Combined Application of Leguminous Green Manure and Straw Determined Grain Yield and Nutrient Use Efficiency in Wheat-Maize-Sunflower Rotations System in Northwest China

Leguminous green manure (LGM) has a reputation for improving crop productivity. However, little is known about the beneficial interactions with straw on crop yield and nutrient (N, P, K) use efficiency. Herein, a 9-year field experiment (from 2015 to 2023) containing three treatments-(1) chemical fertilizer as the control (CK), (2) NPK + straw return (Straw) and (3) NPK + straw return with LGM (Straw + LGM)-was conducted to investigate whether the combined application of LGM and straw can increase productivity and nutrient use efficiency in the wheat-maize-sunflower diversified cropping rotation. The results showed that in the third rotation (2021-2023), Straw + LGM significantly increased wheat yield by 10.2% and maize yield by 19.9% compared to CK. The total equivalent yield under Straw + LGM was the highest (26.09 Mg ha-1), exceeding Straw and CK treatments by 2.7% and 12.3%, respectively. For each 2 Mg ha-1 increase in straw returned to the field, sunflower yield increased by 0.2 Mg ha-1, whereas for each 1 Mg ha-1 increase in LGM yield from the previous crop, sunflower yield increased by 0.45 Mg ha-1. Compared to CK, the co-application of LGM and straw increased the N use efficiency of maize in the first and third rotation cycle by 70.6% and 55.8%, respectively, and the P use efficiency by 147.8% in the third rotation cycle. Moreover, Straw treatment led to an increase of net income from wheat and sunflower by 14.5% and 44.6%, while Straw + LGM increased the net income from maize by 15.8% in the third rotation cycle. Combining leguminous green manure with a diversified cropping rotation has greater potential to improve nutrient use efficiency, crop productivity and net income, which can be recommended as a sustainable agronomic practice in the Hetao District, Northwest China.

[Tillage Depth Regulation and the Effect of Straw Return on Soil Respiration in Farmland]

Straw return and tillage depth treatments are one of the most important agricultural management measures that affect farmland soil respiration, but the mechanism of their interaction affecting farmland soil respiration remains unclear. Therefore, 116 published research articles were used through Meta-analysis technology for dryland farmland ecosystems in China to explore the effects of straw return and tillage depth treatments and their interaction on farmland soil respiration and its regulatory factors, which will provide important data support and a theoretical basis for achieving "carbon neutrality" in farmland ecosystems. The results showed that no tillage reduced soil respiration by 8.3%, and the effects of shallow and deep tillage treatments on soil respiration were not significant, but the increase in soil respiration still showed a trend of deep tillage>shallow tillage>no tillage. However, both shallow and deep tillage had relatively small effects on soil respiration and soil organic carbon (SOC), whereas no tillage reduced soil respiration by 8.3% and increased SOC by 7.05%. Therefore, implementing no tillage measures is of great significance for soil carbon sequestration and emission reduction in farmland ecosystems. In addition, tillage depth significantly regulated the impact of straw return on soil respiration, and the increase in soil respiration showed a trend of deep tillage straw return>shallow tillage straw return>no tillage straw return, with an overall average increase of 14.51%. The increase in soil respiration under different tillage depth treatments after straw return was closely related to the change in soil bulk density, crop yield, SOC, soil temperature, and moisture, and the contribution to the increase in soil respiration showed a trend of soil bulk density>crop yield>soil organic carbon>soil moisture>soil temperature. However, SOC increased by 29.32%, 10.12%, and 23.94%, respectively, in the deep tillage straw return, shallow tillage straw return, and no tillage straw return treatments, whereas soil respiration increased by 29.32% and 18.92%, respectively, in the deep tillage straw return and shallow tillage straw return treatments, and it only increased by 1.2% in the no tillage straw return treatment. Therefore, no tillage straw return was also beneficial to soil carbon sequestration and emission reduction in farmland ecosystems. Thus, in the dryland farmland ecosystem of China, tillage depth treatments regulated the impact of straw return on soil respiration, which was mainly related to soil physical and chemical properties, especially being closely related to soil bulk density. Moreover, no tillage and no tillage straw return are important agricultural management measures that are conducive to soil carbon sequestration and emission reduction.

Straw and phosphorus applications promote maize (Zea mays L.) growth in saline soil through changing soil carbon and phosphorus fractions

Introduction

Straw return has been widely recognized as an important carbon (C) enhancement measure in agroecosystems, but the C-phosphorus (P) interactions and their effects on plants in saline soils are still unclear.

Methods

In this study, we investigated the effects of straw return and three P application levels, no P fertilizer (Non-P), a conventional application rate of P fertilizer (CP), and a high application rate of P fertilizer (HP), on maize growth and soil C and P fractions through a pot experiment.

Results and discussion

The results revealed that the dry matter weight of maize plant was no difference between the two straw return levels and was 15.36% higher under HP treatments than under Non-P treatments. Plant nutrient accumulations were enhanced by straw addition and increased with increasing P application rate. Straw application reduced the activities of peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) in maize plants by 31.69%, 38.99%, 45.96% and 27.04%, respectively. P application decreased SOD, POD activities and MDA content in the absence of straw. The contents of easily oxidized organic carbon (EOC), particulate organic carbon (POC) and the ratio of POC/SOC in straw-added soils were 10.23%, 17.00% and 7.27% higher, respectively, than those in straw-absent soils. Compared with Non-P treatments, HP treatments led to an increase of 12.05%, 23.04% in EOC, POC contents respectively, while a decrease of 18.12% in the contribution of MAOC to the SOC pool. Straw return improved the P status of the saline soil by increasing soil available P (14.80%), organic P (35.91%) and Ca2-P contents (4.68%). The structural equation model showed that straw and P applications could promote maize growth (indicated by dry matter weight, P accumulation, antioxidant enzyme activity and MDA content) through improving soil C and P availabilities.

Conclusion

This study provides evidence that straw return together with adequate P supply in saline soil can promote crop nutrient accumulation, attenuate the oxidation damage on crop growth, and be beneficial for SOC turnover and soil P activation.

Transcriptome Analysis of Maize Ear Leaves Treated with Long-Term Straw Return plus Nitrogen Fertilizer under the Wheat-Maize Rotation System

Straw return (SR) plus nitrogen (N) fertilizer has become a practical field management mode to improve soil fertility and crop yield in North China. This study aims to explore the relationship among organic waste, mineral nutrient utilization, and crop yield under SRN mode. The fertilizer treatments included unfertilized (CK), SR (straws from wheat and corn), N fertilizer (N), and SR plus N fertilizer (SRN). SRN treatment not only significantly increased the grain yield, net photosynthetic rate, and transpiration rate but also enhanced the contents of chlorophyll, soluble sugar, and soluble protein and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes but reduced intercellular CO2 concentration and malondialdehyde (MDA) content when compared to other treatments. There were 2572, 1258, and 3395 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified from the paired comparisons of SRvsCK, NvsCK, and SRNvsCK, respectively. The transcript levels of many promising genes involved in the transport and assimilation of potassium, phosphate, and nitrogen, as well as the metabolisms of sugar, lipid, and protein, were down-regulated by straw returning under N treatment. SRN treatment maintained the maximum maize grain yield by regulating a series of genes' expressions to reduce nutrient shortage stress and to enhance the photosynthesis of ear leaves at the maize grain filling stage. This study would deepen the understanding of complex molecular mechanisms among organic waste, mineral nutrient utilization, crop yield, and quality.

[Short-term effect of different returning methods of maize straw on the temperature of black soil plough layer]

Clarifying the effect of different maize straw returning methods on soil temperature is crucial for optimizing the management of farmland straw and the efficient utilization of heat resources in the black soil region of Northeast China. To investigate the impacts of straw returning methods on soil temperature, we conducted a field experiment with four treatments during 2018 and 2020, including plough tillage with straw returning (PTSR), rotary tillage with straw returning (RTSR), no-tillage with straw returning (NTSR), and a control treatment of conventional ridge tillage without straw returning (CT). We measured soil temperature and water content at the 5 cm, 15 cm and 30 cm soil layer, and the straw coverage rate during the 3-year maize growth period. We further analyzed the differences of soil temperature in different soil layer under different treatments, accumulated soil temperature and growing degree-days (GDD) above 10 ℃, daily dynamics of soil temperature, the production efficiency of air accumulated temperature among different treatments, and explored factors causing the difference of soil temperature and the production efficiency of air accumulated temperature. Our results showed that different treatments mainly affected soil temperature from the sowing to emergence stage (S-VE) of maize. The daily average soil temperature showed a trend of CT>PTSR>RTSR>NTSR. The differences of soil temperature under different treatments showed a decreasing trend as growth process advanced and soil depth increased. Compared with the CT treatment, soil temperature at 5 cm depth was decreased by 0.86, 1.84 and 3.50 ℃ for PTSR, RTSR, and NTSR treatments, respectively. NTSR significantly reduced the accumulated temperature of ≥10 ℃ in different soil layers and GDD. The accumulated temperature ≥ 10 ℃ at the 5, 15, and 30 cm soil layers decreased by 216.2, 222.7, and 165.1 ℃·d, and the GDD decreased by 201.9, 138.7 and 123.9 ℃·d, respectively. In addition, production efficiency of air accumulated temperature decreased by 9.7% to 15.6% for NTSR. Conclusively, PTSR and RTSR had significant impacts on topsoil temperature during the maize growing period from sowing to emergence, but did not affect the accumulated soil temperature and the production efficiency of air accumulated temperature. However, NTSR significantly reduced topsoil temperature and production efficiency of air accumulated temperature.

The Impact of Tillage and Crop Residue Incorporation Systems on Agrophysical Soil Properties

A long-term field experiment has been ongoing since 1999 at the Experimental Station of Vytautas Magnus University's Agriculture Academy. According to the latest edition of the International Soil Classification System, the soil in the experimental field can be classified as Planosol, with a silty medium-loam texture at a depth of 0-20 cm and a silty light-loam texture at a depth of 20-40 cm. Studies were carried out on winter wheat crops in 2014, 2017, and 2023. This research aimed to assess how different long-term tillage systems impact soil shear strength and aggregate stability, their interconnection, and the effect of crop residues on soil stability. The treatments were arranged using a split-plot design. In a two-factor field experiment, straw was removed from one part of the experimental field, while the entire straw yield was chopped and spread at harvest in the other part (Factor A). The subplot factor (Factor B) included three different tillage systems: conventional deep ploughing, cover cropping for green manure with no tillage, and no tillage. The soil samples were analyzed at the Laboratory of Agrobiology at Vytautas Magnus University's Agriculture Academy. The findings indicated that the long-term application of reduced tillage significantly increased the soil shear strength. Shallower tillage depths led to a higher soil shear strength, while the effect of spreading plant residues was relatively lower. The long-term tillage of different intensities, spreading plant residues, and catch crop cultivation for green manure did not significantly affect the soil structure. However, the soil structural stability was found to be highly dependent on soil tillage. Cover cropping for green manure with no tillage and no tillage alone positively affected the soil aggregate stability in the upper 0-10 cm and 10-25 cm layers. The correlation-regression analysis showed that, in the top 0-10 cm and 10-25 soil layers, there were moderate to strong correlations between the soil structural stability, soil shear strength, and the effect of crop residues on soil stability.

Effect of different straw retention techniques on soil microbial community structure in wheat-maize rotation system

Rotational straw return technique is considered an effective measure for improving soil quality and maintaining soil microorganisms. However, there are few reports on the influence of wheat-maize crop rotation and straw-returning tillage on crop soil microbial communities in China. This study aimed to investigate how wheat or maize straw-incorporation practices affect bacterial and fungal communities under wheat-maize rotational farming practices. To clarify the effects of straw incorporation on microbial composition, microbial communities from soils subjected to different treatments were identified using high-throughput sequencing. Our results showed that, before corn planting, wheat and maize straw returning reduced bacterial density and increased their diversity but had no effect on fungal diversity. However, before wheat planting, returning wheat and corn stalks to the field increased the diversity of soil bacteria and fungi, whereas returning corn stalks to the field reduced the diversity of fungi and other microorganisms. Straw return significantly increased the relative abundance of Ascomycota in the first season and decreased it in the second season; however, in the second season, wheat straw return increased the relative abundance of Bradyrhizobium, which can promote the soil microbial nitrogen cycle and provide nitrogen to the soil. Wheat and maize straw return increased the relative abundance of Chaetomium, whereas, individually, they decreased the relative abundance. In addition, we detected two fungal pathogens (Fusarium and Trichoderma) under the two planting patterns and found that the relative abundance of pathogenic Fusarium increased with wheat straw return (FW and SW). Trichoderma increased after treatment with maize straw return before wheat planting (S group). These results suggest that wheat straw return (FW and SW) and maize straw return might have a negative impact on the pathogenic risk. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine how to manage straw returns in agricultural production.

Rhizosphere and Straw Return Interactively Shape Rhizosphere Bacterial Community Composition and Nitrogen Cycling in Paddy Soil

Currently, how rice roots interact with straw return in structuring rhizosphere communities and nitrogen (N) cycling functions is relatively unexplored. In this study, paddy soil was amended with wheat straw at 1 and 2% w/w and used for rice growth. The effects of the rhizosphere, straw, and their interaction on soil bacterial community composition and N-cycling gene abundances were assessed at the rice maturity stage. For the soil without straw addition, rice growth, i.e., the rhizosphere effect, significantly altered the bacterial community composition and abundances of N-cycling genes, such as archaeal and bacterial amoA (AOA and AOB), nirK, and nosZ. The comparison of bulk soils between control and straw treatments showed a shift in bacterial community composition and decreased abundance of AOA, AOB, nirS, and nosZ, which were attributed to sole straw effects. The comparison of rhizosphere soils between control and straw treatments showed an increase in the nifH gene and a decrease in the nirK gene, which were attributed to the interaction of straw and the rhizosphere. The number of differentially abundant genera in bulk soils between control and straw treatments was 13-23, similar to the number of 16-22 genera in rhizosphere soil between control and straw treatment. However, the number of genera affected by the rhizosphere effect was much lower in soil amended with straw (3-4) than in soil without straw addition (9). Results suggest possibly more pronounced impacts of straw amendments in shaping soil bacterial community composition.

Straw Return and Nitrogen Fertilization to Maize Regulate Soil Properties, Microbial Community, and Enzyme Activities Under a Dual Cropping System

Soil sustainability is based on soil microbial communities’ abundance and composition. Straw returning (SR) and nitrogen (N) fertilization influence soil fertility, enzyme activities, and the soil microbial community and structure. However, it remains unclear due to heterogeneous composition and varying decomposition rates of added straw. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the effect of SR and N fertilizer application on soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), urease (S-UE) activity, sucrase (S-SC) activity, cellulose (S-CL) activity, and bacterial, fungal, and nematode community composition from March to December 2020 at Guangxi University, China. Treatments included two planting patterns, that is, SR and traditional planting (TP) and six N fertilizer with 0, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 kg N ha^–1. Straw returning significantly increased soil fertility, enzymatic activities, community diversity, and composition of bacterial and fungal communities compared to TP. Nitrogen fertilizer application increased soil fertility and enzymes and decreased the richness of bacterial and fungal communities. In SR added plots, the dominated bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria, Acidobacterioia, Nitrospirae, Chloroflexi, and Actinobacteriota; whereas fungal phyla were Ascomycota and Mortierellomycota and nematode genera were Pratylenchus and Acrobeloides. Co-occurrence network and redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that TN, SOC, and S-SC were closely correlated with bacterial community composition. It was concluded that the continuous SR and N fertilizer improved soil fertility and improved soil bacterial, fungal, and nematode community composition.

Effects of straw return and straw biochar on soil properties and crop growth: A review

Straw return is an effective method for disposing agricultural residues. It not only utilizes agricultural waste but also improves soil. In the current review, different crop straw and its characteristics were highlighted, and patterns of straw return were explored (including straw return, straw biochar return, and their combined with fertilizer return), as well as their environmental impacts were outlined. In addition, the effects of straw return and straw biochar amendment on soil properties [e.g., pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), soil nitrogen (N)/phosphorus (P)/potassium (K), soil enzyme activities, and soil microbes] were discussed. Information collected from this review proposed that straw return and straw biochar return or in combination with fertilizer is an applicable way for improving soil fertility and enhancing crop production. Straw return is beneficial to soil physicochemical properties and soil microbial features. The rice straw has positive impacts on crop growth. However, there are different climate types, soil types and crops in China, meaning that the future research need long-term experiment to assess the complex interactions among straw, soil, and plant eco-systems. Accordingly, this review aims to provide available information on the application of straw return in terms of different patterns of its to justify and to expand their effective promotion.

The Effects of Earthworms on Fungal Diversity and Community Structure in Farmland Soil With Returned Straw

BACKGROUND

To promote the decomposition of returned straw, reduce the incidence of soil-borne diseases caused by returned straw, and accelerate the conversion of straw carbon into soil carbon, we inoculated earthworms into fields with returned straw. The earthworms accelerated straw degradation and promoted carbon conversion. However, the impact of externally inoculated earthworms on the farmland soil ecosystem, especially the structure and the function of its microbial community, remains unclear.

METHODS

We analyzed the effects of straw return and earthworms on the diversity of fungal populations and the community structure of dominant fungal taxa in soil by quantifying fungal population size and community composition via PCR amplification of internal transcribed spacer genes and 18S rRNA gene sequencing.

RESULTS

The results showed that earthworm inoculation significantly accelerated the degradation of rice straw and promoted the conversion of straw carbon to soil carbon. Both fungal abundance and α-diversity (Sobs and Shannon indices) were higher in the plots with surface straw but without earthworms than in those inoculated with earthworms and in the CK. Principal component analysis indicated that straw return increased the diversity and the abundance of the fungal community, whereas earthworms inhibited this expansion of the fungal community caused by straw return. Interestingly, the overall differences in fungal community composition were smallest in plots with straw return, while the dominant fungal community features in plots inoculated with earthworms were closer to those of the CK.

CONCLUSION

Generally, straw return stimulated unclassified_K_fungi, Pseudeurotium, and Fusarium with strong cellulolytic ability. In contrast, the abundances of Stachybotrys, unclassified_c_Sordariomycetes, unclassified_f_Lasiosphaeriaceae, and Schizothecium were higher in the plots inoculated with earthworms and in the CK. Furthermore, evolutionary analysis showed that the evolution of soil fungal communities tended to diverge after straw return, and the evolutionary directions of fungal species in the plots inoculated with earthworms were similar to those in the CK.

Straw decreased N2O emissions from flooded paddy soils via altering denitrifying bacterial community compositions and soil organic carbon fractions

Straw return is widely applied to increase soil fertility and soil organic carbon storage. However, its effect on N2O emissions from paddy soil and the associated microbial mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, wheat straw was amended to two paddy soils (2% w/w) from Taizhou (TZ) and Yixing (YX), China, which were flooded and incubated for 30 d. Real-time PCR and Illumina sequencing were used to characterize changes in denitrifying functional gene abundance and denitrifying bacterial communities. Compared to unamended controls, straw addition significantly decreased accumulated N2O emissions in both TZ (5071 to 96 mg kg-1) and YX (1501 to 112 mg kg-1). This was mainly due to reduced N2O production with decreased abundance of major genera of nirK and nirS-bacterial communities and reduced nirK and nirS gene abundances. Further analyses showed that nirK-, nirS- and nosZ-bacterial community composition shifted mainly along the easily oxidizable carbon (EOC) arrows following straw amendment among four different soil organic carbon fractions, suggesting that increased EOC was the main driver of alerted denitrifying bacterial community composition. This study revealed straw return suppressed N2O emission via altering denitrifying bacterial community compositions and highlighted the importance of EOC in controlling denitrifying bacterial communities.

Effects of long-term straw return on soil organic carbon storage and sequestration rate in North China upland crops: A meta-analysis

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is essential for soil fertility and climate change mitigation, and carbon can be sequestered in soil through proper soil management, including straw return. However, results of studies of long-term straw return on SOC are contradictory and increasing SOC stocks in upland soils is challenging. This study of North China upland agricultural fields quantified the effects of several fertilizer and straw return treatments on SOC storage changes and crop yields, considering different cropping duration periods, soil types, and cropping systems to establish the relationships of SOC sequestration rates with initial SOC stocks and annual straw C inputs. Our meta-analysis using long-term field experiments showed that SOC stock responses to straw return were greater than that of mineral fertilizers alone. Black soils with higher initial SOC stocks also had lower SOC stock increases than did soils with lower initial SOC stocks (fluvo-aquic and loessial soils) following applications of nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium (NPK) fertilizer and NPK+S (straw). Soil C stocks under the NPK and NPK+S treatments increased in the more-than-20-year duration period, while significant SOC stock increases in the NP and NP+S treatment groups were limited to the 11- to 20-year period. Annual crop productivity was higher in double-cropped wheat and maize under all fertilization treatments, including control (no fertilization), than in the single-crop systems (wheat or maize). Also, the annual soil sequestration rates and annual straw C inputs of the treatments with straw return (NP+S and NPK+S) were significantly positively related. Moreover, initial SOC stocks and SOC sequestration rates of those treatments were highly negatively correlated. Thus, long-term straw return integrated with mineral fertilization in upland wheat and maize croplands leads to increased crop yields and SOC stocks. However, those effects of straw return are highly dependent on fertilizer management, cropping system, soil type, duration period, and the initial SOC content.

Effect of the Applied Fertilization Method under Full Straw Return on the Growth of Mechanically Transplanted Rice

This study aimed to improve nitrogen utilization and alleviate the inhibition of straw decomposition during early tillering and the growth of paddy after straw return. Specifically, three different nitrogen fertilizer (base fertilizer) application methods were tested under full straw return: applying the compound fertilizer once (J1), applying the compound fertilizer twice (J3) and applying the ammonium carbonate fertilizer plus compound fertilizer (J2). Full straw return without fertilizer (CK1) and no straw return without fertilizer (CK2) were used as the controls. The results showed that treatment with ammonium carbonate fertilizer combined with compound fertilizer (J2) significantly enhanced straw decomposition, light interception and dry matter accumulation at an early stage of tillering, but reduced tiller occurrence at a late tillering stage. Grain yield was affected due to reduced dry matter accumulation, nitrogen use efficiency and number of effective panicles. There were no significant differences in rice growth, nitrogen use efficiency and grain yield between the one-time or two-time compound fertilizer application methods. In contrast, treatment with ammonium carbonate fertilizer combined with compound fertilizer (J2) under full straw return effectively improved straw decomposition and accelerated the return of green and tillering. In addition, the proportion of ammonium carbonate fertilizer affected the nutrient utilization efficiency and yield at later stages.

Long-term decomposed straw return positively affects the soil microbial community

AIMS

In order to understand the response of soil microbial communities to the long-term of decomposed straw return, the modifications of soil microbial community structure and composition induced by more than 10 years of fresh and decomposed straw return was investigated and the key environmental factors were analysed.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Phospholipid fatty acid analysis and high-through sequencing technique were applied to analyse the structure and composition of the soil microbial communities. Compared with fresh straw, returning decomposed straw increased the relative abundance of bacteria and fungi by 1·9 and 7·7% at a rate of ~3750 kg ha^-1 , and increased by 23·1 and 5·7%, at a rate of ~7500 kg ha^-1 respectively. The relative abundance of the bacteria related to soil nitrification increased, but the ones related to soil denitrification decreased with decomposed straw return, which led to higher total nitrogen contents in soils. Moreover, returning decomposed straw reduced pathogenic fungal populations (genus of Alternara), which had significantly positive correlation with soil electric conductivity. It indicated that the long-term of decomposed straw return might have lower risk of soil-borne disease mainly for the reasonable soil salinity.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term of decomposed straw return could provide suitable nutrient and salinity for healthier development of soil microbial community, both in abundance and structure, compared with fresh straw return.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The results of the study helps to better understand how the microbial community modifications induced by decomposed straw return benefit on soil health. The obtained key factors impacting soil microbial community variations is meaningful in soil health management under conditions of straw return.

[Effects of continuous cropping with straw return on particulate organic carbon and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in cotton field]

A long-term field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of continuous cotton production years (0 as control, 5, 10, 15 and 20 years) and straw return on soil organic carbon (SOC) structure and stability by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in Manas River valley of Xinjiang. The results showed that the relative peak intensity of polysaccharide and aromatics decreased with increasing continuous cropping years, whereas the aliphatic and alcoholic phenols relative peak intensity and the CH/C=C increased. The content of soil particulate organic carbon (POC) increased significantly in the 5-yr of cotton production farmland and then decreased with the increases of continuous cropping years. POC content was 5.11 times higher in 5-yr than that of the control. The content of mineral-bound organic carbon (MOC) was the highest in 10-yr farmland, being 1.84 times higher than that of the control. The highest value of the ratio of POC and MOC content (ω(POC)/ω(MOC)) was observed in 5-yr farmland. Together, long-term continuous cotton production with straw return led to SOC structure aliphatic and soil mineral binding increased the protection of organic matter, thus increasing the stability of soil organic matter.

[Transformation and distribution of straw-derived carbon in soil and the effects on soil organic carbon pool: A review]

Farmland soil organic carbon (SOC) pool is a crucial component of global carbon cycle. Due to the widely-implemented straw returning, crop straws have become the primary exogenous carbon source for agricultural soils. The conversion and distribution of straw-derived carbon in soil directly affect the composition and contents of SOC, with further influence on soil nutrient cycling. Based on recent studies, this review investigated the factors impacting the transformation and distribution of straw-carbon; introduced the microbial composition that contributes to the assimilation of carbon from straw; and summarized the effects of straw-carbon on the composition, content, and turnover of SOC. Additionally, we proposed the future research regarding the effects of abiotic factors on the bio-transformation of straw-carbon; the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors during the straw carbon transformation processes; the coupling of carbon and nitrogen from straws into the soil carbon and nitrogen cycles; and the effective control over the transformation of straw-carbon that enters the active or stable soil organic carbon pool. The purpose was to reveal variation characteristics of SOC during straw returning, and provide theoretical basis and technical support for the efficient fertilization and carbon sequestration of straw returning.

[Response of the Soil N2O Emission and Ammonia-oxidizing Microorganism Community to the Maize Straw Return with Reducing Fertilizer in Purple Soil]

Crop straw is an important agricultural source, which can replace chemical fertilizers. A field experiment with six different amounts of fertilization combined with maize straw residues was carried out in purple soil, including the control (CK), conventional fertilizing (F), straw return with conventional fertilizing (100FS), straw return with 70% conventional fertilizing (70FS), straw return with 60% conventional fertilizing (60FS), and straw return with 50% regular fertilizing (50FS), to determine the response of the soil N₂O emission and ammonia-oxidizing microorganism community distribution to straw return with reducing fertilizer. The dynamic characteristics of the N₂O emission in purple soil were observed using an in situ closed chamber and gas chromatography-based system. The ammonia-oxidizing microorganism community distribution was analyzed with multiple molecular techniques (DNA-based clone library and qPCR) linked to physical-chemical soil properties. The results show that the combination of straw with fertilizer increases the N₂O emission and cumulative N₂O emission. The highest N₂O emission[57.59-6238.02 μg·(m²·h)^-1]and cumulative N₂O emission (60.76 kg·hm^-2) were observed for the 100FS treatment. Compared with the F treatment, the soil ammonium nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen contents are reduced and the soil organic matter increases after crop straw return with chemical fertilizer. However, significant changes of the soil total nitrogen and pH were not observed. The bacterial ammonia oxidizer (AOB) amoA gene abundance is higher than that of the archaeal ammonia oxidizer (AOA). The AOA amoA gene abundance during F treatment (50.9×10³ copies·g^-1) is significantly higher than that of others, while the AOB amoA abundance gene of the F treatment is the lowest (1.36×10⁵ copies·g^-1). The 100FS reduces the community diversity and Pielou index of AOA and AOB amoA gene. Their amoA gene abundance significantly declines during 100FS treatment. However, the increment of the AOA and AOB amoA gene diversity and dominant increment of AOB amoA gene abundance are significant when applying straw with reducing fertilizer. The specific AOA indicator OTU1 may be most important with respect to the direct and indirect production of N₂O in purple soil. The redundancy analysis (RDA) shows that the community structure of AOA is remarkably relevant to the soil ammonium nitrogen, organic matter, and available phosphorus (P<0.05) and that the community structure of AOB is remarkably relevant to the soil dissolved organic nitrogen, total nitrogen, available potassium, and available phosphorus (P<0.05). The tolerance to different environments and ecological niches of AOB is weaker than that of AOA. Our results illustrate that the maize straw return with 60%-70% regular fertilizing dramatically increases the community diversity and abundance of the AOA and AOB amoA genes and partly mitigates the soil N₂O emission without significantly decreasing the vegetable yields.

Trade-offs between soil carbon sequestration and reactive nitrogen losses under straw return in global agroecosystems

It is widely recommended that crop straw be returned to croplands to maintain or increase soil carbon (C) storage in arable soils. However, because C and nitrogen (N) biogeochemical cycles are closely coupled, straw return may also affect soil reactive N (Nr) losses, but these effects remain uncertain, especially in terms of the interactions between soil C sequestration and Nr losses under straw addition. Here, we conducted a global meta-analysis using 363 publications to assess the overall effects of straw return on soil Nr losses, C sequestration and crop productivity in agroecosystems. Our results show that on average, compared to mineral N fertilization, straw return with same amount of mineral N fertilizer significantly increased soil organic C (SOC) content (14.9%), crop yield (5.1%), and crop N uptake (10.9%). Moreover, Nr losses in the form of nitrous oxide (N₂ O) emissions from rice paddies (17.3%), N leaching (8.7%), and runoff (25.6%) were significantly reduced, mainly due to enhanced microbial N immobilization. However, N₂ O emissions from upland fields (21.5%) and ammonia (NH₃ ) emissions (17.0%) significantly increased following straw return, mainly due to the stimulation of nitrification/denitrification and soil urease activity. The increase in NH₃ and N₂ O emissions was significantly and negatively correlated with straw C/N ratio and soil clay content. Regarding the interactions between C sequestration and Nr losses, the increase in SOC content following straw return was significantly and positively correlated with the decrease in N leaching and runoff. However, at a global scale, straw return increased net Nr losses from both rice and upland fields due to a greater stimulation of NH₃ emissions than the reduction in N leaching and runoff. The trade-offs between increased net Nr losses and soil C sequestration highlight the importance of reasonably managing straw return to soils to limit NH₃ emissions without decreasing associated C sequestration potential.

Differentiated Mechanisms of Biochar Mitigating Straw-Induced Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Two Contrasting Paddy Soils

Straw returns to the soil is an effective way to improve soil organic carbon and reduce air pollution by straw burning, but this may increase CH₄ and N₂O emissions risks in paddy soils. Biochar has been used as a soil amendment to improve soil fertility and mitigate CH₄ and N₂O emissions. However, little is known about their interactive effect on CH₄ and N₂O emissions and the underlying microbial mechanisms. In this study, a 2-year pot experiment was conducted on two paddy soil types (an acidic Utisol, TY, and an alkaline Inceptisol, BH) to evaluate the influence of straw and biochar applications on CH₄ and N₂O emissions, and on related microbial functional genes. Results showed that straw addition markedly increased the cumulative CH₄ emissions in both soils by 4.7- to 9.1-fold and 23.8- to 72.4-fold at low (S1) and high (S2) straw input rate, respectively, and significantly increased mcrA gene abundance. Biochar amendment under the high straw input (BS2) significantly decreased CH₄ emissions by more than 50% in both soils, and increased both mcrA gene and pmoA gene abundances, with greatly enhanced pmoA gene and a decreased mcrA/pmoA gene ratio. Moreover, methanotrophs community changed distinctly in response to straw and biochar amendment in the alkaline BH soil, but showed slight change in the acidic TY soil. Straw had little effect on N₂O emissions at low input rate (S1) but significantly increased N₂O emissions at the high input rate (S2). Biochar amendment showed inconsistent effect on N₂O emissions, with a decreasing trend in the BH soil but an increasing trend in the TY soil in which high ammonia existed. Correspondingly, increased nirS and nosZ gene abundances and obvious community changes in nosZ gene containing denitrifiers in response to biochar amendment were observed in the BH soil but not in the TY soil. Overall, our results suggested that biochar amendment could markedly mitigate the CH₄ and N₂O emissions risks under a straw return practice via regulating functional microbes and soil physicochemical properties, while the performance of this practice will vary depending on soil parent material characteristics.

Effects of straw carbon input on carbon dynamics in agricultural soils: a meta-analysis

Straw return has been widely recommended as an environmentally friendly practice to manage carbon (C) sequestration in agricultural ecosystems. However, the overall trend and magnitude of changes in soil C in response to straw return remain uncertain. In this meta-analysis, we calculated the response ratios of soil organic C (SOC) concentrations, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, nutrient contents and other important soil properties to straw addition in 176 published field studies. Our results indicated that straw return significantly increased SOC concentration by 12.8 ± 0.4% on average, with a 27.4 ± 1.4% to 56.6 ± 1.8% increase in soil active C fraction. CO2 emission increased in both upland (27.8 ± 2.0%) and paddy systems (51.0 ± 2.0%), while CH4 emission increased by 110.7 ± 1.2% only in rice paddies. N2 O emission has declined by 15.2 ± 1.1% in paddy soils but increased by 8.3 ± 2.5% in upland soils. Responses of macro-aggregates and crop yield to straw return showed positively linear with increasing SOC concentration. Straw-C input rate and clay content significantly affected the response of SOC. A significant positive relationship was found between annual SOC sequestered and duration, suggesting that soil C saturation would occur after 12 years under straw return. Overall, straw return was an effective means to improve SOC accumulation, soil quality, and crop yield. Straw return-induced improvement of soil nutrient availability may favor crop growth, which can in turn increase ecosystem C input. Meanwhile, the analysis on net global warming potential (GWP) balance suggested that straw return increased C sink in upland soils but increased C source in paddy soils due to enhanced CH4 emission. Our meta-analysis suggested that future agro-ecosystem models and cropland management should differentiate the effects of straw return on ecosystem C budget in upland and paddy soils.