Why avoid naming diseases after animals? The case of "Molluscum contagiosum"

For over 200 years, the name molluscum contagiosum-a dermatological disease-has unfairly associated molluscs (the second largest group of animals on the planet) with this highly contagious infectious disease. Herein, arguments are presented demonstrating the serious problem of continuing to use this name, including animal welfare concerns. Thus, to minimize any unnecessary impacts on the biodiversity and conservation of molluscs, we follow WHO best practices in naming diseases to suggest the use of the new term 'wpox' or 'water warts' as a synonym for molluscum contagiosum.

PoxiPred: An Artificial-Intelligence-Based Method for the Prediction of Potential Antigens and Epitopes to Accelerate Vaccine Development Efforts against Poxviruses

Poxviridae is a family of large, complex, enveloped, and double-stranded DNA viruses. The members of this family are ubiquitous and well known to cause contagious diseases in humans and other types of animals as well. Taxonomically, the poxviridae family is classified into two subfamilies, namely Chordopoxvirinae (affecting vertebrates) and Entomopoxvirinae (affecting insects). The members of the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily are further divided into 18 genera based on the genome architecture and evolutionary relationship. Of these 18 genera, four genera, namely Molluscipoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, Parapoxvirus, and Yatapoxvirus, are known for infecting humans. Some of the popular members of poxviridae are variola virus, vaccine virus, Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox), cowpox, etc. There is still a pressing demand for the development of effective vaccines against poxviruses. Integrated immunoinformatics and artificial-intelligence (AI)-based methods have emerged as important approaches to design multi-epitope vaccines against contagious emerging infectious diseases. Despite significant progress in immunoinformatics and AI-based techniques, limited methods are available to predict the epitopes. In this study, we have proposed a unique method to predict the potential antigens and T-cell epitopes for multiple poxviruses. With PoxiPred, we developed an AI-based tool that was trained and tested with the antigens and epitopes of poxviruses. Our tool was able to locate 3191 antigen proteins from 25 distinct poxviruses. From these antigenic proteins, PoxiPred redundantly located up to five epitopes per protein, resulting in 16,817 potential T-cell epitopes which were mostly (i.e., 92%) predicted as being reactive to CD8+ T-cells. PoxiPred is able to, on a single run, identify antigens and T-cell epitopes for poxviruses with one single input, i.e., the proteome file of any poxvirus.

Cracking the Code of Lumpy Skin Disease: Identifying Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options for Livestock Farmers

The novel bovine viral infection known as lumpy skin disease is common in most African and Middle Eastern countries, with a significant likelihood of disease transfer to Asia and Europe. Recent rapid disease spread in formerly disease-free zones highlights the need of understanding disease limits and distribution mechanisms. Capripox virus, the causal agent, may also cause sheeppox and Goatpox. Even though the virus is expelled through several bodily fluids and excretions, the most common causes of infection include sperm and skin sores. Thus, vulnerable hosts are mostly infected mechanically by hematophagous arthropods such as biting flies, mosquitoes, and ticks. As a result, milk production lowers, abortions, permanent or temporary sterility, hide damage, and mortality occur, contributing to a massive financial loss for countries that raise cattle. These illnesses are economically significant because they affect international trade. The spread of Capripox viruses appears to be spreading because to a lack of effectual vaccinations and poverty in rural areas. Lumpy skin disease has reached historic levels; as a consequence, vaccination remains the only viable option to keep the illness from spreading in endemic as well as newly impacted areas. This study is intended to offer a full update on existing knowledge of the disease's pathological characteristics, mechanisms of spread, transmission, control measures, and available vaccinations.

Serine/threonine kinase of Mpox virus: computational modeling and structural analysis

Kinases catalyze phosphoryl transfer from a nucleoside triphosphate (usually ATP) to an amino acid on a protein for activation purposes. Although kinases are well-appreciated drug targets in different viruses and cancers, these enzymes in poxviruses received limited attention from the research community. In poxvirus, the production of infectious particles in the infected cells depends on a serine/threonine protein kinase (STK) that activates proteins implicated in the assembly of new virions. This work aimed to elucidate the structure and dynamics of the major kinase STK from Mpox virus (Orthopoxvirus). A state-of-the-art computational approach was employed to decipher the structure and dynamics of the STK using AlphaFold2 and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Although the predicted structure showed an atypical kinase, the overall structural fold is conserved. Binding free energy calculations via Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born and Surface Area (MM/GBSA) determined the hotspot residues contributing to binding of ATP. The structural analysis in this work provides insights into the structure and behavior of STK in Mpox virus and possibly its closest members of Poxviridae. These findings also set the basis for setting up a thorough experimental investigation to understand the enzymatic mechanism, peptide substrate binding, and the development of small-molecule inhibitors against this kinase.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Screening of potential inhibitors against structural proteins from Monkeypox and related viruses of Poxviridae family via docking and molecular dynamics simulation

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an orthopoxvirus which causes zoonotic infection in humans. Even though sporadic cases of this infection are limited to the African continent, but if the infection continues to increase unabated, it can be a cause of serious concern for the human populace. Smallpox vaccination has been in use against monkeypox infection but it only provides mild protection. In the current study, we have screened novel small molecules (estrone fused heterocycles (EH1-EH7)) exhibiting good binding with monkeypox virus protein and related proteins from Poxviridae family of viruses via computational approaches. EH1-7 series of small molecules selected for the work have been synthesized via cycloaddition methodology. Docking and Molecular Dynamics (MD) results highlight EH4 compound to have strong binding affinity towards monkeypox and other related viral proteins selected for the study. Thus, computational outcomes suggest EH4 as a good candidate against monkeypox. Currently, no antiviral medication has been approved against monkeypox and the treatment is only via therapeutics available for smallpox and related conditions that may be helpful against monkeypox. Our study is thus an attempt to screen novel compounds against monkeypox infection, which would, in turn, facilitate development of novel therapeutics against Poxviridae family. HIGHLIGHTSMonkeypox infection is a public health emergency and necessitates immediate drug discovery.Molecular docking study to screen estrone-fused heterocycles compounds against Monkeypox and other orthopoxviruses.Molecular dynamics simulations revealed interaction/high binding affinities among EH4 heterocyclic compound and profilin-like protein from the monkeypox virus.Estrone-fused heterocycles compounds are promising anti-viral agents as per our in silico analysis.Our study provides evidence for investigating estrone-fused heterocycles compounds for further pharmacological interventions.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Zebrafish-based platform for emerging bio-contaminants and virus inactivation research

Emerging bio-contaminants such as viruses have affected health and environment settings of every country. Viruses are the minuscule entities resulting in severe contagious diseases like SARS, MERS, Ebola, and avian influenza. Recent epidemic like the SARS-CoV-2, the virus has undergone mutations strengthen them and allowing to escape from the remedies. Comprehensive knowledge of viruses is essential for the development of targeted therapeutic and vaccination treatments. Animal models mimicking human biology like non-human primates, rats, mice, and rabbits offer competitive advantage to assess risk of viral infections, chemical toxins, nanoparticles, and microbes. However, their economic maintenance has always been an issue. Furthermore, the redundancy of experimental results due to aforementioned aspects is also in examine. Hence, exploration for the alternative animal models is crucial for risk assessments. The current review examines zebrafish traits and explores the possibilities to monitor emerging bio-contaminants. Additionally, a comprehensive picture of the bio contaminant and virus particle invasion and abatement mechanisms in zebrafish and human cells is presented. Moreover, a zebrafish model to investigate the emerging viruses such as coronaviridae and poxviridae has been suggested.

ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Poxviridae 2023

Poxviridae is a family of enveloped, brick-shaped or ovoid viruses. The genome is a linear molecule of dsDNA (128-375 kbp) with covalently closed ends. The family includes the sub-families Entomopoxvirinae, whose members have been found in four orders of insects, and Chordopoxvirinae, whose members are found in mammals, birds, reptiles and fish. Poxviruses are important pathogens in various animals, including humans, and typically result in the formation of lesions, skin nodules, or disseminated rash. Infections can be fatal. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the family Poxviridae, which is available at ictv.global/report/poxviridae.

Monkeypox virus: A review

While monkeypox was previously found in Africa, the bulk of occurrences in the present outbreak are being reported in many countries. It is not yet known how this outbreak began, and as the COVID-19 crisis begins to abate, numerous nations throughout the world are now contending with a novel outbreak. Monkeypox is a transmissible virus between animals and humans, belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family. In the 1970s, cases of monkeypox began increasing due to the cessation of vaccination against smallpox, which drew international attention. The virus was named monkeypox because it was first observed in macaque monkeys. It is thought to be transmitted by several different rodents and small mammals, though the origin of the virus is not known. Monkeypox, while occasionally transmitted from one human to another, can be disseminated through the inhalation of droplets or through contact with the skin lesions of an infected individual. Unfortunately, there is no definitive cure for monkeypox; however, supportive care can be offered to ameliorate its symptoms. In severe cases, medications like tecovirimat may be administered. However, there are no established guidelines for symptom management in monkeypox cases. In this article we have discussed about different aspects of monkeypox including viral structure, transmission, replication, clinical manifestations, vaccination, treatment and current prevalence in the world to understand it better and give insight to the future studies.

A systematic review and clinical atlas on mucocutaneous presentations of the current monkeypox outbreak: With a comprehensive approach to all dermatologic and nondermatologic aspects of the new and previous monkeypox outbreaks

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease, endemic in central and west African regions, and has re-emerged, currently causing an outbreak as of May 2022. In this systematic review, we aimed to characterize the current face of the disease, with a detailed categorization of mucocutaneous, as well as systemic symptoms of the disease. We searched four main online databases with the keywords "monkeypox" and "Orthopoxvirus". A total of 46 articles were included, with a cumulative number of 1984 confirmed cases. Patients were predominantly men who have sex with men, who were mostly in their 30s, with a history of unprotected sexual contact or international travel. Among mucocutaneous manifestations, anogenital lesions were the most commonly observed, followed by lesions on the limbs, face, trunk, and palms or soles. Among lesion types, vesiculopustular, pustular or pseudo-pustular, vesicular-umbilicated and papular lesions were the most common, mainly presenting asynchronously, with less than 10 lesions on each patient. Almost all patients also reported systemic manifestations, namely fever, lymphadenopathy, fatigue, myalgia, headaches, pharyngitis, and proctitis. Sexual contact is the main pathway of transmission in the current outbreak, with viral shedding in bodily fluids playing a key role. We've compared these idiosyncratic findings of the new outbreak with previous outbreaks. We've also gathered and categorized images from our included studies to make a "clinical atlas" for this "new" face of monkeypox, which can be of utmost importance for clinicians to be familiarized with, and have a clear picture of monkeypox for their differential diagnoses.

Evolution of the orthopoxvirus core genome

Orthopoxviruses comprise several relevant pathogens, including the causative agent of smallpox and monkeypox virus. Analysis of orthopoxvirus genome evolution mainly focused on gene gains/losses. We instead analyzed core genes, which are conserved in all orthopoxviruses. We show that, despite their strong constraint, some genes involved in viral morphogenesis and transcription/replication were targets of pervasive positive selection, which was relatively uncommon in immunomodulatory genes. However at least three of the positively selected genes, E3L, A24R, and H3L, might have evolved in response to immune selection. Episodic positive selection was particularly common on the internal branches of the orthopox phylogeny and on the monkeypox virus lineage. The latter showed evidence of episodic positive selection at the D14L gene, which encodes a modulator of complement activation (MOPICE). Notably, two genes (B1R and A33R) targeted by episodic selection on more than one branch are involved in forms of intra-genomic conflict. Finally, we found that, in orthopoxvirus proteomes, intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) tend to be less constrained and are common targets of positive selection. Extension of our analysis to all poxviruses showed no evidence that the IDR fraction differs with host range. Conversely, we found a strong effect of base composition, which was however not sufficient to explain IDR fraction. We thus suggest that, in poxviruses, the IDR fraction is maintained by modulating GC content to accommodate disorder-promoting codons. Overall, our data provide novel insight in orthopoxvirus evolution and provide a list of genes and sites that are expected to modulate viral phenotypes.

Monkeypox outbreak in the post-eradication era of smallpox

Human monkeypox (MPOX) which recently hit the headlines is a rare, emerging zoonotic disease, only next to smallpox yet never attended adequately to halt the epidemic outbreak threat. MPOX is caused by Orthopox virus, which is a double-stranded, linear DNA virus, transmitted from infected animals, commonly rodents to humans. Monkeypox is endemic to the tropical jungles in Central-West Africa; occasional cases reported in other nations could be due to people traveling from endemic regions of MPOX. Transmission may occur via direct contact with human body secretions, cutaneous or mucosal lesions in the mouth or throat or respiratory droplets, and contaminated objects. Typical MPOX symptoms are fever, lymphadenopathy, skin rashes, intense headache, muscle, back pain, etc. Lesions can range from a few to numerous and may be filled with clear or yellowish fluid that later dries up or crusts, eventually falling off. MPOX is often considered as infrequent and self-limiting; nonetheless, the latest sporadic reports call for urgent vigilance, precautionary preparedness, and immediate response. Paucity of the data available about MPOX virus diversity and incomplete information on validated management protocols instigate a sense of impending danger and loom large as a global health emergency. MPOX is a completely preventable infection, and this article will cater to the need for creating general awareness and developing cutting-edge surveillance measures to curtail the spread of the disease. Genomic investigations of new cases of MPOX must be undertaken to check for mutations which can lead to higher human susceptibility. Local health stakeholders and clinicians should emphasize early identification and give out appropriate treatment as per the existing protocol.

Clinical manifestations of human monkeypox infection and implications for outbreak strategy

Monkeypox is an orthopoxvirus-based zoonotic illness that causes symptoms similar to smallpox in humans. Health care workers around the world are making it a priority to educate themselves on the many clinical manifestations and treatment options for this virus as public health agencies strive to stop the current outbreak. The infected do not have access to any treatment at this time. However, information obtained from the smallpox pandemic has led researchers to examine vaccinia immune globulin (IVG), tecovirimat, and cidofovir as viable treatments for monkeypox. Moreover, medication like tecovirimat may be given in extreme circumstances, and supportive therapy can help with symptom relief. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) certified tecovirimat as safe and effective against monkeypox in 2022, per the World Health Organization (WHO). As there are now no established guidelines for alleviating these symptoms, the efficacy of these treatments is highly questionable. Some high-profile cases in recent years have cast doubt on the long-held belief that this illness is rare and always resolves itself without treatment. We aimed to conduct this review to get a deeper comprehension of the evolving epidemiology of monkeypox by analysing such factors as the number of confirmed, probable, and potential cases, the median age at presentation, the mortality rate, and the geographic distribution of the disease. This study offers an updated review of monkeypox and the clinical treatments that are currently available as a result of the worldwide epidemics.

Monkeypox: An emerging zoonotic pathogen

Monkeypox virus (MPXV), which belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus, causes zoonotic viral disease. This review discusses the biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV infection, particularly cellular, human, and viral factors, virus transmission dynamics, infection, and persistence in nature. This review also describes the role of recombination, gene loss, and gene gain in MPXV evol-vement and the role of signal transduction in MPXV infection and provides an overview of the current access to therapeutic options for the treatment and prevention of MPXV. Finally, this review highlighted gaps in knowledge and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.

Recent advances in the diagnosis monkeypox: implications for public health

Introduction

Monkeypox virus is a zoonotic double-stranded DNA poxvirus in the genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae. Until recently, monkeypox was found primarily in Central and West Africa, where the virus had split into Congo Basin and West African clades.

Areas Covered

On 6 May 2022, monkeypox was detected in the United Kingdom and the virus has now been detected in every continent except Antarctica. The current outbreak represents the first documentation of widespread community transmission outside of Africa.

Expert Opinion

On 23 July 2022, the World Health Organization declared monkeypox a public health emergency of international concern and issued a series of guidance and recommendations for governments, health professionals and the public. This manuscript reviews what is known about monkeypox virus, with a focus on recent diagnostics and epidemiologic advances, and explores how recent advances in our understanding of the virus will be used to combat the expanding outbreak.

Clinical features, hospitalisation and deaths associated with monkeypox: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

A multicountry monkeypox disease (MPX) outbreak began in May 2022 in Europe, leading to the assessment as a potential Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on June 23, 2022. Some observational studies have partially characterised clinical features, hospitalisations, and deaths. However, no systematic reviews of this MPX outbreak have been published.

Methods

We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis, using five databases to assess clinical features, hospitalisations, complications and deaths of MPX confirmed or probable cases. Observational studies, case reports and case series, were included. We performed a random-effects model meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). In addition, we carried out a subgroup analysis according to the continents and a sensitivity analysis excluding studies classified as having a high risk of bias.

Results

A total of 19 articles were included, using only 12 articles in the quantitative synthesis (meta-analysis). For 1958 patients, rash (93%, 95% CI 80–100%), fever (72%, 95% CI 30–99%), pruritus (65%, 95% CI 47–81%), and lymphadenopathy (62%, 47–76%), were the most prevalent manifestations. Among the patients, 35% (95% CI 14–59%) were hospitalised. Some 4% (95% CI 1–9%) of hospitalised patients had fatal outcomes (case fatality rate, CFR).

Conclusion

MPX is spreading rapidly, with a third of hospitalised patients, but less than 5% with fatal outcomes. As this zoonotic virus spreads globally, countries must urgently prepare human resources, infrastructure and facilities to treat patients according to the emerging guidelines and the most reliable clinical information.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12941-022-00527-1.

ANI analysis of poxvirus genomes reveals its potential application to viral species rank demarcation

Average nucleotide identity (ANI) is a prominent approach for rapidly classifying archaea and bacteria by recruiting both whole genomic sequences and draft assemblies. To evaluate the feasibility of ANI in virus taxon demarcation, 685 poxviruses were assessed. Prior to the analysis, the fragment length and threshold of the ANI value were optimized as 200 bp and 98 per cent, respectively. After ANI analysis and network visualization, the resulting sixty-one species (ANI species rank) were clustered and largely consistent with the groupings found in National Center for Biotechnology Information Virus [within the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Master Species List]. The species identities of thirty-four other poxviruses (excluded by the ICTV Master Species List) were also identified. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis and Guanine-Cytosine (GC) content comparison done were found to support the ANI analysis. Finally, the BLAST identity of concatenated sequences from previously identified core genes showed 91.8 per cent congruence with ANI analysis at the species rank, thus showing potential as a marker gene for poxviruses classification. Collectively, our results reveal that the ANI analysis may serve as a novel and efficient method for poxviruses demarcation.

Identification of a Novel Myxoma Virus C7-Like Host Range Factor That Enabled a Species Leap from Rabbits to Hares

Myxoma virus (MYXV) is naturally found in rabbit Sylvilagus species and is known to cause lethal myxomatosis in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). In 2019, an MYXV strain (MYXV strain Toledo [MYXV-Tol]) causing myxomatosis-like disease in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) was identified. MYXV-Tol acquired a recombinant region of ∼2.8 kb harboring several new genes, including a novel host range gene (M159) that we show to be an orthologous member of the vaccinia virus C7 host range family. Here, to test whether M159 alone has enabled MYXV to alter its host range to Iberian hares, several recombinant viruses were generated, including an MYXV-Tol ΔM159 (knockout) strain. While MYXV-Tol underwent fully productive infection in hare HN-R cells, neither the wild-type MYXV-Lau strain (lacking M159) nor vMyxTol-ΔM159 (deleted for M159) was able to infect and replicate, showing that the ability of MYXV-Tol to infect these cells and replicate depends on the presence of M159. Similar to other C7L family members, M159 was shown to be expressed as an early/late gene but was translocated into the nucleus at later time points, indicating that further studies are needed to elucidate its role in the nucleus. Finally, in rabbit cells, the M159 protein did not contribute to increased replication but was able to upregulate the replication levels of MYXV in nonpermissive and semipermissive human cancer cells, suggesting that the M159-targeted pathway is conserved across mammalian species. Altogether, these observations demonstrate that the M159 protein plays a critical role in determining the host specificity of MYXV-Tol in hare and human cells by imparting new host range functions. IMPORTANCE The coevolution of European rabbit populations and MYXV is a textbook example of an arms race between a pathogen and a host. Recently, a recombinant MYXV (MYXV-Tol) crossed the species barrier by jumping from leporid species to another species, causing lethal myxomatosis-like disease. Given the highly pathogenic nature of this new virus in hares and the incidences of other poxvirus cross-species spillovers into other animals, including humans, it is important to understand how and why MYXV-Tol was able to become virulent in a new host species. The results presented clearly demonstrate that M159 is the key factor allowing MYXV-Tol replication in hare cells by imparting new host range functions. These results have the potential to improve current knowledge about the virulence of poxviruses and provide a platform to better understand the new MYXV-Tol, rendering the virus capable of leaping into a new host species.

Prolonged Viability of Senecavirus A in Exposed House Flies (Musca domestica)

House flies (Musca domestica) are often present in swine farms worldwide. These flies utilize animal secretions and waste as a food source. House flies may harbor and transport microbes and pathogens acting as mechanical vectors for diseases. Senecavirus A (SVA) infection in pigs occurs via oronasal route, and animals shed high virus titers to the environment. Additionally, SVA possesses increased environmental resistance. Due to these reasons, we investigated the tenacity of SVA in house flies. Five groups of flies, each composed of ten females and ten males, were exposed to SVA, titer of 10^9.3 tissue culture infectious dose (TCID₅₀/mL). Groups of male and female flies were collected at 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h post-exposure. For comparison purposes, groups of flies were exposed to Swinepox virus (SwPV). Infectious SVA was identified in all tested groups. Successful isolation of SVA demonstrated the titers varied between 10^6.8 and 10^2.8 TCID₅₀/mL in female groups and varied from 10^5.85 to 10^3.8 TCID₅₀/mL in male groups. In contrast, infectious SwPV was only detected in the female group at 6 h. The significant SVA infectious titer for prolonged periods of time, up to 48 h, indicates a potential role of flies in SVA transmission.

Structure and function of the poxvirus transcription machinery

Members of the Poxviridae family are large double-stranded DNA viruses that replicate exclusively in the cytoplasm of their hosts. This goes in hand with a high level of independence from the host cell, which supports transcription and replication events only in the nucleus or in DNA-containing organelles. Consequently, virus specific, rather than cellular enzymes mediate most processes involving DNA replication and mRNA synthesis. Recent technological advances allowed a detailed functional and structural investigation of the transcription machinery of the prototypic poxvirus vaccinia. The DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP) at its core displays distinct similarities to eukaryotic RNAPs. Strong idiosyncrasies, however, are apparent for viral factors that are associated with the viral RNAP during mRNA production. We expect that future studies will unravel more key aspects of poxvirus gene expression, helping also the understanding of nuclear transcription mechanisms.

Genomic analysis of Poxviridae and exploring qualified gene sequences for phylogenetics

The members of the Poxviridae family are globally distributed all over the world and can cause infectious diseases. Although genome sequences are publicly available for representative isolates of all genera, studies on the criteria for genome-based classification within the Poxviridae family have rarely been reported. In our study, 60 Poxviridae genomes were re-annotated using Prokka. By using BLAST filtration and MCScanX, synteny and similarity of whole genomic amino acid sequences were visualized. According to the analysis pattern, the Chordopoxvirinae and Entomopoxvirinae subfamilies can be subdivided into five and two categories respectively, which is consistent with the phylogenetic tree constructed based on whole genomic amino acid sequences and Poxvirus core genes. Finally, four genes (Early transcription factor, DNA-directed RNA polymerase, RNA polymerase-associated transcription-specificity factor and DNA-dependent RNA polymerase) were selected from Poxvirus core genes by substitution saturation analysis and phylogenetic tree verification. Phylogenetic trees constructed based on single gene and concatenated sequences of the four selected genes showed that the classification of subgroups was consistent with the phylogenetic trees based on genome. Conclusion: a new method based on the similarity of whole genomic amino acid sequences was proposed for Poxviridae taxon demarcation, and the use of the four selected qualified genes will help make phylogenic identification of newly discovered Poxviridae isolates more convenient and accurate.

Genomic Analysis of Novel Poxvirus Brazilian Porcupinepox Virus, Brazil, 2019

We obtained the complete sequence of a novel poxvirus, tentatively named Brazilian porcupinepox virus, from a wild porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) in Brazil that had skin and internal lesions characteristic of poxvirus infection. The impact of this lethal poxvirus on the survival of this species and its potential zoonotic importance remain to be investigated.

Here, There, and Everywhere: The Wide Host Range and Geographic Distribution of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses

The global emergence of zoonotic viruses, including poxviruses, poses one of the greatest threats to human and animal health. Forty years after the eradication of smallpox, emerging zoonotic orthopoxviruses, such as monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses continue to infect humans as well as wild and domestic animals. Currently, the geographical distribution of poxviruses in a broad range of hosts worldwide raises concerns regarding the possibility of outbreaks or viral dissemination to new geographical regions. Here, we review the global host ranges and current epidemiological understanding of zoonotic orthopoxviruses while focusing on orthopoxviruses with epidemic potential, including monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses.

Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39 years of no reported case in Nigeria, and the export of travelers' monkeypox (MPX) from Nigeria to other parts of the world, in 2018 and 2019, respectively, have raised concern that MPXV may have emerged to occupy the ecological and immunological niche vacated by smallpox virus. This review X-rays the current state of knowledge pertaining the infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV in Nigeria and worldwide, especially with regard to the human, cellular, and viral factors that modulate the virus transmission dynamics, infection, and its maintenance in nature. This paper also elucidates the role of recombination, gene loss and gene gain in MPXV evolution, chronicles the role of signaling in MPXV infection, and reviews the current therapeutic options available for the treatment and prevention of MPX. Additionally, genome-wide phylogenetic analysis was undertaken, and we show that MPXV isolates from recent 2017 outbreak in Nigeria were monophyletic with the isolate exported to Israel from Nigeria but do not share the most recent common ancestor with isolates obtained from earlier outbreaks, in 1971 and 1978, respectively. Finally, the review highlighted gaps in knowledge particularly the non-identification of a definitive reservoir host animal for MPXV and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.

Genomic Features and Evolution of the Parapoxvirus during the Past Two Decades

Parapoxvirus (PPV) has been identified in some mammals and poses a great threat to both the livestock production and public health. However, the prevalence and evolution of this virus are still not fully understood. Here, we performed an in silico analysis to investigate the genomic features and evolution of PPVs. We noticed that although there were significant differences of GC contents between orf virus (ORFV) and other three species of PPVs, all PPVs showed almost identical nucleotide bias, that is GC richness. The structural analysis of PPV genomes showed the divergence of different PPV species, which may be due to the specific adaptation to their natural hosts. Additionally, we estimated the phylogenetic diversity of seven different genes of PPV. According to all available sequences, our results suggested that during 2010–2018, ORFV was the dominant virus species under the selective pressure of the optimal gene patterns. Furthermore, we found the substitution rates ranged from 3.56 × 10⁻⁵ to 4.21 × 10⁻⁴ in different PPV segments, and the PPV VIR gene evolved at the highest substitution rate. In these seven protein-coding regions, purifying selection was the major evolutionary pressure, while the GIF and VIR genes suffered the greatest positive selection pressure. These results may provide useful knowledge on the virus genetic evolution from a new perspective which could help to create prevention and control strategies.

Identification of Clade E Avipoxvirus in Brazil

Avian poxvirus (APV) is an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that affects many domestic and wild birds worldwide. APVs are classified into three clades (A to C), represented by fowlpox (FP) virus (clade A), canarypox virus (clade B), and psittacinepox virus (clade C), although two additional clades (D and E) have been proposed. In this study, a tumorlike skin lesion found in a domestic fowl was submitted for molecular diagnosis of Avipoxvirus by PCR and sequencing. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the amplified segment of the corelike 4b protein and polymerase genes clustered in clade E. The APVs in clade E were previously reported from outbreaks in Hungary (flock of turkeys) and in Mozambique (layer chickens), associated with a possible vaccine failure to protect against clade E viruses. To our knowledge, this report is the first identification of clade E in this country, providing new information about host range and genetic diversity of APVs in Brazil, and may represent a potential risk of FP disease outbreaks in commercial poultry.

Comparison of Multiplexed Immunofluorescence Imaging to Chromogenic Immunohistochemistry of Skin Biomarkers in Response to Monkeypox Virus Infection

Over the last 15 years, advances in immunofluorescence-imaging based cycling methods, antibody conjugation methods, and automated image processing have facilitated the development of a high-resolution, multiplexed tissue immunofluorescence (MxIF) method with single cell-level quantitation termed Cell DIVETM. Originally developed for fixed oncology samples, here it was evaluated in highly fixed (up to 30 days), archived monkeypox virus-induced inflammatory skin lesions from a retrospective study in 11 rhesus monkeys to determine whether MxIF was comparable to manual H-scoring of chromogenic stains. Six protein markers related to immune and cellular response (CD68, CD3, Hsp70, Hsp90, ERK1/2, ERK1/2 pT202_pY204) were manually quantified (H-scores) by a pathologist from chromogenic IHC double stains on serial sections and compared to MxIF automated single cell quantification of the same markers that were multiplexed on a single tissue section. Overall, there was directional consistency between the H-score and the MxIF results for all markers except phosphorylated ERK1/2 (ERK1/2 pT202_pY204), which showed a decrease in the lesion compared to the adjacent non-lesioned skin by MxIF vs an increase via H-score. Improvements to automated segmentation using machine learning and adding additional cell markers for cell viability are future options for improvement. This method could be useful in infectious disease research as it conserves tissue, provides marker colocalization data on thousands of cells, allowing further cell level data mining as well as a reduction in user bias.

Structural Basis of Poxvirus Transcription: Transcribing and Capping Vaccinia Complexes

Poxviruses use virus-encoded multisubunit RNA polymerases (vRNAPs) and RNA-processing factors to generate m⁷G-capped mRNAs in the host cytoplasm. In the accompanying paper, we report structures of core and complete vRNAP complexes of the prototypic Vaccinia poxvirus (Grimm et al., 2019; in this issue of Cell). Here, we present the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of Vaccinia vRNAP in the form of a transcribing elongation complex and in the form of a co-transcriptional capping complex that contains the viral capping enzyme (CE). The trifunctional CE forms two mobile modules that bind the polymerase surface around the RNA exit tunnel. RNA extends from the vRNAP active site through this tunnel and into the active site of the CE triphosphatase. Structural comparisons suggest that growing RNA triggers large-scale rearrangements on the surface of the transcription machinery during the transition from transcription initiation to RNA capping and elongation. Our structures unravel the basis for synthesis and co-transcriptional modification of poxvirus RNA.

Development and Evaluation of an Inactivated Lumpy Skin Disease Vaccine for Cattle

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) of cattle is caused by a virus within Capripoxvirus genus. It leads to huge economic losses in addition to trade and animal movement limitation. Vaccination is the only economically feasible way to control this vector-borne disease. Only live attenuated vaccines have been used so far and no inactivated vaccine has been developed nor tested in cattle. In this study, we developed an inactivated oily adjuvanted vaccine based on Neethling strain and tested it on cattle. Selected criteria of appreciation were safety, antibody response by Virus Neutralization and protection through challenge. A field trial was also performed in Bulgaria. The vaccine was safe and did not cause any adverse reaction, high level of specific antibodies was obtained starting from day 7 post-vaccination and protection against virulent challenge strain that caused typical disease in control animals was total. Induced protection was similar to that obtained with live vaccine, without any adverse effect. In addition, the field study confirmed safety and efficacy of the vaccine, which did not show any adverse reaction and induced a high level of antibodies for up to one year. General prophylaxis based on inactivated vaccine could be of great benefit in endemic countries or at risk regions.

Atypical Cowpox Virus Infection in Smallpox-Vaccinated Patient, France

We report a case of atypical cowpox virus infection in France in 2016. The patient sought care for thoracic lesions after injury from the sharp end of a metallic guardrail previously stored in the ground. We isolated a cowpox virus from the lesions and sequenced its whole genome. The patient reported that he had been previously vaccinated against smallpox. We describe an alternative route of cowpox virus infection and raise questions about the immunological status of smallpox-vaccinated patients for circulating orthopoxviruses.

Detection of lumpy skin disease virus in cattle using real-time polymerase chain reaction and serological diagnostic assays in different governorates in Egypt in 2017

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), is a highly infectious viral disease of cattle, caused by LSD virus (LSDV) which belongs to the genus Capripoxvirus of family Poxviridae. In the summer of 2017, skin lesions suggestive of LSD were observed in cattle at several governorates in Egypt. This study aimed to detect LSDV in cattle specimens using rapid serological and molecular diagnostic assays.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 46 skin biopsies and uncoagulated blood samples were collected from cattle with LSD suggestive clinical signs, as well as 290 coagulated whole blood samples from cattle without skin lesion in different governorates in Egypt during the summer of 2017. Skin biopsies were used for virus isolation from the chorioallantoic membrane of 11-day-old specific pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs (SPF-ECEs). LSDV was identified using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR (RT-PCR), and fluorescent antibody technique (FAT) with specific hyperimmune serum against LSDV. Cattle sera were examined using indirect FAT (IFAT) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Skin nodules and sitfast lesions were significant clinical signs observed in all LSD suspect cattle. SPF-ECEs, from which positive isolations were made and it showed characteristic inflammatory and focal white pock lesions. The isolated viruses were identified as LSDV by FAT, conventional gel-based PCR, and RT-PCR. Among the skin biopsies and corresponding blood samples, LSDV-positive samples percentage were 39.13 and 36.95 by RT-PCR, followed 34.78 and 28.26 by conventional PCR and then 32.6 and 26.8 by FAT, respectively. The total positive percentage of LSDV antibody detected in cattle serum samples were 17.93 and 14.48 by indirect ELISA and IFAT.

CONCLUSION

LSDV was detected and identified in skin biopsies and corresponding blood samples of naturally infected cattle, more LSDV-positive samples were detected by RT-PCR, followed by conventional PCR and then FAT. The indirect ELISA detected more antibody-positive samples than the IFAT from cattle serum samples. The RT-PCR assay is simple, sensitive, rapid, and reliable for the detection of LSDV in blood and skin nodule biopsies of suspected cattle.

Novel Poxvirus in Proliferative Lesions of Wild Rodents in East Central Texas, USA

Northern pygmy mice from 2 localities in East Central Texas, USA, had proliferative epidermal lesions on the tail and feet. Electron microscopy of lesion tissue revealed poxvirus. Phylogenetic analyses indicated the virus differed 35% from its closest relatives, the Chordopoxvirinae. Future research is needed to determine whether this virus could affect human health.

Adenosine Deaminase Acting on RNA 1 Associates with Orf Virus OV20.0 and Enhances Viral Replication

Orf virus (ORFV) infects sheep and goats and is also an important zoonotic pathogen. The viral protein OV20.0 has been shown to suppress innate immunity by targeting the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase (PKR) by multiple mechanisms. These mechanisms include a direct interaction with PKR and binding with two PKR activators, dsRNA and the cellular PKR activator (PACT), which ultimately leads to the inhibition of PKR activation. In the present study, we identified a novel association between OV20.0 and adenosine deaminase acting on RNA 1 (ADAR1). OV20.0 bound directly to the dsRNA binding domains (RBDs) of ADAR1 in the absence of dsRNA. Additionally, OV20.0 preferentially interacted with RBD1 of ADAR1, which was essential for its dsRNA binding ability and for the homodimerization that is critical for intact adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I)-editing activity. Finally, the association with OV20.0 suppressed the A-to-I-editing ability of ADAR1, while ADAR1 played a proviral role during ORFV infection by inhibiting PKR phosphorylation. These observations revealed a new strategy used by OV20.0 to evade antiviral responses via PKR.IMPORTANCE Viruses evolve specific strategies to counteract host innate immunity. ORFV, an important zoonotic pathogen, encodes OV20.0 to suppress PKR activation via multiple mechanisms, including interactions with PKR and two PKR activators. In this study, we demonstrated that OV20.0 interacts with ADAR1, a cellular enzyme responsible for converting adenosine (A) to inosine (I) in RNA. The RNA binding domains, but not the catalytic domain, of ADAR1 are required for this interaction. The OV20.0-ADAR1 association affects the functions of both proteins; OV20.0 suppressed the A-to-I editing of ADAR1, while ADAR1 elevated OV20.0 expression. The proviral role of ADAR1 is likely due to the inhibition of PKR phosphorylation. As RNA editing by ADAR1 contributes to the stability of the genetic code and the structure of RNA, these observations suggest that in addition to serving as a PKR inhibitor, OV20.0 might modulate ADAR1-dependent gene expression to combat antiviral responses or achieve efficient viral infection.

Sporadic cases of lumpy skin disease among cattle in Sharkia province, Egypt: Genetic characterization of lumpy skin disease virus isolates and pathological findings

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a highly infectious viral disease upsetting cattle, caused by LSD virus (LSDV) within the family Poxviridae. Sporadic cases of LSD have been observed in cattle previously vaccinated with the Romanian sheep poxvirus (SPPV) vaccine during the summer of 2016 in Sharkia province, Egypt. The present study was undertaken to perform molecular characterization of LSDV strains which circulated in this period as well as investigate their phylogenetic relatedness with published reference capripoxvirus genome sequences.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 82 skin nodules, as well as 5 lymph nodes, were collected from suspect LSD cases, and the virus was isolated in embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs). LSD was confirmed by polymerase chain reactions amplification of the partial and full-length sequences of the attachment and G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR) genes, respectively, as well as a histopathological examination of the lesions. Molecular characterization of the LSDV isolates was conducted by sequencing the GPCR gene.

RESULTS

Characteristic skin nodules that covered the whole intact skin, as well as lymphadenopathy, were significant clinical signs in all suspected cases. LSDV isolation in ECEs revealed the characteristic focal white pock lesions dispersed on the chorioallantoic membranes. Histopathologic examination showed characteristic eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies within inflammatory cell infiltration. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the LSDV isolates were clustered together with other African and European LSDV strains. In addition, the LSDV isolates have a unique signature of LSDVs (A11, T12, T34, S99, and P199).

CONCLUSION

LSDV infections have been detected in cattle previously vaccinated with Romanian SPPV vaccine during the summer of 2016 and making the evaluation of vaccine efficacy under field conditions necessary.

Poxvirus Host Range Genes and Virus-Host Spectrum: A Critical Review

The Poxviridae family is comprised of double-stranded DNA viruses belonging to nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV). Among the NCLDV, poxviruses exhibit the widest known host range, which is likely observed because this viral family has been more heavily investigated. However, relative to each member of the Poxviridae family, the spectrum of the host is variable, where certain viruses can infect a large range of hosts, while others are restricted to only one host species. It has been suggested that the variability in host spectrum among poxviruses is linked with the presence or absence of some host range genes. Would it be possible to extrapolate the restriction of viral replication in a specific cell lineage to an animal, a far more complex organism? In this study, we compare and discuss the relationship between the host range of poxvirus species and the abundance/diversity of host range genes. We analyzed the sequences of 38 previously identified and putative homologs of poxvirus host range genes, and updated these data with deposited sequences of new poxvirus genomes. Overall, the term host range genes might not be the most appropriate for these genes, since no correlation between them and the viruses' host spectrum was observed, and a change in nomenclature should be considered. Finally, we analyzed the evolutionary history of these genes, and reaffirmed the occurrence of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) for certain elements, as previously suggested. Considering the data presented in this study, it is not possible to associate the diversity of host range factors with the amount of hosts of known poxviruses, and this traditional nomenclature creates misunderstandings.

Tagging of the vaccinia virus protein F13 with mCherry causes aberrant virion morphogenesis

Vaccinia virus produces two distinct infectious virions; the single-enveloped intracellular mature virus (IMV), which remains in the cell until cell lysis, and the double-enveloped extracellular enveloped virus (EEV), which mediates virus spread. The latter is derived from a triple-enveloped intracellular enveloped virus (IEV) precursor, which is transported to the cell periphery by the kinesin-1 motor complex. This transport involves the viral protein A36 as well as F12 and E2. A36 is an integral membrane protein associated with the outer virus envelope and is the only known direct link between virion and kinesin-1 complex. Yet in the absence of A36 virion egress still occurs on microtubules, albeit at reduced efficiency. In this paper double-fluorescent labelling of the capsid protein A5 and outer-envelope protein F13 was exploited to visualize IEV transport by live-cell imaging in the absence of either A36 or F12. During the generation of recombinant viruses expressing both A5-GFP and F13-mCherry a plaque size defect was identified that was particularly severe in viruses lacking A36. Electron microscopy showed that this phenotype was caused by abnormal wrapping of IMV to form IEV, and this resulted in reduced virus egress to the cell surface. The aberrant wrapping phenotype suggests that the fluorescent fusion protein interferes with an interaction of F13 with the IMV surface that is required for tight association between IMVs and wrapping membranes. The severity of this defect suggests that these viruses are imperfect tools for characterizing virus egress.

Unique genomic organization of a novel Avipoxvirus detected in turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

Avipoxviruses are emerging pathogens affecting over 200 bird species worldwide. Genetic characterization of avipoxviruses is performed by analysis of genomic regions encoding the 4b and DNA polymerase. Whole genome sequence data are limited to a few avipoxvirus isolates. Based on phylogenetic analysis three major genetic clades are distinguished. In this study we report a novel avipoxvirus strain causing skin lesions in domestic turkey. The virus was identified in Hungary during 2011 in a flock of turkey vaccinated against avipoxvirus infection. The genome of the isolated strain, TKPV-HU1124/2011, was uniquely short (∼188.5kbp) and was predicted to encode reduced number of proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of the genes encoding the 4b and DNA polymerase separated TKPV-HU1124/2011 from other turkey origin avipoxviruses and classified it into a new genetic clade. This study permits new insight into the genetic and genomic heterogeneity of avipoxviruses and pinpoints the importance of strain diversity in vaccine efficacy.

PCR-based assay to detect sheeppox virus in ocular, nasal, and rectal swabs from infected Moroccan sheep

Sheeppox is now enzootic in Morocco. The development of a reliable method for rapid diagnosis of the disease is a central part of any control strategy. The aim of this study is to determine the diagnostic value of a variety of clinical samples such as ovine nasal, ocular or rectal swabs for the detection of sheeppox virus (SPPV) by qualitative conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using a single pair of primers targeting the inverted terminal repeats of the SPPV InS-1 strain, a virulent field isolate. Swab and blood samples were collected from forty animals naturally infected with SPPV who had clinical signs of sheeppox. All animals tested PCR-positive for SPPV. Positive results were obtained infrequently with blood samples, whereas swab samples from at least two sites (nasal, ocular, rectal) were positive per evaluated animal. These results indicate that swab samples are suitable for quantitative molecular SPPV diagnosis. PCR product sequences obtained from all types of sheep samples proved to be identical to the corresponding regions of sheeppox virus strain Romania 65.

Isolation and molecular characterization of contagious pustular dermatitis virus from Rajasthan, India

This article describes the isolation and identification of contagious pustular dermatitis virus/orf virus (ORFV) from an outbreak of contagious pustular dermatitis (orf) in flocks of goats, in the north western region of India (Rajasthan). The virus was isolated in Vero cell cultures from scab and swab suspensions and has been identified using GIF/IL-2 and B2L gene specific primers in PCR and sequencing. The virus showed high nucleotide identity with previously reported Chinese, far eastern, Brazilian and Indian isolates. This report described the use of molecular tools for fast, reliable and confirmatory diagnosis of ORFV infection.

Viral vectors for vaccine applications

Traditional approach of inactivated or live-attenuated vaccine immunization has resulted in impressive success in the reduction and control of infectious disease outbreaks. However, many pathogens remain less amenable to deal with the traditional vaccine strategies, and more appropriate vaccine strategy is in need. Recent discoveries that led to increased understanding of viral molecular biology and genetics has rendered the used of viruses as vaccine platforms and as potential anti-cancer agents. Due to their ability to effectively induce both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, viral vectors are deemed as an attractive alternative to the traditional platforms to deliver vaccine antigens as well as to specifically target and kill tumor cells. With potential targets ranging from cancers to a vast number of infectious diseases, the benefits resulting from successful application of viral vectors to prevent and treat human diseases can be immense.