1
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Diesendorf V, Roll V, Geiger N, Fähr S, Obernolte H, Sewald K, Bodem J. Drug-induced phospholipidosis is not correlated with the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 - inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 is cell line-specific. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1100028. [PMID: 37637460 PMCID: PMC10450944 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1100028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, Tummino et al. reported that 34 compounds, including Chloroquine and Fluoxetine, inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication by inducing phospholipidosis, although Chloroquine failed to suppress viral replication in Calu-3 cells and patients. In contrast, Fluoxetine represses viral replication in human precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) and Calu-3 cells. Thus, it is unlikely that these compounds have similar mechanisms of action. Here, we analysed a subset of these compounds in the viral replication and phospholipidosis assays using the Calu-3 cells and PCLS as the patient-near system. Trimipramine and Chloroquine induced phospholipidosis but failed to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication in Calu-3 cells, which contradicts the reported findings and the proposed mechanism. Fluoxetine, only slightly induced phospholipidosis in Calu-3 cells but reduced viral replication by 2.7 orders of magnitude. Tilorone suppressed viral replication by 1.9 orders of magnitude in Calu-3 cells without causing phospholipidosis. Thus, induction of phospholipidosis is not correlated with the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2, and the compounds act via other mechanisms. However, we show that compounds, such as Amiodarone, Tamoxifen and Tilorone, with antiviral activity on Calu-3 cells, also inhibited viral replication in human PCLS. Our results indicate that antiviral assays against SARS-CoV-2 are cell-line specific. Data from Vero E6 can lead to non-transferable results, underlining the importance of an appropriate cell system for analysing antiviral compounds against SARS-CoV-2. We observed a correlation between the active compounds in Calu-3 cells and PCLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Diesendorf
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Valeria Roll
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nina Geiger
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sofie Fähr
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Helena Obernolte
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM, Member of Fraunhofer International Consortium for Anti-Infective Research (iCAIR), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease (BREATH), Hannover, Germany
| | - Katherina Sewald
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM, Member of Fraunhofer International Consortium for Anti-Infective Research (iCAIR), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease (BREATH), Hannover, Germany
| | - Jochen Bodem
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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2
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Li H, Smith G, Goolia M, Marszal P, Pickering BS. Comparative characterization of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus cell culture systems with application to propagation and titration methods. Virol J 2023; 20:128. [PMID: 37337294 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02089-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus (CCHFV) is a biosafety level 4 and World Health Organization top priority pathogen. Infection leads to an often fatal hemorrhagic fever disease in humans. The tick-borne virus is endemic in countries across Asia, Europe and Africa, with signs of spreading into new regions. Despite the severity of disease and the potential of CCHFV geographic expansion to cause widespread outbreaks, no approved vaccine or treatment is currently available. Critical for basic research and the development of diagnostics or medical countermeasures, CCHFV viral stocks are commonly produced in Vero E6 and SW-13 cell lines. While a variety of in-house methods are being used across different laboratories, there has been no clear, specific consensus on a standard, optimal system for CCHFV growth and titration. In this study, we perform a systematic, side-by-side characterization of Vero E6 and SW-13 cell lines concerning the replication kinetics of CCHFV under different culture conditions. SW-13 cells are typically cultured in a CO2-free condition (SW-13 CO2-) according to the American Type Culture Collection. However, we identify a CO2-compatible culture condition (SW-13 CO2+) that demonstrates the highest viral load (RNA concentration) and titer (infectious virus concentration) in the culture supernatants, in comparison to SW-13 CO2- and Vero E6 cultures. This optimal viral propagation system also leads to the development of two titration methods: an immunostaining-based plaque assay using a commercial CCHFV antibody and a colorimetric readout, and an antibody staining-free, cytopathic effect-based median tissue culture infectious dose assay using a simple excel calculator. These are anticipated to serve as a basis for a reproducible, standardized and user-friendly platform for CCHFV propagation and titration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongzhao Li
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Greg Smith
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Melissa Goolia
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Peter Marszal
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Bradley S Pickering
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, College of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
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3
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Lingwan M, Shagun S, Pahwa F, Kumar A, Verma DK, Pant Y, Kamatam LVK, Kumari B, Nanda RK, Sunil S, Masakapalli SK. Phytochemical rich Himalayan Rhododendron arboreum petals inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023; 41:1403-1413. [PMID: 34961411 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.2021287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Phytochemicals with potential to competitively bind to the host receptors or inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication, may prove to be useful as adjunct therapeutics for COVID-19. We profiled and investigated the phytochemicals of Rhododendron arboreum petals sourced from Himalayan flora, undertook in vitro studies and found it as a promising candidate against SARS-CoV-2. The phytochemicals were reported in various scientific investigations to act against a range of virus in vitro and in vivo, which prompted us to test against SARS-CoV-2. In vitro assays of R. arboreum petals hot aqueous extract confirmed dose dependent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 viral load in infected Vero E6 cells (80% inhibition at 1 mg/ml; IC50 = 173 µg/ml) and phytochemicals profiled were subjected to molecular docking studies against SARS CoV-2 target proteins. The molecules 5-O-Feruloyl-quinic acid, 3-Caffeoyl-quinic acid, 5-O-Coumaroyl-D-quinic acid, Epicatechin and Catechin showed promising binding affinity with SARS-CoV-2 Main protease (MPro; PDB ID: 6LU7; responsible for viral replication) and Human Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2; PDB ID: 1R4L; mediate viral entry in the host). Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of 5-O-Feruloyl-quinic acid, an abundant molecule in the extract complexed with the target proteins showed stable interactions. Taken together, the phytochemical profiling, in silico analysis and in vitro anti-viral assay revealed that the petals extract act upon MPro and may be inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 replication. This is the first report highlighting R. arboreum petals as a reservoir of antiviral phytochemicals with potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity using an in vitro system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maneesh Lingwan
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Shagun Shagun
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Falak Pahwa
- Translational Health Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ankit Kumar
- Vector Borne Disease Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Dileep Kumar Verma
- Vector Borne Disease Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Yogesh Pant
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Lingarao V K Kamatam
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Bandna Kumari
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Ranjan Kumar Nanda
- Translational Health Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sujatha Sunil
- Vector Borne Disease Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Shyam Kumar Masakapalli
- BioX Centre, School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, India
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4
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Aiewsakun P, Phumiphanjarphak W, Ludowyke N, Purwono PB, Manopwisedjaroen S, Srisaowakarn C, Ekronarongchai S, Suksatu A, Yuvaniyama J, Thitithanyanont A. Systematic exploration of SARS-CoV-2 adaptation to Vero E6, Vero E6/TMPRSS2, and Calu-3 cells. Genome Biol Evol 2023; 15:7059555. [PMID: 36852863 PMCID: PMC10078795 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evad035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to spread globally, and scientists around the world are currently studying the virus intensively in order to fight against the on-going pandemic of the virus. To do so, SARS-CoV-2 is typically grown in the lab to generate viral stocks for various kinds of experimental investigations. However, accumulating evidence suggests that such viruses often undergo cell culture adaptation. Here, we systematically explored cell culture adaptation of two SARS-CoV-2 variants, namely the B.1.36.16 variant and the AY.30 variant, a sub lineage of the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant, propagated in three different cell lines, including Vero E6, Vero E6/TMPRSS2, and Calu-3 cells. Our analyses detected numerous potential cell culture adaptation changes scattering across the entire virus genome, many of which could be found in naturally circulating isolates. Notable ones included mutations around the spike glycoprotein's multibasic cleavage site, and the Omicron-defining H655Y mutation on the spike glycoprotein, as well as mutations in the nucleocapsid protein's linker region, all of which were found to be Vero E6-specific. Our analyses also identified deletion mutations on the non-structural protein 1 and membrane glycoprotein as potential Calu-3-specific adaptation changes. S848C mutation on the non-structural protein 3, located to the protein's papain-like protease domain, was also identified as a potential adaptation change, found in viruses propagated in all three cell lines. Our results highlight SARS-CoV-2 high adaptability, emphasise the need to deep-sequence cultured viral samples when used in intricate and sensitive biological experiments, and illustrate the power of experimental evolutionary study in shedding lights on the virus evolutionary landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakorn Aiewsakun
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Pornchai Matangkasombut Center for Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Worakorn Phumiphanjarphak
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Pornchai Matangkasombut Center for Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Natali Ludowyke
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Priyo Budi Purwono
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Suwimon Manopwisedjaroen
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Chanya Srisaowakarn
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Supanuch Ekronarongchai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Ampa Suksatu
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Jirundon Yuvaniyama
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Excellence in Protein and Enzyme Technology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Arunee Thitithanyanont
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Pornchai Matangkasombut Center for Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 272, Rama VI Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
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5
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Feng Y, Grotegut S, Jovanovic P, Gandin V, Olson SH, Murad R, Beall A, Colayco S, De-Jesus P, Chanda S, English BP, Singer RH, Jackson M, Topisirovic I, Ronai ZA. Inhibition of coronavirus HCoV-OC43 by targeting the eIF4F complex. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1029093. [PMID: 36532738 PMCID: PMC9751428 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1029093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The translation initiation complex 4F (eIF4F) is a rate-limiting factor in protein synthesis. Alterations in eIF4F activity are linked to several diseases, including cancer and infectious diseases. To this end, coronaviruses require eIF4F complex activity to produce proteins essential for their life cycle. Efforts to target coronaviruses by abrogating translation have been largely limited to repurposing existing eIF4F complex inhibitors. Here, we report the results of a high throughput screen to identify small molecules that disrupt eIF4F complex formation and inhibit coronavirus RNA and protein levels. Of 338,000 small molecules screened for inhibition of the eIF4F-driven, CAP-dependent translation, we identified SBI-1232 and two structurally related analogs, SBI-5844 and SBI-0498, that inhibit human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43; OC43) with minimal cell toxicity. Notably, gene expression changes after OC43 infection of Vero E6 or A549 cells were effectively reverted upon treatment with SBI-5844 or SBI-0498. Moreover, SBI-5844 or SBI-0498 treatment effectively impeded the eIF4F complex assembly, with concomitant inhibition of newly synthesized OC43 nucleocapsid protein and OC43 RNA and protein levels. Overall, we identify SBI-5844 and SBI-0498 as small molecules targeting the eIF4F complex that may limit coronavirus transcripts and proteins, thereby representing a basis for developing novel therapeutic modalities against coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongmei Feng
- Cancer Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Stefan Grotegut
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Predrag Jovanovic
- Lady Davis Institute, SMBD Jewish General Hospital, Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology and Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Valentina Gandin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, United States
| | - Steven H. Olson
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Rabi Murad
- Cancer Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Anne Beall
- Immunology and Infectious Disease Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Sharon Colayco
- Immunology and Infectious Disease Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Paul De-Jesus
- Immunology and Infectious Disease Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Sumit Chanda
- Immunology and Infectious Disease Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Brian P. English
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, United States
| | - Robert H. Singer
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, United States
| | - Michael Jackson
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ivan Topisirovic
- Lady Davis Institute, SMBD Jewish General Hospital, Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology and Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ze’ev A. Ronai
- Cancer Center at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States,*Correspondence: Ze’ev A. Ronai,
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6
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Konishi K, Yamaji T, Sakuma C, Kasai F, Endo T, Kohara A, Hanada K, Osada N. Whole-Genome Sequencing of Vero E6 (VERO C1008) and Comparative Analysis of Four Vero Cell Sublines. Front Genet 2022; 13:801382. [PMID: 35391802 PMCID: PMC8981525 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.801382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Vero cell line is an immortalized cell line established from kidney epithelial cells of the African green monkey. A variety of Vero sublines have been developed and can be classified into four major cell lineages. In this study, we determined the whole-genome sequence of Vero E6 (VERO C1008), which is one of the most widely used cell lines for the proliferation and isolation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoVs), and performed comparative analysis among Vero JCRB0111, Vero CCL-81, Vero 76, and Vero E6. Analysis of the copy number changes and loss of heterozygosity revealed that these four sublines share a large deletion and loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 12, which harbors type I interferon and CDKN2 gene clusters. We identified a substantial number of genetic differences among the sublines including single nucleotide variants, indels, and copy number variations. The spectrum of single nucleotide variants indicated a close genetic relationship between Vero JCRB0111 and Vero CCL-81, and between Vero 76 and Vero E6, and a considerable genetic gap between the former two and the latter two lines. In contrast, we confirmed the pattern of genomic integration sites of simian endogenous retroviral sequences, which was consistent among the sublines. We identified subline-specific/enriched loss of function and missense variants, which potentially contribute to the differences in response to viral infection among the Vero sublines. In particular, we identified four genes (IL1RAP, TRIM25, RB1CC1, and ATG2A) that contained missense variants specific or enriched in Vero E6. In addition, we found that V739I variants of ACE2, which functions as the receptor for SARS-CoVs, were heterozygous in Vero JCRB0111, Vero CCL-81, and Vero 76; however, Vero E6 harbored only the allele with isoleucine, resulting from the loss of one of the X chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Konishi
- Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Yamaji
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chisato Sakuma
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fumio Kasai
- Laboratory of Cell Cultures, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshinori Endo
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Arihiro Kohara
- Laboratory of Cell Cultures, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kentaro Hanada
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Osada
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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7
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Boschi C, Bideau ML, Andreani J, Aherfi S, Jardot P, Delerce J, Gendrot M, Pradines B, Colson P, Levasseur A, La Scola B. Heterogeneity in susceptibility to hydroxychloroquine of SARS-CoV-2 isolates. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2021; 26:1493-1502. [PMID: 34994164 DOI: 10.52586/5043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the fact that the clinical efficacy of hydroxychloroquine is still controversial, it has been demonstrated in vitro to control SARS-CoV-2 multiplication on Vero E6 cells. In this study, we tested the possibility that some patients with prolonged virus excretion could be infected by less susceptible strains. METHOD Using a high-content screening method, we screened 30 different selected isolates of SARS-CoV-2 from different patients who received azithromycin ± hydroxychloroquine. We focused on patients with viral persistence, i.e., positive virus detection in a nasopharyngeal sample ≥10 days, and who were tested during two French epidemic waves, late winter-spring of 2020 and the summer of 2020. Dose-response curves in single-molecule assays with hydroxychloroquine were created for isolates with suspected reduced susceptibility. Genome clustering was performed for all isolates. RESULTS Of 30 tested strains, three were detected as replicating in the presence of azithromycin + hydroxychloroquine, each at 5 μM. The dose-response model showed a decrease in susceptibility of these three strains to hydroxychloroquine. Whole genome sequencing revealed that these three strains are all from the second epidemic wave and two cluster with isolates from Africa. CONCLUSIONS Reduced susceptibility to hydroxychloroquine was not associated with viral persistence in naso-pharyngeal samples. Rather, it was associated with occurring during the second epidemic wave, which began in the summer and with strains clustering with those with a common genotype in Africa, where hydroxychloroquine was the most widely used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine Boschi
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Marion Le Bideau
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Julien Andreani
- Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Sarah Aherfi
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Priscilla Jardot
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Jeremy Delerce
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Mathieu Gendrot
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Parasitology and Entomology Unit, Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Department, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), 13005 Marseille, France.,Vecteurs - Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Service de Santé des Armées (SSA), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Bruno Pradines
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Parasitology and Entomology Unit, Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Department, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), 13005 Marseille, France.,Vecteurs - Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Service de Santé des Armées (SSA), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France.,National Reference center for Malaria, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Philippe Colson
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Anthony Levasseur
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Bernard La Scola
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Mediterranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France.,Microbe Evolution Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), Aix Marseille University, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Assistance publique hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), 13005 Marseille, France
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8
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Mösbauer K, Fritsch VN, Adrian L, Bernhardt J, Gruhlke MCH, Slusarenko AJ, Niemeyer D, Antelmann H. The Effect of Allicin on the Proteome of SARS-CoV-2 Infected Calu-3 Cells. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:746795. [PMID: 34777295 PMCID: PMC8581659 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.746795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate) is the major thiol-reactive organosulfur compound produced by garlic plants (Allium sativum) upon tissue damage. Allicin exerts its strong antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi via S-thioallylation of protein thiols and low molecular weight thiols. Here, we investigated the effect of allicin on SARS-CoV-2 infected Vero E6 and Calu-3 cells. Toxicity tests revealed that Calu-3 cells showed greater allicin tolerance, probably due to >4-fold higher GSH levels compared to the very sensitive Vero E6 cells. Exposure of infected Vero E6 and Calu-3 cells to biocompatible allicin doses led to a ∼60–70% decrease of viral RNA and infectious viral particles. Label-free quantitative proteomics was used to investigate the changes in the Calu-3 proteome after SARS-CoV-2 infection and the effect of allicin on the host-virus proteome. SARS-CoV-2 infection of Calu-3 cells caused a strong induction of the antiviral interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) signature, including several antiviral effectors, such as cGAS, Mx1, IFIT, IFIH, IFI16, IFI44, OAS, and ISG15, pathways of vesicular transport, tight junctions (KIF5A/B/C, OSBPL2, CLTCL1, and ARHGAP17) and ubiquitin modification (UBE2L3/5), as well as reprogramming of host metabolism, transcription and translation. Allicin treatment of infected Calu-3 cells reduced the expression of IFN signaling pathways and ISG effectors and reverted several host pathways to levels of uninfected cells. Allicin further reduced the abundance of the structural viral proteins N, M, S and ORF3 in the host-virus proteome. In conclusion, our data demonstrate the antiviral and immunomodulatory activity of biocompatible doses of allicin in SARS-CoV-2-infected cell cultures. Future drug research should be directed to exploit the thiol-reactivity of allicin derivatives with increased stability and lower human cell toxicity as antiviral lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirstin Mösbauer
- Institute of Virology, Berlin Institute of Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Lorenz Adrian
- Department Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.,Fachgebiet Geobiotechnologie, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Bernhardt
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | | | - Daniela Niemeyer
- Institute of Virology, Berlin Institute of Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Berlin, Germany
| | - Haike Antelmann
- Institute for Biology-Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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9
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Freeman J, Conklin J, Oramus D, Cycon K. Serology testing demonstrates that antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 S1-RBD correlate with neutralization of virus infection of Vero E6 cells. J Appl Lab Med 2021; 6:1386-1389. [PMID: 33822063 PMCID: PMC8083479 DOI: 10.1093/jalm/jfab027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- James Freeman
- Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics Inc, Tarrytown, New York, United States
| | - Justin Conklin
- Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics Inc, Tarrytown, New York, United States
| | | | - Kelly Cycon
- ZeptoMetrix, Buffalo, New York, United States
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10
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Barrow KA, Rich LM, Vanderwall ER, Reeves SR, Rathe JA, White MP, Debley JS. Inactivation of Material from SARS-CoV-2-Infected Primary Airway Epithelial Cell Cultures. Methods Protoc 2021; 4:mps4010007. [PMID: 33430421 PMCID: PMC7839057 DOI: 10.3390/mps4010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that the airway epithelium is the initial site of infection, study of primary human airway epithelial cells (AEC) infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) will be crucial to improved understanding of viral entry factors and innate immune responses to the virus. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidance recommends work with live SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture be conducted in a Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) laboratory. To facilitate downstream assays of materials from experiments there is a need for validated protocols for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation to facilitate safe transfer of material out of a BSL-3 laboratory. We propagated stocks of SARS-CoV-2, then evaluated the effectiveness of heat (65 °C) or ultraviolet (UV) light inactivation. We infected differentiated human primary AECs with SARS-CoV-2, then tested protocols designed to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 in supernatant, protein isolate, RNA, and cells fixed for immunohistochemistry by exposing Vero E6 cells to materials isolated/treated using these protocols. Heating to 65 °C for 10 min or exposing to UV light fully inactivated SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, we found in SARS-CoV-2-infected primary AEC cultures that treatment of supernatant with UV light, isolation of RNA with Trizol®, isolation of protein using a protocol including sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) 0.1% and Triton X100 1%, and fixation of AECs using 10% formalin and Triton X100 1%, each fully inactivated SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn A. Barrow
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
| | - Lucille M. Rich
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
| | - Elizabeth R. Vanderwall
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
| | - Stephen R. Reeves
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary and Sleep Medicine, Seattle Children’s Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Jennifer A. Rathe
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Seattle Children’s Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101, USA;
| | - Maria P. White
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
| | - Jason S. Debley
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA; (K.A.B.); (L.M.R.); (E.R.V.); (S.R.R.); (M.P.W.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary and Sleep Medicine, Seattle Children’s Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
- Correspondence:
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11
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Holwerda M, V'kovski P, Wider M, Thiel V, Dijkman R. Identification of an Antiviral Compound from the Pandemic Response Box that Efficiently Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Infection In Vitro. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1872. [PMID: 33256227 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With over 50 million currently confirmed cases worldwide, including more than 1.3 million deaths, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has a major impact on the economy and health care system. Currently, limited prophylactic or therapeutic intervention options are available against SARS-CoV-2. In this study, 400 compounds from the antimicrobial “pandemic response box” library were screened for inhibiting properties against SARS-CoV-2. An initial screen on Vero E6 cells identified five compounds that inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication. However, validation of the selected hits in a human lung cell line highlighted that only a single compound, namely Retro-2.1, efficiently inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication. Additional analysis revealed that the antiviral activity of Retro-2.1 occurs at a post-entry stage of the viral replication cycle. Combined, these data demonstrate that stringent in vitro screening of preselected compounds in multiple cell lines refines the rapid identification of new potential antiviral candidate drugs targeting SARS-CoV-2.
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12
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Zecha J, Lee CY, Bayer FP, Meng C, Grass V, Zerweck J, Schnatbaum K, Michler T, Pichlmair A, Ludwig C, Kuster B. Data, Reagents, Assays and Merits of Proteomics for SARS-CoV-2 Research and Testing. Mol Cell Proteomics 2020; 19:1503-1522. [PMID: 32591346 PMCID: PMC7780043 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra120.002164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to spread, thousands of scientists around the globe have changed research direction to understand better how the virus works and to find out how it may be tackled. The number of manuscripts on preprint servers is soaring and peer-reviewed publications using MS-based proteomics are beginning to emerge. To facilitate proteomic research on SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, this report presents deep-scale proteomes (10,000 proteins; >130,000 peptides) of common cell line models, notably Vero E6, Calu-3, Caco-2, and ACE2-A549 that characterize their protein expression profiles including viral entry factors such as ACE2 or TMPRSS2. Using the 9 kDa protein SRP9 and the breast cancer oncogene BRCA1 as examples, we show how the proteome expression data can be used to refine the annotation of protein-coding regions of the African green monkey and the Vero cell line genomes. Monitoring changes of the proteome on viral infection revealed widespread expression changes including transcriptional regulators, protease inhibitors, and proteins involved in innate immunity. Based on a library of 98 stable-isotope labeled synthetic peptides representing 11 SARS-CoV-2 proteins, we developed PRM (parallel reaction monitoring) assays for nano-flow and micro-flow LC-MS/MS. We assessed the merits of these PRM assays using supernatants of virus-infected Vero E6 cells and challenged the assays by analyzing two diagnostic cohorts of 24 (+30) SARS-CoV-2 positive and 28 (+9) negative cases. In light of the results obtained and including recent publications or manuscripts on preprint servers, we critically discuss the merits of MS-based proteomics for SARS-CoV-2 research and testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Zecha
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Chien-Yun Lee
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Florian P Bayer
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Chen Meng
- Bavarian Center for Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry (BayBioMS), Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Vincent Grass
- Institute of Virology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich partner site, Germany
| | | | | | - Thomas Michler
- Institute of Virology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Pichlmair
- Institute of Virology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich partner site, Germany
| | - Christina Ludwig
- Bavarian Center for Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry (BayBioMS), Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.
| | - Bernhard Kuster
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany; Bavarian Center for Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry (BayBioMS), Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.
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13
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Andreani J, Le Bideau M, Duflot I, Jardot P, Rolland C, Boxberger M, Wurtz N, Rolain JM, Colson P, La Scola B, Raoult D. In vitro testing of combined hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin on SARS-CoV-2 shows synergistic effect. Microb Pathog 2020; 145:104228. [PMID: 32344177 PMCID: PMC7182748 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Human coronaviruses SARS-CoV-2 appeared at the end of 2019 and led to a pandemic with high morbidity and mortality. As there are currently no effective drugs targeting this virus, drug repurposing represents a short-term strategy to treat millions of infected patients at low costs. Hydroxychloroquine showed an antiviral effect in vitro. In vivo it showed efficacy, especially when combined with azithromycin in a preliminary clinical trial. Here we demonstrate that the combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin has a synergistic effect in vitro on SARS-CoV-2 at concentrations compatible with that obtained in human lung. SARS-CoV 2 emergence and spreading need to found urgently therapeutics. Drug repurposing is the best strategy for quick therapeutic response. Azithromycin and hydroxychloroquine shows synergistic effect on replication. Concentrations of drugs are more compatible with in vivo concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Andreani
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Marion Le Bideau
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Isabelle Duflot
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Priscilla Jardot
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Clara Rolland
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Manon Boxberger
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Nathalie Wurtz
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Marc Rolain
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Philippe Colson
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France
| | - Bernard La Scola
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France.
| | - Didier Raoult
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, Marseille, France.
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14
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Eghianruwa Q, Osoniyi O, Wachira S, Maina N, Mbugua R, Imbuga M. In vitro antiproliferative studies of extracts of the marine molluscs: Tympanatonus fuscatus Var radula (linnaeus) and Pachymelania aurita (muller). Int J Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 10:1-8. [PMID: 31149366 PMCID: PMC6526377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the antimitotic and antiproliferation activities of crude acetone-methanol and aqueous extracts of two marine molluscs commonly found in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria; T.fuscatus and P.aurita, against human cancerous cell lines (DU145, Hep-2, and HCC1395) cell lines in vitro. The antimitotic activity of the extracts was evaluated using Allium cepa root meristematic cells. Antiproliferative activity of the plant extracts against the cancerous cell lines was compared with normal cell line (VeroE6). Doxorubicin was used as a positive control. Gene expression studies using qPCR for the proapoptotic genes, CASP3, CASP8 and P53 were also carried out. The alcohol extract of T.fuscatus (TFAC) exhibited the most promising activity against all the cancer cell lines tested (DU145 IC50 = 96.48 ± 1.36 μg/ml, HCC 1395 IC50 = 61.44 ± 2.45 μg/ml, Hep2 IC50 = 0.52 ± 0.36 μg/ml) and also had the highest selectivity index of 4.94, 7.78 and 921.97 for DU145, HCC 1395 and Hep-2 cells respectively. Furthermore, TFAC was the only extract that significantly upregulated the expression of caspase 3, caspase 8 and P53. Thus, these findings suggest potential exploitation of TFAC as an anticancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Queensley Eghianruwa
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Pan African University Institute of Science, Technology and InnovationKenya
| | - Omolaja Osoniyi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Obafemi Awolowo UniversityIle Ife, Nigeria
| | | | - Naomi Maina
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Pan African University Institute of Science, Technology and InnovationKenya
- Biochemistry Department, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and TechnologyJuja, Kenya
| | | | - Mabel Imbuga
- Biochemistry Department, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and TechnologyJuja, Kenya
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