 parameters derived from compression models and powder physical properties were applied to partial least squares method (PLS) for analyzing powder compression mechanism. It was found that only the oven-dried PCE composite particles undergoes the structural transition and generate translucent grains scattered and embedded in tablet, and these tablets have excellent mechanical stability. The structural transition in plant dry extract as the PCE composite particles could be exploited to improve powder compression and tabletability.

Determination of Cultivation Regions and Quality Parameters of Poria cocos by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometrics

Poria cocos (PC) is an important fungus with high medicinal and nutritional values. However, the quality of PC is heavily dependent on multiple factors in the cultivation regions. Traditional methods are not able to perform quality evaluation for this fungus in a short time, and a new method is needed for rapid quality assessment. Here, we used near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometric method to identify the cultivation regions and determine PC chemical compositions. In our study, 138 batches of samples were collected and their cultivation regions were distinguished by combining NIR spectroscopy and random forest method (RFM) with an accuracy as high as 92.59%. In the meantime, we used partial least square regression (PLSR) to build quantitative models and measure the content of water-soluble extract (WSE), ethanol-soluble extract (ASE), polysaccharides (PSC) and the sum of five triterpenoids (SFT). The performance of these models were verified with correlation coefficients (R²_cal and R²_pre) above 0.9 for the four quality parameters and the relative errors (RE) of PSC, WSE, ASE and SFT at 4.055%, 3.821%, 4.344% and 3.744%, respectively. Overall, a new approach was developed and validated which is able to distinguish PC production regions, quantify its chemical contents, and effectively evaluate PC quality.

Extracts of Poria cocos improve functional dyspepsia via regulating brain-gut peptides, immunity and repairing of gastrointestinal mucosa

BACKGROUND

Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf (PC), a fungus, has been used for more than 2000 years as a food and medicine in China. It has a very good therapeutic effect for functional dyspepsia (FD). However, the material basis and mechanism of PC on FD were not reported.

PURPOSE

To investigate the function and potential mechanisms of PC including its three extracts (triterpenoid, PCT; water-soluble polysaccharide, PCWP; acidic polysaccharide, PCAP) on FD.

STUDY DESIGN

The study explored the therapeutic effect of PC and its three extracts on FD in rats for the first time and discussed its mechanisms based on brain-gut peptides, immunity and repair of the gastrointestinal mucosa.

METHODS

The chemical components of PC extracts were analyzed and quantified using ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) and gel permeation chromatography coupled with size exclusion chromatography (GPC/SEC). The FD rat models were established using weight-loaded forced swimming and alternate-day fasting for 42 days. After 14 days of treatment, the effect and mechanisms were investigated using ELISA, histopathology, immunohistochemistry as well as Western blot.

RESULTS

Seventy-seven triterpenoids in PCT were identified. PCWP was primarily composed of component A (Mw: 3.831 × 10⁷ Da), component B (Mw: 5.650 × 10⁶ Da) and component C (Mw: 113,117 Da). PCAP was a homogeneous composition with an average Mw of 74,320 Da. PCT, PCWP and PCAP alleviated the symptoms of FD. These extracts promoted the repair of gastrointestinal mucosa and regulated the balance between the T helper cell (Th)1/Th2 axis and the Th17/Treg axis. PCT and PCWP regulated brain-gut peptides more effectively, PCWP and PCAP enhanced immunity more effectively. Further study demonstrated that these extracts may have enhanced immunity via the Toll-like receptor (TLR) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

PC extracts showed therapeutic effects on FD rats, and the mechanism of action involved multiple pathways. PCAP, which is often discarded in traditional applications, was effective. Our study provides new ideas for the application and development of PC extracts.

Effect of carbohydrate-feeding strategy on the production, physiochemical changes, anti-inflammation activities of polysaccharides of Poria cocos

The aim of this research was to physiochemically characterize the structure and study the pharmaceutical benefits of the polysaccharide (PS) produced by Poria cocos using two selected carbohydrates (sucrose, and potato dextrose broth) in the in vitro culture system. A direct dosage effect was shown as sucrose- or PDB-based medium on the PS yield of Paragalago cocos. Very low-molecular-weight PS (<1 kDa) were largely synthesized by sucrose and PDB feeding. Sucrose-feeding mycelia of P. cocos results in a direct dosage effect in the fructose component in the PS. Sucrose and PDB feeding increased the glucose content but decreased the galactose content of PS. This study examined the anti-inflammatory activities of PS in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. At 100 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL, PS from 10 g/L PDB- treatment, denoted as PDB 10, pretreatment showed maximal inhibition of TNF-α and IL-6 release, respectively. Mechanically, PDB10 attenuated IκB from degradation in LPS-induced macrophages, and down-regulated LPS-induced phosphorylation of ERK/AKT/p-38. PDB10 showed dose-dependent inhibition of the LPS induced TGFRII signaling pathways.

Alleviation of Androgenetic Alopecia with Aqueous Paeonia lactiflora and Poria cocos Extract Intake through Suppressing the Steroid Hormone and Inflammatory Pathway

Paeonia lactiflora Pallas (PL) and Poria cocos Wolf (PC) have been traditionally used to treat inflammatory diseases reported in Dongui Bogam and Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, traditional medical books in Korean and China, respectively. We determined the efficacies and the molecular mechanisms of PL, PC, and PL + PC aqueous extracts on androgenetic alopecia (AGA) induced by testosterone propionate in C57BL/6 mice. The molecular mechanisms of PL and PC in AGA treatment were examined using experimental assays and network pharmacology. The AGA model was generated by topically applying 0.5% testosterone propionate in 70% ethanol solution to the backs of mice daily for 28 days while the normal-control (Normal-Con; no AGA induction) mice applied 70% ethanol. The 0.1% PL (AGA-PL), 0.1% PC (AGA-PC), 0.05% PL + 0.05% PC (AGA-MIX), and 0.1% cellulose (AGA-Con; control) were supplemented in a high-fat diet for 28 days in AGA-induced mice. Positive-control (AGA-Positive) were administered 2% finasteride daily on the backs of the AGA mice. Hair growth rates decreased in the order of AGA-PL, AGA-MIX, AGA-PC, AGA-Positive, and AGA-Con after 21 days of treatment (ED21). On ED28, skins were completely covered with hair in the AGA-PL and AGA-MIX groups. Serum testosterone concentrations were lower in the AGA-PL group than in the AGA-Con group and similar to concentrations in the Normal-Con group, whereas serum 17β-estradiol concentrations showed the opposite pattern with increasing aromatase mRNA expression (p < 0.05). In the dorsal skin, DKK1 and NR3C2 mRNA expressions were significantly lower, but TGF-β2, β-Catenin, and PPARG expressions were higher in the AGA-PL and AGA-PC groups than in the AGA-Con group (p < 0.05), whereas TNF-α and IL-6 mRNA expressions were lower in the AGA-PL, AGA-MIX, and Normal-Con groups than in the AGA-Con group (p < 0.05). The phosphorylation of Akt and GSK-3β in the dorsal skin was lower in AGA-Con than normal-Con, and PL and MIX ingestion suppressed their decrease similar to the Normal-Con. In conclusion, PL or PL + PC intake had beneficial effects on hair growth similar to Normal-Con. The promotion was related to lower serum testosterone concentrations and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, and inhibition of the steroid hormone pathway, consistent with network pharmacology analysis findings.

Immunomodulatory Activity of Carboxymethyl Pachymaran on Immunosuppressed Mice Induced by Cyclophosphamide

The effects of immunomodulatory activity of two types of carboxymethyl pachymaran (CMP-1 and CMP-2) on cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced mice were investigated. Both CMP-1 and CMP-2 were found to restore the splenomegaly and alleviate the spleen lesions and the mRNA expressions of TLR4, MyD88, p65 and NF-κB in spleen were also increased. CMP-1 and CMP-2 could enhance the immunity by increasing the levels of TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, Ig-A and Ig-G in serum. In addition, CMP-1 could increase the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and reduce the relative richness of Firmicutes at the phylum level. CMP-1 and CMP-2 could reduce the relative abundance Erysipelatoclostridum at the genus level. CMP-1 and CMP-2 might enhance the immune function of immunosuppression mice by regulating the gene expression in the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and changing the composition and abundance of the intestinal microbiota. The results suggested that CMP-1 and CMP-2 would be as potential immunomodulatory agents in functional foods.

Structural modification and biological activities of carboxymethyl Pachymaran

Polysaccharides are good chelating agents for metal ions, which are often used to synthesize polysaccharide metal ion complexes. With carboxymethyl pachymaran (CMP) as the substrate, carboxymethyl pachymaran iron (CMPF), carboxymethyl pachymaran selenium (CMPS), and carboxymethyl pachymaran zinc (CMPZ) were synthesized by response surface methodology, and their biological characteristics were studied. The results showed that the CMP was a β-polysaccharide, and the degree of carboxymethylation was 0.6352. The polysaccharide metal ion complexes were characterized by physicochemical methods, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. All the polysaccharides and complexes possessed antioxidant activity in vitro with scavenging activities to ABTS, superoxide anions, and ferrous ions. CMPF, CMPS, and CMPZ caused significant inhibition of A2780 cell proliferation, promoted the production of reactive oxygen species, and induced apoptosis in a human ovarian cancer cell line (A2780 cells). These results suggest that the CMP complex may be an effective candidate drug for cancer treatment in the field of functional food and pharmacology.

An UPLC - Q - Orbitrap method for pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of four triterpenoids in rats after oral administration of Poria cocos ethanol extracts

Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf, is a fungus that is widely used as medicine and dietary supplement in China. But its action mechanism is still not very clear. In this paper, a rapid, specific and sensitive high performace liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole - orbitrap mass sepctrometry (UPLC - Q - Orbitrap MS) method has been developed and validated to simultaneously determine of four triterpenoids including Dehydrotumulosic acid (DTA), Dehydropachymic acid (DPA), Pachymic acid (PA), Dehydrotrametenolic acid (DMA) from Poria cocos in rat plasma and tissues. The analyte was extracted from rat plasma and tissue homogenates by protein precipitation with acetonitrile using glibenclamide as the internal standard (IS). Chromatographic separation was carried out on ACQUITY UPLC BEH - C₁₈ column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) with a mobile phase composed of acetonitrile - water (containing 1.0 mmol/L ammonium acetate) using gradient elution at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. Electrospray ionization (ESI ^-) under negative ion mode was used, and its quantization was performed with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The method was fully validated and successfully applied to pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution study in rats after oral administration of ethanol extracts of Poria cocos. Compared with that of plasma exporsure, triterpenoids could be detected in various tissues with a relatively high degree of tissue distribution. After oral administration, the concentration orders in seven different tissues were ranked as DTA > PA > DPA > DMA in intestine and stomach, wheras DTA > DMA > PA > DPA in heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney tissues, which is speculated that DPA, PA may be converted into DMA in vivo. In conclusion, this results may provide a material basis for study of the pharmacological actions of triterpenoids in Poria cocos.

Garlic (Allium sativum) and Fu-ling (Poria cocos) mitigate lead toxicity by improving antioxidant defense mechanisms and chelating ability in the liver of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

The heavy metal lead (Pb) is a contaminant widely distributed in the food chain. In this study, eight weeks of feeding containing Garlic (Allium sativum) or Fu-ling (Poria cocos) or both, markedly increased the growth index, enzyme activity, and serum index and significantly decreased muscle Pb level in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Upon Pb exposure, the feeding Garlic or Fu-ling or both possessed the similar effects on improving the function of the antioxidant system and chelating ability. Further, the gene expressions of metal binding proteins (TF and MT-2) in the liver of the three experimental groups were significantly higher than those of the control group, which were all highly up-regulated after Pb exposure. At the same time, the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT) and the content of non-enzymatic substance (GSH) in the liver of the Garlic group, Fu-ling group and mixed group were stable compared to the control group after Pb exposure. Moreover, the reduction of Pb toxicity was manifested by the decrease of Pb content in the muscle, and the stable expression of heat stress proteins (HSP30 and HSP60) and immune-related genes (TNF-α and IL-1β). Taken together, the study preliminarily shows that the Garlic and Fu-ling play a role in mitigating the toxicity of Pb in grass carp.

Poria cocos could ameliorate cognitive dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice by restoring imbalance of Aβ production and clearance and gut microbiota dysbiosis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder. Amyloid beta-protein (Aβ) plaques, which are the hallmark of AD, are formed from the imbalance of Aβ production and clearance accompanied by neuroinflammation, gut dysbiosis, and metabolite dysfunction. All of these processes give rise to neurochemical deficiencies and synaptic dysfunction, which ultimately contribute to recognition dysfunction. Poria cocos (PC), which contains multiple active ingredients, plays a significant role in the treatment of multiple-pathogenesis senile diseases such as AD. Nevertheless, there are only very few investigations on the intricate action mechanism of PC for the treatment of AD. In this study, we evaluate the multi-target cure effect of PC on APP/PS1 mice by behavioral, immunohistochemical (IHC), targeted metabolomics, and 16S rRNA sequencing experiments. Mice treated with PC showed significant improvements in cognitive function as evaluated by the behavioral experiment. IHC revealed that PC treatment relieved Aβ deposition by reducing the formation of Aβ and increasing its clearance. Moreover, PC treatment improved gut dysbiosis, which reversed the metabolite dysfunction of bile acid. These findings reveal that PC is a promising therapeutic agent, which might ameliorate the cognitive function of AD by restoring the imbalance of Aβ production and clearance and gut microbiota dysbiosis.

Tetranorlanostane and Lanostane Triterpenoids with Cytotoxic Activity from the Epidermis of Poria cocos

Two unprecedented tetranorlanostane triterpenoids, poricolides A (1) and B (2), and two new lanostane triterpenoids, 3β-acetoxy-24-methyllanosta-8,16,24(31)-trien-21-oic acid (3) and 3β-acetoxylanosta-7,9(11),16,23-tetraen-21-oic acid (4), were isolated from the epidermis of Poria cocos. The structures of 1-4 were determined via analysis of ¹ H-, ¹³ C-, and 2D-NMR, and HR-ESI-MS data, and the absolute configurations of 1 and 3 were established by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Compounds 1 and 2 were the first report of tetranorlanostane triterpenoid having a δ-lactone ring at C(17). Compounds 3 and 4 were rare lanostane triterpenoids having a double bond between C(16) and C(17). Compounds 1-4 exhibited potent antiproliferative effects against A549, SMMC-7721, MCF-7, and SW480 cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values from 16.19±0.38 to 27.74±1.12 μM.

Poria cocos Modulates Th1/Th2 Response and Attenuates Airway Inflammation in an Ovalbumin-Sensitized Mouse Allergic Asthma Model

Poria cocos, called fuling, is a famous tonic in traditional Chinese medicine that reportedly possesses various pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammation and immunomodulation. However, few studies have investigated the effects of P. cocos on allergic diseases, such as allergic asthma. Allergic asthma is caused primarily by Th2 immune response and characterized by airway inflammation. This study first demonstrated the anti-allergic and anti-asthmatic effects of P. cocos extract (Lipucan^®). P. cocos extract distinctly exhibited reduced inflammatory cell infiltration in the peribronchial and peribronchiolar regions compared to the asthma group in the histological analysis of pulmonary tissue sections. Prolonged P. cocos extract administration significantly reduced eosinophil infiltration, PGE2 levels, total IgE, and OVA-specific IgE. Moreover, P. cocos extract markedly suppressed Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10. On the other hand, P. cocos extract significantly elevated IL-2 secretion by Th1 immune response. In addition, P. cocos extract elevated the IFN-γ level at a lower dose. We also observed that P. cocos extract increased the activity of NK cells. Our results suggest that P. cocos extract remodels the intrinsic Th1/Th2 response to prevent or alleviate allergy-induced asthma or symptoms.

Protective effects of Poria cocos and its components against cisplatin-induced intestinal injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf (Poria) is a well-known traditional medicinal fungus. It has been considered to possess spleen-invigorating (Jianpi) effects in traditional Chinese medicine, and is used clinically to treat spleen deficiency (Pixu) with symptoms of intestinal disorders such as diarrhea, indigestion, mucositis and weight loss.

THE AIM OF THIS STUDY

To investigate the protective effects of Poria and its three component fractions (Water-soluble polysaccharides, WP; alkali-soluble polysaccharides, AP; triterpene acids, TA) on cisplatin-induced intestinal injury and explore the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were treated with Poria powder (PP), WP, AP and TA by oral gavage respectively for 13 days, and intraperitoneally injected with 10 mg/kg of cisplatin on day 10 to conduct a cisplatin-induced intestinal injury model. Pathological changes of ileum and colon were examined using H&E staining. The composition of gut microbiota and the alteration of host metabolites were characterized by 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing and UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS based untargeted metabolomics analysis.

RESULTS

PP and WP attenuated the cisplatin-induced ileum and colon injury, and WP alleviated the weight loss and reversed the elevation of IL-2, IL-6 in serum. Both PP and WP could mitigate cisplatin-induced dysbiosis of gut microbiota, in particular PP and WP decreased the abundance of pathogenic bacteria including Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Ruminococcaceae and Helicobacteraceae, while WP promoted the abundance of probiotics, such as Erysipelotrichaceae and Prevotellaceae. Moreover, WP attenuated the cisplatin-induced alteration of metabolic profiles. The levels of potential biomarkers, including xanthine, L-tyrosine, uridine, hypoxanthine, butyrylcarnitine, lysoPC (18:0), linoleic acid, (R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid, D-ribose, thiamine monophosphate, indolelactic acid and plamitic acid, showed significant correlations with intestinal flora.

CONCLUSIONS

PP and WP possess protective effects against cisplatin-induced intestinal injury via potentially regulating the gut microbiota and metabolic profiles.

[Study on mechanism of enhancing antioxidant activity in fermented Ziziphi Spinosae Semen with Poria cocos]

In this study, the antioxidant property changes in fermented Ziziphi Spinosae Semen(FZSS) with Poria cocos were analyzed by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP methods. Then the content determination of active ingredients and ~1H nuclear magnetic resonance(~1H-NMR) spectroscopy were also used to investigate the mechanism of FZSS with P. cocos in enhancing the antioxidant activity. The results showed that the content of active ingredients such as total phenols, total saponins and total polysaccharides were significantly increased during the fermentation time. The results of ~1H-NMR metabonomics showed that the contents of amino acids such as leucine, lysine, valine and alanine, nitrogen compounds such as creatine, creatinine, and betaine, and secondary metabolites, for instance, jujuboside A and spinosin were higher after fermentation, and above components showed positive correlation with antioxidant capacity in Pearson correlation analysis. Therefore, it was inferred that the enhancement of antioxidant activity of FZSS may be the result of the joint action of various chemical components. This study preliminarily clarified the mechanism of FZSS in enhancing the antioxidant activity, and provided new research ideas for the product development and utilization of FZSS.

[Suitable planting area of Poria cocos in Jinzhai county of Dabie Mountains region]

Dabie Mountain in Anhui province is a genuine producing area of Poria cocos, commonly known as Anling. Jinzhai county in Anhui province is a traditional producing area of P. cocos, and it is also a key county for poverty alleviation in Dabie Mountains. Poverty alleviation of traditional Chinese medicine producing area is an important measure to implement the major strategic deployment of the central government. The planting of P. cocos is helpful to promote the development of traditional Chinese medicine industry in Dabie Mountains and help poverty alleviation. P. cocos is a saprophytic fungus with special demands on soil and ecological environment, and its planting appears a scattered and irregular distribution. Traditional investigation methods are time-consuming and laborious, and the results are greatly influenced by subjective factors. In order to obtain the suitable planting area of P. cocos in Jinzhai county, according to the field survey, the research team has explored the regional, biological characteristics and cultivation methods of P. cocos in the county, and obtained the altitude distribution area suitable for the growth of P. cocos. Then, the MaxEnt niche model was used to analyze the relationship between ecological factors and distribution areas, and the potential distribution zoning of P. cocos in Jinzhai county was studied. Combined with the characteristics of P. cocos planting pattern, taking ZY-3 remote sensing image as the data source, the maximum likelihood method was used to extract the area that could be used for P. cocos cultivation in Jinzhai county, and the reason why artificial planting P. cocos was mainly distributed in the west of Jinzhai county was analyzed. The suitable regional classification of P. cocos in Jinzhai county was obtained by superposition of suitable altitude distribution area, MaxEnt analysis and area extracted from remote sensing image, which provided data support for the planting planning of P. cocos in Jinzhai county.

The effect of Poria cocos ethanol extract on the intestinal barrier function and intestinal microbiota in mice with breast cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Poria cocos Wolf has been used in traditional East-Asian medicine for centuries to effectively treat various gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea for its tonic, anti-fungal and anti-bacterial activities. Previous studies have revealed that the tumor development would induce intestinal microbiota dysbiosis and intestinal barrier dysfunction to the patients with breast cancer.

AIM OF STUDY

To investigate the effect and the mechanism of ethanol extract of Poria cocos (PC) on intestinal barrier function and intestinal microbiota in the mice with breast cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six female BALB/c mice were randomly divided into four groups (the normal control, model, PC and positive control group). Intestinal histopathological was evaluated by H&E staining. The difference of the intestinal microbiota in each group was studied by 16S rDNA high-throughput sequencing. The level of plasma endotoxin, D -lactic acid (D-LA) and diamine oxidase (DAO) were measured by ELISA. The putrescine content in serum and urine were detected by HPLC. Expression of the tight junction (TJ) proteins, phosphorylated p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 were determined by western blotting.

RESULTS

Our results showed that tumor development prominently induced the intestinal damage and microbiome dysbiosis in mice. PC prominently remit such histologic damage through enhancing the expression of TJ proteins and decreasing the levels of DAO, D-LA and endotoxin via upregulating the expression of phosphorylated ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK. Furthermore, PC increased the diversity of the intestinal microbiota and strikingly changed the structure and composition of the gut microbiota in the mice by increasing the beneficial bacteria Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and decreasing the sulfate-reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio and inflammatory associated bacteria Mucispirillum, S24-7 and Staphylococcus. Moreover, PICRUSt analysis and the putrescine detection might indicate that PC might be involved in the putrescine metabolism in the mice. Correlation analysis indicated that Prevotella, Rikenellaceae and Bacteroidetes were significantly correlated with Claudin-8 and p38-MAPK expression (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

PC could improve the dysbacteriosis and repair the intestinal barrier function in the mice with breast cancer. This study provide more data to support the application of PC in breast cancer treatment.

The Lanostane Triterpenoids in Poria cocos Play Beneficial Roles in Immunoregulatory Activity

Poria cocos (Schwein) F.A. Wolf (syn. Wolfiporia cocos) dried sclerotium, called fuling, is an edible, saprophytic fungus commonly used as a tonic and anti-aging traditional Chinese medicine. It is traditionally used in combination with other traditional Chinese medicines to enhance immunity. This study showed that P. cocos extract (Lipucan^®) containing lanostane triterpenoids has no immunotoxicity and enhances non-specific (innate) immunity though activating natural killer cells and promotes interferon γ (IFN-γ) secretion by Type 1 T-helper (Th1) cells immune response. In addition, P. cocos extract significantly decreased interleukin (IL-4 and IL-5) secretion by Type 2 T-helper (Th2) cells immune response, which are related to the allergy response. The purified lanostane triterpenoids were first identified as active ingredients of P. cocos with enhanced non-specific immunity by promoting interferon γ (IFN-γ) secretion in a preliminary study. Our findings support that the P. cocos extract plays beneficial roles in immunoregulatory activity.

The Genus Pachyma (Syn. Wolfiporia) Reinstated and Species Clarification of the Cultivated Medicinal Mushroom "Fuling" in China

The fungus "Fuling" has been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 2000 years, and its sclerotia have a wide range of biological activities including antitumour, immunomodulation, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, anti-aging etc. This prized medicinal mushroom also known as "Hoelen" is resurrected from a piece of pre-Linnean scientific literature. Fries treated it as Pachyma hoelen Fr. and mentioned that it was cultivated on pine trees in China. However, this name had been almost forgotten, and Poria cocos (syn. Wolfiporia cocos), originally described from North America, and known as "Tuckahoe" has been applied to "Fuling" in most publications. Although Merrill mentioned a 100 years ago that Asian Pachyma hoelen and North American P. cocos are similar but different, no comprehensive taxonomical studies have been carried out on the East Asian Pachyma hoelen and its related species. Based on phylogenetic analyses and morphological examination on both the sclerotia and the basidiocarps which are very seldomly developed, the East Asian samples of Pachyma hoelen including sclerotia, commercial strains for cultivation and fruiting bodies, nested in a strongly supported, homogeneous lineage which clearly separated from the lineages of North American Wolfiporia cocos and other species. So we confirm that the widely cultivated "Fuling" Pachyma hoelen in East Asia is not conspecific with the North American Wolfiporia cocos. Based on the changes in Art. 59 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the generic name Pachyma, which was sanctioned by Fries, has nomenclatural priority (ICN, Art. F.3.1), and this name well represents the economically important stage of the generic type. So we propose to use Pachyma rather than Wolfiporia, and subsequently Pachyma hoelen and Pachyma cocos are the valid names for "Fuling" in East Asia and "Tuckahoe" in North America, respectively. In addition, a new combination, Pachyma pseudococos, is proposed. Furthermore, it seems that Pachyma cocos is a species complex, and that three species exist in North America.

Novel poricoic acids attenuate renal fibrosis through regulating redox signalling and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation

BACKGROUND

Renal fibrosis is the final manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Renal fibrosis is largely driven by oxidative stress and inflammation.

PURPOSE

The aim of the current study was to identify novel poricoic acids from Poria cocos and investigated their antifibrotic effects and the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

In this study, we identified six novel poricoic acids from Poria cocos and examined their antifibrotic effect using transforming growth factor-β1- (TGF-β1-) induced cultured human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) and mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO).

RESULTS

Treatment with six poricoic acids significantly inhibited TGF-β1-induced α-smooth muscle actin expression at both mRNA and protein levels in HK-2 cells. Three compounds with an intact carboxyl group at C-3 position showed a stronger inhibitory effect than that of other three compounds with esterified carboxyl group at the C-3 position. Mechanistically, poricoic acid ZM (PZM) and poricoic acid ZP (PZP) attenuate renal fibrosis through the modulation of redox signalling including the inhibition of proinflammatory nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signalling and its target genes as well as the activation of antioxidative nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signalling and its downstream target gene in both TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells and UUO mice. PZM treatment and PZP treatment inhibit the upregulated aryl hydrocarbon receptor and they target the gene expression in UUO mice. Intriguingly, PZM treatment exhibits a stronger inhibitory effect than that of the PZP treatment. Structure-function relationship reveals that the carboxyl group at C-3 position is the most important bioactive function group in secolanostane tetracyclic triterpenoids against renal fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

PZM and PZP attenuated renal fibrosis through the modulation of redox signalling and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor signalling pathway. Our findings will provide several promising leading compounds against renal fibrosis.