[Severe pseudomembranous colitis in patients with previous coronavirus infection]

OBJECTIVE

To analyze treatment outcomes in patients with severe pseudomembranous colitis and previous coronavirus infection.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed treatment outcomes, clinical, laboratory and histological data in convalescents of COVID-19 who admitted to the department of coloproctology for moderate-to-severe pseudomembranous colitis confirmed by endoscopic examination between 2020 and 2021.

RESULTS

There were 13 patients with moderate pseudomembranous colitis and 6 ones with severe pseudomembranous colitis. Mean period after recovery from coronavirus infection was 19 days. Endoscopy revealed whitish-yellow or gray raised plaques on colonic mucosa in all cases. Four patients with signs of peritonitis underwent emergency surgery. Three patients had perforation of caecum; one patient had perforation of sigmoid colon and widespread peritonitis. Two patients underwent urgent surgery for progressive toxic megacolon and ineffective therapy. Subtotal colectomy and ileostomy were performed in all cases. Histological examination revealed necrosis of not only superficial layer of colon mucosa typical for clostridial colitis, but also the entire thickness of mucosa, as well as submucosal and partially muscular layers in some cases. Mucosal crypt atrophy, fibrinoid effusion in muscular layer, diffuse polymorphonuclear cell infiltration and necrosis of muscular and submucosal nerve plexuses, as well as necrosis of vascular walls with deposition of hyaline-like structures characterize microcirculatory ischemic processes in the colon wall.

CONCLUSION

Severe pseudomembranous colitis associated with COVID-19 may not be associated with clostridial infection. Further analysis of possible ischemic etiology and pathogenesis of gastrointestinal lesions in COVID-19 is needed for preventive and therapeutic measures.

Diverting Loop Ileostomy for Clostridium Difficile Colitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Diverting loop ileostomy (DLI) with colonic lavage has been proposed as an alternative to total abdominal colectomy (TAC) for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Controversy exists regarding the mortality benefit and outcomes of this surgical approach. We conducted a MEDLINE database search for articles between 1999 and 2019 pertaining to DLI for the surgical treatment of CDI. Five articles met the inclusion criteria. Four studies were retrospective and one was a prospective matched cohort study. 3683 patients were included in the 5 studies; 733 patients (20%) underwent DLI, while 2950 patients (80%) underwent TAC. The only shared outcome measure across all 5 studies was mortality. The overall mortality rate for the entire cohort undergoing both procedures was 30.3%. There was no statistically significant difference in pooled mortality between DLI and TAC (OR: .73; 95% CI, .45-1.2; P = .22). Reporting of other postoperative outcomes was variable. Fulminant CDI remains a life-threatening condition with high mortality. Loop ileostomy may be a viable surgical alternative to total colectomy with similar mortality; however, further work is needed to determine specific patient characteristics that warrant routine use of DLI.

Microbial Shifts and Shorter Time to Bowel Resection Surgery Associated with C. difficile in Pediatric Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Clostridioides difficile infection and colonization are common in pediatric Crohn's disease (CD). Our aims were to test the relationship between C. difficile positivity and bowel resection surgery and to characterize microbial shifts associated with C. difficile carriage and surgery.

METHODS

A retrospective single-center study of 75 pediatric CD patients tested for association between C. difficile carriage and bowel resection surgery. A prospective single-center study of 70 CD patients utilized C. difficile testing and shotgun metagenomic sequencing of fecal samples to define microbiota variation stratified by C. difficile carriage or history of surgery.

RESULTS

The rate of bowel resection surgery increased from 21% in those without C. difficile to 67% in those with (P = 0.003). From a Kaplan-Meier survival model, the hazard ratio for time to first surgery was 4.4 (95% CI, 1.2-16.2; P = 0.00) in patients with positive C. difficile testing in the first year after diagnosis. Multivariable logistic regression analysis confirmed this association (odds ratio 16.2; 95% CI, 2.2-120; P = 0.006). Larger differences in microbial abundance and metabolic pathways were observed in patients with prior surgery than in those with C. difficile carriage. Depletion of Alistipes and Ruminococcus species and reduction in methionine biosynthesis were noted in patients with both C. difficile carriage and past surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

A positive C. difficile test during the first year after diagnosis is associated with decreased time to first bowel resection surgery in pediatric Crohn's disease. Depletion of beneficial commensals and methionine biosynthesis in patients with C. difficile carriage may contribute to increased risk for surgery.

Frailty Predicts Morbidity and Mortality after Colectomy for Clostridium difficile Colitis

Frailty has been noted as a powerful predictive preoperative tool for 30-day postoperative complications. We sought to evaluate the association between frailty and postoperative outcomes after colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis. The National Surgical Quality and Improvement Program cross-institutional database was used for this study. Data from 470 patients with a diagnosis of C. difficile colitis were used in the study. Modified frailty index (mFI) is a previously described and validated 11-variable frailty measure used with the National Surgical Quality and Improvement Program to assess frailty. Outcome measures included serious morbidity, overall morbidity, and Clavien IV (requiring ICU) and Clavien V (mortality) complications. The median age was 70 years and body mass index was 26.9 kg/m2. 55.6 per cent of patients were females. 98.5 per cent of patients were assigned American Society of Anesthesiologists Class III or higher. The median mFI was 0.27 (0-0.63). Because mFI increased from 0 (non-frail) to 0.55 and above, the overall morbidity increased from 53.3 per cent to 84.4 per cent and serious morbidity increased from 43.3 per cent to 78.1 per cent. The Clavien IV complication rate increased from 30.0 per cent to 75.0 per cent. The mortality rate increased from 6.7 per cent to 56.2 per cent. On a multivariate analysis, mFI was an independent predictor of overall morbidity (AOR: 13.0; P < 0.05), mortality (AOR: 8.8; P = 0.018), cardiopulmonary complications (AOR: 6.8; P = 0.026), and prolonged length of hospital stay (AOR: 6.6; P = 0.045). Frailty is associated with increased risk of complications in C. difficile colitis patients undergoing colectomy. mFI is an easy-to-use tool and can play an important role in the risk stratification of these patients who generally have significant morbidity and mortality to begin with.

Resection and Primary Anastomosis in Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is the most common surgical emergency in the newborn. Up to half of babies with NEC develop advanced disease requiring surgical intervention. Options include peritoneal drainage under local anaesthetic, enterostomy only, resection and enterostomies, and resection with primary anastomosis. Resection with enterostomies is favoured by many paediatric surgeons but management of neonatal enterostomies can be difficult. The outcome of 26 infants undergoing surgery for advanced NEC over a 2-year period is reviewed.

Resection and primary anastomosis was possible in 18 infants of whom two (11%) died. Recurrent NEC developed in four (22%) and strictures in three (17%) of these infants. An initial enterostomy was fashioned in eight infants, three following resection of necrotic intestine and five as a proximal diverting stoma in infants with pan-intestinal involvement. Five of these eight infants died (63%), giving an overall mortality of 27%.

Primary anastomosis is an effective procedure following resection of grossly involved intestine in infants with NEC. The mortality and morbidity in this series compared well with those reported for staged procedures.

Loop ileostomy versus total colectomy as surgical treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated disease: An Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma multicenter trial

OBJECTIVES

The mortality of patients with Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) requiring surgery continues to be very high. Loop ileostomy (LI) was introduced as an alternative procedure to total colectomy (TC) for CDAD by a single-center study. To date, no reproducible results have been published. The objective of this study was to compare these two procedures in a multicentric approach to help the surgeon decide what procedure is best suited for the patient in need.

METHODS

This was a retrospective multicenter study conducted under the sponsorship of the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. Demographics, medical history, clinical presentation, APACHE score, and outcomes were collected. We used the Research Electronic Data Capture tool to store the data. Mann-Whitney (continuous data) and Fisher exact (categorical data) were used to compare TC with LI. Logistic regression was performed to determine predictors of mortality. A propensity score analysis was done to control for potential confounders and determine adjusted mortality rates by procedure type.

RESULTS

We collected data from 10 centers of patients who presented with CDAD requiring surgery between July 1, 2010 and July 30, 2014. Two patients died during the surgical procedure, leaving 98 individuals in the study. The overall mortality was 32%, and 75% had postoperative complications. Median age was 64.5 years; 59% were male. Concerning preoperative patient conditions, 54% were on pressors, 47% had renal failure, and 36% had respiratory failure. When comparing TC and LI, there was no statistical difference regarding these conditions. Univariate preprocedure predictors of mortality were age, lactate, timing of operation, vasopressor use, and acute renal failure. There was no statistical difference between the APACHE score of patients undergoing either procedure (TC, 22 vs LI, 16). Adjusted mortality (controlled for preprocedure confounders) was significantly lower in the LI group (17.2% vs 39.7%; p = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first multicenter study comparing TC with LI for the treatment of CDAD. In this study, LI carried less mortality than TC. In patients without contraindications, LI should be considered for the surgical treatment of CDAD.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic study, level III.

Pulmonary Embolism with Bone Fragments following Vertebral Body Marrow Infusion for Tolerance Induction

Protocols of donor bone marrow infusion for tolerance induction are receiving increasing attention in clinical trials of organ allotransplantation. We report pulmonary embolism with bone fragments following vertebral body marrow infusion in a recipient of a liver and intestinal transplant. Even though pulmonary embolism with bony microfragments has been widely described following bone marrow transplantation, the use of single, high-dose donor bone marrow infusion and/or multiple infusions currently under clinical investigation for induction of donor specific unresponsiveness, may warrant the implementation of additional steps in the vertebral body marrow processing technique to decrease or eliminate the component of bony microfragments in the final preparation.

Protein-losing pseudomembranous colitis with cap polyposis-like features

Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is characterized by loss of serum proteins into the gastrointestinal tract. It may lead to hypoproteinemia and clinically present as protein deficiency edema, ascites, pleural or pericardial effusion and/or malnutrition. In most cases the site of protein loss is the small intestine. Here we present an unusual case of severe PLE in a 55-year old female with a one-year history of recurrent diarrhea, crampy abdominal pain, and peripheral edema. Endoscopy and MRI showed a diffuse inflammatory thickening of the sigmoid colon and the rectum. Surgical resection of the involved colon was performed and the symptoms were significantly resolved. The final histologic evaluation confirmed a diagnosis of a pseudomembranous colitis with cap polyposis-like features. Such a cause of PLE has never been described before.

CAGS and ACS evidence based reviews in surgery. Is a diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage an alternative to colectomy for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease?

The term “evidence-based medicine” was first coined by Sackett and colleagues as “the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.”1 The key to practising evidencebased medicine is applying the best current knowledge to decisions in individual patients. Medical knowledge is continually and rapidly expanding. For clinicians to practise evidence-based medicine, they must have the skills to read and interpret the medical literature so that they can determine the validity, reliability, credibility and utility of individual articles. These skills are known as critical appraisal skills, and they require some knowledge of biostatistics, clinical epidemiology, decision analysis and economics, and clinical knowledge. Evidence Based Reviews in Surgery (EBRS) is a program jointly sponsored by the Canadian Association of General Surgeons (CAGS) and the American College of Surgeons (ACS). The primary objective of EBRS is to help practising surgeons improve their critical appraisal skills. During the academic year, 8 clinical articles are chosen for review and discussion. They are selected for their clinical relevance to general surgeons and because they cover a spectrum of issues im -port ant to surgeons, including causation or risk factors for disease, natural history or prognosis of disease, how to quantify disease, diagnostic tests, early diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment. A methodological article guides the reader in critical appraisal of the clinical article. Methodological and clinical reviews of the article are performed by experts in the relevant areas and posted on the EBRS website, where they are archived indefinitely. In addition, a listserv allows participants to discuss the monthly article. Surgeons who participate in the monthly packages can obtain Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada Maintenance of Certification credits and/or continuing medical education credits for the current article only by reading the monthly articles, participating in the listserv discussion, reading the methodological and clinical reviews and completing the monthly online evaluation and multiple choice questions. We hope readers will find EBRS useful in improving their critical appraisal skills and in keeping abreast of new developments in general surgery. Four reviews are published in condensed versions in the Canadian Journal of Surgery, 4 are published in the Journal of the American College of Surgeons and 4 are published in Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. For further information about EBRS, please refer to the CAGS or ACS websites. Questions and comments can be directed to the program administrator, Marg McKenzie, at mmckenzie@mtsinai.on.ca.

Fulminant colitis

Fulminant colitis is an ill-defined entity that is usually viewed as the most severe form of uncomplicated acute colitis. It usually occurs in the course of ulcerative colitis and infectious colitis, but can also be seen in other forms of colitis. Every patient with clinical criteria for severe or fulminant colitis should be approached in a systematic way, based on two premises - intense medical treatment and early surgery in non-responders.

Novel management strategies in the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile infection

CDI is increasing in incidence and severity. Clinicians must have a low threshold to consider the diagnosis and to treat patients with the clinical syndrome and risk factors before laboratory confirmation of the diagnosis. In patients who have signs of advanced disease, escalation of care with antimicrobial strategies and multidisciplinary care including surgical consultation is necessary. Furthermore, lowering the threshold for surgery compared with traditional approaches likely results in improved survival. Novel surgical approaches may obviate total abdominal colectomy and the associated immediate and long-term morbidity in this often fragile patient population, thus allowing clinicians to embrace surgical therapy earlier in the course of severe, complicated disease.

Is partial colectomy the operation of choice in pediatric Clostridium difficile colitis?

PURPOSE

This study examined the national trends in incidence and surgical management of pediatric Clostridium difficle colitis (CDC) hospitalizations.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) analysis of pediatric CDC from 2000 to 2008. Data analysis included patient demographics, procedures, length of stay (LOS), total hospital charges (THC), and in-hospital mortality.

RESULTS

During the 9-year study period, the total number of CDC hospitalizations per year increased almost twofold, from 2,513 in 2000 to 4,817 in 2008. The rate per 100,000 discharges followed a similar trend, increasing from 38.08 in 2000 to 72.57 in 2008. Abdominal colectomy was performed in 0.35 %, with partial colectomy performed more often than total colectomy. Mortality, mean LOS, and mean THC were not statistically different between partial versus total colectomy. Children with ulcerative colitis were more likely to undergo total colectomy, (OR 35.700, CI 11.025-115.98, P < 0.001). Infants under the age of 1 year were less likely to undergo total colectomy (OR 0.568, 0.477-0.677, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Pediatric hospitalizations for CDC are on the rise. Partial colectomy is performed more often than total colectomy without statistical compromise of mortality, length of stay, and total hospital charges. Further studies are needed to determine the standard surgical management of pediatric CDC.

An overview of the diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile infection

The diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection are becoming increasingly complex with the introduction of novel diagnostic techniques and new pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic treatments. The integration of these new approaches with older, established methods is a challenge to individual clinicians and hospital systems. This article provides an overview of the current methods for the diagnosis and treatment of C difficile infection.

Surgical treatment of Clostridium colitides

INTRODUCTION

Infection with Clostridium difficile (CDI) is the most frequent cause of nosocomial diarrhoeas. Most cases are successfully treated by antibiotic therapy, but nearly 10% may progress to the fulminative form of this condition. The objective of the work is retrospective evaluation of the results of surgical treatment in patients with the fulminative form of Clostridium colitis with revealing of risk factors leading to serious post-operative morbidity and mortality.

PATIENTS AND METHODOLOGY

Retrospective evaluation of the results of surgical treatment in patients with the fulminative form of Clostridium colitis between 2008 and 4/2012.

RESULTS

Between 2008 and 4/2012 Clostridium toxins were positively detected in 1,088 patients in total, 21 of whom underwent operations due to the fulminative form of Clostridium colitis. The operations included 4 total colectomies with terminal ileostomy, 15 subtotal colectomies with terminal ileostomy, 1 caecostomy and 1 axial ileostomy. The 30-day mortality was 23.8%, and morbidity reached 66.6%. High leukocytosis is a statistically significant predictor of post-operative mortality and morbidity (p = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

Early indication for a colectomy operation with terminal ileostomy in patients with the fulminative form of Clostridium colitis leads to lower morbidity and mortality.

Clostridium difficile infection: a surgical disease in evolution

INTRODUCTION

Several recent publications suggest an increase in the incidence of Clostridium difficile colitis. However, such studies commonly lack denominators over which to index this rise. There is also concern in the literature that disease virulence is increasing.

METHODS

Billing, admission, operative, and infection databases at a single tertiary care center identified patients admitted from 1990 to 2006 with a diagnosis of C. difficile infection. Grouped by era, case numbers were indexed against overall hospital, operative, and laboratory volumes. C. difficile colectomy cases were individually examined and analyzed.

RESULTS

The number of hospitalized patients diagnosed with C. difficile colitis increased in a linear fashion during the study period (1990, 14 cases; 2006, 927 cases). The colectomy per C. difficile case ratio did not change over the study period (era 1, 0.17%; era 2, 0.20%; era 3, 0.16%). Thirteen patients underwent colectomy with 54% surviving. The increase in patients admitted with a diagnosis of C. difficile was significantly associated with hospital volume (p = 0.04), operative volume (p < 0.001), and lab testing volume (p = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

The number of C. difficile patients admitted to our hospital is rising at an alarming rate. This reflects national trends and urgent action seems warranted to prevent a C. difficile epidemic.

[Toxic megacolon secondary to Clostridium difficile-associated pseudomembranous colitis]

A 78-year-old male without pre-existing comorbidity who underwent revision of a hip arthroplasty developed abdominal pain and distension, diarrhoeas, pyrexia and leucocytosis after only 5 days' postoperative treatment with cefuroxime and gentamycine. Abdominal computed tomography demonstrated severe colonic dilation, inflammation and oedema consistent with toxic megacolon. Stool samples were positive for Clostridium difficile. Oral vancomycine treatment and colonic decompression were inefficient. Subtotal colectomy was performed after which the condition improved.

A rare presentation of ischemic pseudomembranous colitis due to Escherichia coli O157:H7

Escherichia coli Ol57:H7 infection ranges from mild diarrheal illness to severe hemorrhagic colitis but may rarely be complicated by pseudomembranous colitis and/or necrosis. Herein, we report a sporadic case of ischemic E. coli Ol57:H7 pseudomembranous colitis in an adult that occurred during a national outbreak of E. coli Ol57:H7 in the United States.

Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether emergency colectomy reduces mortality in patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD), and to identify subgroups of patients more likely to benefit from the procedure.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Many hospitals in Quebec, Canada, have noted since 2003 a dramatic increase in CDAD incidence and in the proportion of cases severe enough to require intensive care unit (ICU) admission. The decision to perform an emergency colectomy remains largely empirical.

METHODS

Retrospective observational cohort study of 165 cases of CDAD that required ICU admission or prolongation of ICU stay between January 2003 and June 2005 in 2 tertiary care hospitals of Quebec. Multivariate analysis was performed through logistic regression; adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. The primary outcome was mortality within 30 days of ICU admission.

RESULTS

Eighty-seven (53%) cases resulted in death within 30 days of ICU admission, almost half (38 of 87, 44%) within 48 hours of ICU admission. The independent predictors of 30-day mortality were: leukocytosis >or=50 x 10(9)/L (AOR, 18.6; 95% CI, 3.7-94.7), lactate >or=5 mmol/L (AOR, 12.4; 95% CI, 2.4-63.7), age >or=75 years (AOR, 6.5; 95% CI, 1.7-24.3), immunosuppression (AOR, 7.9; 95% CI, 2.3-27.2) and shock requiring vasopressors (AOR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.3-8.7). After adjustment for these confounders, patients who had an emergency colectomy were less likely to die (AOR, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.07-0.67, P = 0.008) than those treated medically. Colectomy seemed more beneficial in patients aged 65 years or more, in those immunocompetent, those with a leukocytosis >or=20 x 10(9)/L or lactate between 2.2 and 4.9 mmol/L.

CONCLUSION

Emergency colectomy reduces mortality in some patients with fulminant CDAD.

Fulminant Postcesarean Clostridium difficile Pseudomembranous Colitis

BACKGROUND

Pseudomembranous colitis due to Clostridium difficile infection is rarely reported in the obstetric literature. This disease process is associated with prior antibiotic exposure.

CASE

A term primigravida was delivered by primary cesarean for failed vacuum extraction. She received Intravenous cefazolin after cord clamping, which was continued for 36 hours for a presumptive diagnosis of endometritis. On day 3, oral amoxicillin and clavulanate was started for suspected cellulitis of the incision. She was readmitted 1 day after her discharge with severe diffuse abdominal pain and distention. Proctoscopy showed pseudomembranous colitis. Colectomy with temporary ileostomy was performed for worsening symptoms and imminent perforation.

CONCLUSION

The diagnosis of pseudomembranous colitis should be considered in postpartum women who have low-grade fever, abdominal and gastrointestinal symptoms, and recent antibiotic exposure.

Ileal perforation secondary to Clostridium difficile enteritis: report of 2 cases

Two cases of small-bowel perforation secondary to Clostridium difficile enteritis are described and compared with the 8 cases of C difficile enteritis reported in the medical literature. The cause of small-bowel involvement with C difficile is unknown, but prior antibiotic use, prior colectomy, chronic alterations in small-bowel flora, and other host factors are discussed.

The outcome of surgery in fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis

BACKGROUND

The clinical presentation of Clostridium difficile infection ranges from asymptomatic carriage, colitis with or without pseudomembranes, to fulminant colitis. Although not common, fulminant C. difficile colitis can result in bowel perforation and peritonitis with a high mortality rate. Colectomy is often indicated in these cases.

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed the outcome of 14 patients who underwent surgery for fulminant C. difficile colitis in the period 1996-2003 in our Unit.

RESULTS

The indications for surgery were systemic toxicity and peritonitis (n = 10), radiological and clinical evidence of progressive toxic colonic dilatation (n = 3) and progressive colonic dilatation with bowel perforation (n = 1). C. difficile infection as the cause of colitis was diagnosed pre-operatively in seven (50%) patients, six of whom underwent a total colectomy and one a right hemicolectomy. Overall mortality in our series was 35.7%. Total colectomy was associated with a lower mortality rate of 11.1% (1/9) when compared with left hemicolectomy was 100% (4/4) (P = 0.01). One patient who underwent a right hemicolectomy (on the basis of deceptively normal external appearance of the rest of the colon intra-operatively) survived after a prolonged hospital stay.

CONCLUSIONS

Early or pre-operative microbiological diagnosis of C. difficile infection can be difficult in patients with a fulminant presentation. Those patients with C. difficile colitis, who develop signs of toxicity, peritonitis or perforation, should undergo a total colectomy as the operation of choice.

Fulminant pseudomembranous colitis of the left colon successfully treated by surgical resection

Pseudomembranous colitis is the classical and most dramatic manifestation of Clostridium difficile infection. Surgery is required for patients with perforation and for those who fail to respond to medical treatment. This is a report of a patient with severe pseudomembranous inflammation confined to the left colon, which was successfully treated by surgical resection.

Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis in a patient with spinal cord injury: case report

BACKGROUND

In certain patients with Clostridium difficile colitis (CDC), a life-threatening systemic toxicity may develop despite appropriate and timely medical therapy.

DESIGN

Literature search and case report.

FINDINGS

A 39-year-old man with T10 paraplegia presented with a distended, quiet abdomen following recent treatment with antibiotics for pneumonia. Diarrhea was not present. Complete blood counts demonstrated a marked leukocytosis. A CT scan of the abdomen demonstrated a state of diffuse pancolonic inflammation with peritoneal fluid. The patient was taken to the operating room and underwent total abdominal colectomy with oversewing of the rectal stump and end ileostomy for treatment of the fulminant CDC.

CONCLUSION

Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) often receive antibiotics for infections of the aerodigestive tree and urinary tract and for problems with skin integrity. A heightened awareness of the development of fulminant CDC remains essential in the care of patients with SCI. Any unexplained abdominal illness after recent antibiotic administration should alert the physician to CDC and its potential as a fulminant, potentially fatal illness.

Outcome after colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis

PURPOSE

Clostridium difficile colitis is a relatively common entity, yet large series of patients with fulminant C. difficile colitis are infrequently reported. This study was designed to identify risk factors, clinical characteristics, and outcome of patients who required colectomy for fulminant C. difficile colitis.

METHODS

A population-based study on all patients in 159 hospitals of the Department of Veterans Affairs from 1997 to 2001 was performed. Data were compiled from several national computerized Department of Veterans Affairs data sets. Supplementary information including demographic information, discharge summaries, operative reports, and pathology reports were obtained from local medical records. Patient variables were entered into a computerized database and analyzed using the Pearson chi-squared and Fisher's exact tests. Statistical significance was designated as P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Sixty-seven patients (mean age, 69 (range, 40-86) years; 99 percent males) were identified. All 67 patients had C. difficile verified in the colectomy specimens. Thirty-six of 67 patients (54 percent) developed C. difficile colitis during a hospitalization for an unrelated illness, and 30 of 36 patients (87 percent) after a surgical procedure. Thirty-one of 67 (46 percent) developed C. difficile colitis at home. There was no history of diarrhea in 25 of 67 patients (37 percent). Thirty of 67 patients (45 percent) presented in shock (blood pressure, <90 mmHg). Forty-three of 67 patients (64 percent) presented with an acute surgical abdomen. Mean white blood cell count was 27.2; mean percent bands was 12. Twelve of 67 patients (18 percent) had a negative C difficile colitis stool assay. Abdominal computed tomography correctly diagnosed 45 of 46 patients (98 percent) who were imaged. Twenty-six of 67 patients (39 percent) underwent colonoscopy; all 26 were found to have severe inflammation or pseudomembranes. Fifty-three of 67 patients (80 percent) underwent total colectomy; 14 of 67 underwent segmental colonic resection. Perforation and infarction were found in 59 of 67 patients (58 percent) at surgery. Overall mortality was 48 percent (32/67). Mean hospitalization was 36 (range, 2-297) days.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with fulminant C. difficile colitis often present with an unexplained abdominal illness with a marked leukocytosis that rapidly progresses to shock and peritonitis. Although frequently developed during a hospitalization and often after a surgical procedure, it may develop outside of a hospital setting. Diarrhea may be absent and stool cytology may be negative for C. difficile toxin. Perforation and infarction are frequently found at surgery. In those patients who survive, a prolonged hospitalization is common. Mortality from fulminant C. difficile colitis remains high despite surgical intervention.

Prolonged ileus as a sole manifestation of pseudomembranous enterocolitis

BACKGROUND

Pseudomembranous colitis usually manifests as fever and diarrhea in hospitalized patients treated with systemic antibiotics. We present a case that represents a unique variant.

CASE PRESENTATION

The 44-year-old man suffered of several weeks of abdominal pain, low-grade fever, nausea, vomiting, and lack of bowel movements. Upper gastrointestinal barium swallow and passage series revealed evidence of severe intestinal hypomotility. A thorough evaluation for the cause of the patient's ileus and abdominal pain was unrevealing, and symptomatic treatment was ineffective. Following the administration of opiates and dietary fiber supplementation the patient's abdominal pain and distention rapidly worsened, requiring an urgent subtotal colectomy. The macroscopic and microscopic appearance of the excised colon as well as results of the colonic cytotoxin essay and fecal enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay essay confirmed the diagnosis of severe Clostridium difficile induced pseudomembranous colitis as the cause of the patient's illness.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of Clostridium-difficile induced disease consisting of prolonged ileus in the absence of diarrhea in a patient not previously taking antibiotics.

[Antibiotic induced diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis]

The spore-forming anaerobic bacterium Clostridium difficile has become a serious enteropathogen. Oral and parenteral administration of antibiotics can cause ecological disturbances in the normal intestinal microflora. Suppression of the normal microflora may lead to reduced colonization resistance with subsequent overgrowth by pre-existing, naturally resistant microorganisms, such as C. difficile. C. difficile infection shows a range of clinical presentations between an asymptomatic carrier state, light diarrhea without inflammatory changes, and pseudomembranous colitis. C. difficile infection is acquired by the fecal-oral or environmental-oral routes. From March 2000 through March 2001 we assessed 48 cases of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD). Of these, 21 were due to C. difficile (CDAD). Cephalosporin was the agent most commonly associated with CDAD. Avoidance of cephalosporins, strict use of "single shot" prophylaxis, isolation of infected, symptomatic patients in single-bed rooms, improved hygiene and complete room disinfection lead to a rapid decrease of CDAD. The etiology, prognosis and prophylaxis are discussed in this paper.

Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications

OBJECTIVE

To review the epidemiology and characteristics of patients who died or underwent colectomy secondary to fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

In patients with C. difficile colitis, a progressive, systemic inflammatory state may develop that is unresponsive to medical therapy; it may progress to colectomy or death.

METHODS

The authors reviewed 2,334 hospitalized patients with C. difficile colitis from January 1989 to December 2000. Sixty-four patients died or underwent colectomy for pathologically proven C. difficile colitis.

RESULTS

In 2000, the incidence of C. difficile colitis in hospitalized patients increased from a baseline of 0.68% to 1.2%, and the incidence of patients with C. difficile colitis in whom life-threatening symptoms developed increased from 1.6% to 3.2%. Forty-four patients required a colectomy and 20 others died directly from C. difficile colitis. Twenty-two percent had a prior history of C. difficile colitis. A recent surgical procedure and immunosuppression were common predisposing conditions. Lung transplant patients were 46 times more likely to have C. difficile colitis and eight times more likely to have severe disease. Abdominal computed tomography scan correctly diagnosed all patients, whereas 12.5% of toxin assays and 10% of endoscopies were falsely negative. Patients undergoing colectomy for C. difficile colitis had an overall death rate of 57%. Significant predictors of death after colectomy were preoperative vasopressor requirements and age.

CONCLUSIONS

C. difficile colitis is a significant and increasing cause of death. Surgical treatment of C. difficile colitis has a high death rate once the fulminant expression of the disease is present.

[Recurrent fatal pseudomembranous colitis]

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile pseudomembranous colitis may trace a fulminent course and require surgery.

CASE REPORTS

Outcome was fatal despite subtotal colectomy in the reported case of recurrent Clostridium difficile pseudomembranous colitis. Infrequent localization, low serum albumin and an unfavorable clinical course were observed.

DISCUSSION

Rapid surgical treatment with large resection is mandatory in such cases, particularly in patients of rectal and sigmoid remnant involvement.

Decompressive colonoscopy with intracolonic vancomycin administration for the treatment of severe pseudomembranous colitis

BACKGROUND

We explored the potential of early decompressive colonoscopy with intracolonic vancomycin administration as an adjunctive therapy for severe pseudomembranous Clostridium difficile colitis with ileus and toxic megacolon.

METHODS

We reviewed the symptoms, signs, laboratory tests, radiographic findings, and outcomes from the medical records of seven patients who experienced eight episodes of severe pseudomembranous colitis with ileus and toxic megacolon. All seven patients underwent decompressive colonoscopy with intracolonic perfusion of vancomycin.

RESULTS

Fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, abdominal distention, and tenderness were present in all patients. Five of seven patients were comatose, obtunded, or confused, and six of the seven required ventilatory support. The white blood cell count was greater than 16,000 in seven cases (six patients). Colonoscopy showed left-side pseudomembranous colitis in one patient, right-side colitis in one patient, and diffuse pseudomembranous pancolitis in five patients. Two patients were discharged with improvement. Five patients had numerous medical problems leading to their death. Complete resolution of pseudomembranous colitis occurred in four patients. One patient had a partial response, and two patients failed therapy.

CONCLUSION

Colonoscopic decompression and intracolonic vancomycin administration in the management of severe, acute, pseudomembranous colitis associated with ileus and toxic megacolon is feasible, safe, and effective in approximately 57% to 71% of cases.

Clostridium difficile infection: risk factors, medical and surgical management

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile has become recognized as a cause of nosocomial infection which may progress to a fulminant disease.

METHODS

Literature review using electronic literature research back to 1966 utilizing Medline and Current Contents. All publications on antibiotic-associated diarrhea, antibiotic-associated colitis, and pseudomembranous colitis as well as C. difficile infection were included. We addressed established and potential risk factors for C. difficile disease such as an impaired immune system and cost benefits of different diagnostic tests. An algorithm is outlined for diagnosis and both medical and surgical management of mild, moderate and severe C. difficile disease.

RESULTS

Diagnosis of C. difficile infection should be suspected in patients with diarrhea, who have received antibiotics within 2 months or whose symptoms started after hospitalization. A stool specimen should be tested for the presence of leukocytes and C. difficile toxins. If this is negative and symptoms persist, stool should be tested with 'rapid' enzyme immunoabsorbent and stool cytotoxin assays, which are the most cost-effective tests. Endoscopy and other imaging studies are reserved for severe and rapidly progressive courses. Oral metronidazole or vancomycin are the antibiotics of choice. Surgery is rarely required for selected patients refractory to medical treatment. The threshold for surgery in severe cases with risk factors including an impaired immune system should be low.

CONCLUSION

C. difficile infection has been recognized with increased frequency as a nosocomial infection. Early diagnosis with immunoassays of the stool and prompt medical therapy have a high cure rate. Metronidazole has supplanted oral vancomycin as the drug of first choice for treating C. difficile infections.

Emergency abdominal colectomy with primary anastomosis

From 1968 to 1979, 18 patients underwent emergency abdominal colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis. Indications for operation included massive colonic bleeding (11), obstructing carcinoma (5), toxic megacolon (1), and enterocolitis (1). Five patients died postoperatively (27.8 per cent). Causes of death included sepsis, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, and respiratory failure. All had peritonitis, and five had documented anastomotic leaks. Seven of the surviving patients had significant morbidity from the procedure which included anastomotic leak, small bowel obstruction, wound infection, sepsis, and pulmonary emboli. Only six patients survived without complications. Although others have written about the safety of emergency subtotal colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis, our experience suggests this procedure is associated with excessive morbidity and mortality.