A Zinc-Bromine Battery with Deep Eutectic Electrolytes

A deep eutectic solvent (DES) is an ionic liquid-analog electrolyte, newly emerging due to its low cost, easy preparation, and tunable properties. Herein, a zinc-bromine battery (ZBB) with a Zn-halide-based DES electrolyte prepared by mixing ZnBr₂ , ZnCl₂ , and a bromine-capturing agent is reported. The water-free DES electrolyte allows a closed-cell configuration for the ZBB owing to the prevention of Br₂ evaporation and H₂ evolution. It is found that the Cl^- anion changes the structure of the zinc-halide complex anions and demonstrated that it improves the ion mobility and electrode reaction kinetics. The DES electrolyte with the optimized ZnCl₂ composition shows much higher rate capability and a cycle life 90 times longer than that of a ZnCl₂ -free DES electrolyte. A pouch-type flexible ZBB battery based on the DES electrolyte exhibits swelling-free operation for more than 120 cycles and stable operation under a folding test, suggesting its potential in consumer applications such as wearable electronics.

Impact of Tetrabutylammonium on the Oxidation of Bromide by Ozone

The reaction of ozone with sea-salt derived bromide is relevant for marine boundary layer atmospheric chemistry. The oxidation of bromide by ozone is enhanced at aqueous interfaces. Ocean surface water and sea spray aerosol are enriched in organic compounds, which may also have a significant effect on this reaction at the interface. Here, we assess the surface propensity of cationic tetrabutylammonium at the aqueous liquid-vapor interface by liquid microjet X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and the effect of this surfactant on ozone uptake to aqueous bromide solutions. The results clearly indicate that the positively charged nitrogen group in tetrabutylammonium (TBA), along with its surface activity, leads to an enhanced interfacial concentration of both bromide and the bromide ozonide reaction intermediate. In parallel, off-line kinetic experiments for the same system demonstrate a strongly enhanced ozone loss rate in the presence of TBA, which is attributed to an enhanced surface reaction rate. We used liquid jet XPS to obtain detailed chemical composition information from the aqueous-solution-vapor interface of mixed aqueous solutions containing bromide or bromide and chloride with and without TBA surfactant. Core level spectra of Br 3d, C 1s, Cl 2p, N 1s, and O 1s were used for this comparison. A model was developed to account for the attenuation of photoelectrons by the carbon-rich layer established by the TBA surfactant. We observed that the interfacial density of bromide is increased by an order of magnitude in solutions with TBA. The salting-out of TBA in the presence of 0.55 M sodium chloride is apparent. The increased interfacial bromide density can be rationalized by the association constants for bromide and chloride to form ion-pairs with TBA. Still, the interfacial reactivity is not increasing simply proportionally with the increasing interfacial bromide concentration in response to the presence of TBA. The steady state concentration of the bromide ozonide intermediate increases by a smaller degree, and the lifetime of the intermediate is 1 order of magnitude longer in the presence of TBA. Thus, the influence of cationic surfactants on the reactivity of bromide depends on the details of the complex environment at the interface.

Investigation of Bis(Perfluoro-tert-Butoxy) Halogenates(I/III)

A systematic study of halogenate(I/III) anions with polyatomic ligands is presented. The bis(perfluoro‐tert‐butoxy) halogenates(I) [X(OC₄F₉)₂]⁻, X=Cl, Br, I, of chlorine, bromine, and iodine are prepared as their tetraethylammonium salts and characterized with IR, Raman, and NMR spectroscopic methods, as well as single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction analyses. Spectroscopical data are supported by quantum‐chemical calculations. Additionally, the bonding situation of the species in question are analyzed and discussed. Furthermore, the oxidation to the corresponding halogenate(III) derivatives was studied. For [Br(OC₄F₉)₂]⁻, oxidation with elemental fluorine gave [BrF₂(OC₄F₉)₂]⁻. Iodide was directly oxidized by ClOC₄F₉ to the I^III species [I(OC₄F₉)₄]⁻, which is a surprisingly inert anion that might be used as a weakly coordinating anion (WCA) in the future. For [Cl(OC₄F₉)₂]⁻, the decomposition products of the synthetic approaches towards a chlorine(III) system were analyzed.

Implementation and Impacts of Surface and Blowing Snow Sources of Arctic Bromine Activation Within WRF-Chem 4.1.1

Elevated concentrations of atmospheric bromine are known to cause ozone depletion in the Arctic, which is most frequently observed during springtime. We implement a detailed description of bromine and chlorine chemistry within the WRF-Chem 4.1.1 model, and two different descriptions of Arctic bromine activation: (1) heterogeneous chemistry on surface snow on sea ice, triggered by ozone deposition to snow (Toyota et al., 2011 https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-3949-2011), and (2) heterogeneous reactions on sea salt aerosols emitted through the sublimation of lofted blowing snow (Yang et al., 2008, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008gl034536). In both mechanisms, bromine activation is sustained by heterogeneous reactions on aerosols and surface snow. Simulations for spring 2012 covering the entire Arctic reproduce frequent and widespread ozone depletion events, and comparisons with observations of ozone show that these developments significantly improve model predictions during the Arctic spring. Simulations show that ozone depletion events can be initiated by both surface snow on sea ice, or by aerosols that originate from blowing snow. On a regional scale, in spring 2012, snow on sea ice dominates halogen activation and ozone depletion at the surface. During this period, blowing snow is a major source of Arctic sea salt aerosols but only triggers a few depletion events.

A controlling role for the air-sea interface in the chemical processing of reactive nitrogen in the coastal marine boundary layer

The lifetime of reactive nitrogen and the production rate of reactive halogens in the marine boundary layer are strongly impacted by reactions occurring at aqueous interfaces. Despite the potential importance of the air-sea interface in serving as a reactive surface, few direct field observations are available to assess its impact on reactive nitrogen deposition and halogen activation. Here, we present direct measurements of the vertical fluxes of the reactant-product pair N2O5 and ClNO2 to assess the role of the ocean surface in the exchange of reactive nitrogen and halogens. We measure nocturnal N2O5 exchange velocities (Vex = -1.66 ± 0.60 cm s(-1)) that are limited by atmospheric transport of N2O5 to the air-sea interface. Surprisingly, vertical fluxes of ClNO2, the product of N2O5 reactive uptake to concentrated chloride containing surfaces, display net deposition, suggesting that elevated ClNO2 mixing ratios found in the marine boundary layer are sustained primarily by N2O5 reactions with aerosol particles. Comparison of measured deposition rates and in situ observations of N2O5 reactive uptake to aerosol particles indicates that N2O5 deposition to the ocean surface accounts for between 26% and 42% of the total loss rate. The combination of large Vex, N2O5 and net deposition of ClNO2 acts to limit NOx recycling rates and the production of Cl atoms by shortening the nocturnal lifetime of N2O5. These results indicate that air-sea exchange processes account for as much as 15% of nocturnal NOx removal in polluted coastal regions and can serve to reduce ClNO2 concentrations at sunrise by over 20%.