Disciplinary and thematic mapping of Maghreb publications in "infectiology". Bibliometric study (Tunisia, 2010-2014)

AIM

To describe the essential bibliometric characteristics of Tunisian publications in "infectiology", during the five-year period 2010-2014.

METHODS

This is a descriptive bibliometric study, on the papers of "infectiology", indexed in "«Medline»", based on their data sheets. Were included all the articles written by Tunisian researchers regardless of their position in the list of co-signers. The themes of the publications were explored through the key words "major" and "generic" in the three chapters of the descriptors: "Bacterial Infections and Mycoses", "Parasitic Diseases", and "Viral Diseases".

RESULTS

A total of 846 publications in "Infectiology" were analyzed, of which 66% were written in English and 31% were "case reports". They were signed by 536 authors in first position belonging mainly to microbiology (20.7%), parasitology (20.1%) and virology (7.1%). The 391 co-signatories in last position belonged to 44 specialties, of which pediatrics, internal medicine and infectious diseases respectively occupy the 4th, the 9th and the 10th positions. These publications were edited in 258 journals, mainly "Tunisie Medicale" (9%) and "Pan African Medical Journal" (3.8%). The greatest interest of the Tunisian researchers in infectious diseases have been staphylococcal / tuberculosis infections, chronic viral hepatitis C / human influenza, and echinococcosis / leishmaniasis.

CONCLUSION

In Tunisia, infectious diseases research has been relatively prolific and concordant with the population's health needs. Infectious diseases physicians should build their network of care, research and education with biologists, while focusing their research on multicenter and high-level studies.

Vertebral infection in a male individual buried in the monastic cemetery (Cemetery 2) at Ghazali (ca. 670-1270 CE), northern Sudan

PURPOSE/RESEARCH QUESTION

This article examines pronounced osteoblastic-osteolytic vertebral lesions in a middle adult male (Ghz-2-033), from the Christian Nubian monastic settlement of Ghazali (ca. 670-1270 CE), Sudan, to explore their potential etiology.

METHODS

Morphological assessments of sex and age were undertaken in conjunction with macroscopic and radiological methods of assessment for the skeletal lesions documented.

RESULTS

Macroscopic assessment of Ghz-2-033 identified mixed osteoblastic-osteolytic lesions in L2-L3 with minor foci in T12-L1, while radiological assessment identified no further lesions. This paleopathological analysis considers tuberculosis, brucellosis, pyogenic intervertebral disc infection, neoplastic conditions, and mycotic infections as potential etiologies.

CONCLUSIONS

Tuberculosis is the most probable etiology for the lesions observed. This assessment is based on the morphology of the lesions in conjunction with the known confined living quarters at Ghazali and the presence of tuberculosis vectors (i.e. cattle) in the region.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE/ORIGINALITY/VALUE

This brief communication contributes original data documenting the presence of tubercular lesions in a monk buried at the Christian Nubian monastery of Ghazali. On a broader level this study contributes to regional and temporal paleopathological dialogues regarding interactions with pathogens in Christian Nubian monastic contexts.

LIMITATIONS FOR THIS STUDY

The potentiality of co-infection with other pathogens (e.g. brucellosis, Staphylococcus) with similar macromorphological traits in skeletal remains cannot be entirely discounted.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The use of biomolecular analyses may help to clarify the potential presence of tuberculosis in individual Ghz-2-033.

Ancient cancers and infection-induced oncogenesis

Cancers have been reported in bone and soft tissue of ancient agricultural populations. Fossilized bones from prehistoric periods provide evidence of tumors but only one example of cancer. Difficulties in diagnosing the causes of lesions in mummified tissue and fossilized bone, and in interpreting the prevalence of cancers from remains, draw attention to the need for complementary approaches to assess the occurrence of cancer in ancient populations. This paper integrates current knowledge about pathogen induction of cancer with phylogenetic analyses of oncogenic pathogens, and concludes that pathogen-induced cancers were probably generally present in ancient historic and prehistoric human populations. Consideration of cancers in extant human populations and wildlife lends credence to this conclusion, with the caveat that the presence of cancers may depend on population-specific exposures to oncogenic parasites and carcinogens.

Ancient treatment for lice: a source of suggestions for carriers of other infectious diseases?

Louse infestation is one of the oldest contagious pestilential diseases of humankind, which has recently re-emerged in several developing countries as well as in homeless individuals and migrants. The present work provides the first phase of an historical excursus of louse remedies based on the classics of pharmaceutical literature, codes, pharmacopoeia and treatises. The second phase involves a literature search, based on the principal medical databases (SciFinder, Pubmed, Google Scholar, ISI-Web of Science and Scopus), to match ancient raw materials and active principles for the treatment of pediculosis and their possible applications, with other current infectious pathologies transmitted by different carriers. In this regard, Rhododendron tomentosum has revealed repellent insect activity, particularly against Aedes aegypti, responsible for Dengue fever, Chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro, yellow fever and other infectious diseases. Petroselinum crispum is an insecticide employed for resistant strains of A. aegypti. In the case of Delphinium staphisagria, the phytochemical profile was further investigated with the identification of further molecules in addition to delphinine. The latter shows interesting activities against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania. Anthemis pyrethrum, now renamed as Anacyclus pyrethrum, although not containing pyrethrins present in several plants of the genus Chrysanthemum, revealed pediculicidal activity but did not produce satisfactory results in antiprotozoal activity.

[Peculiarities of medical support of Soviet troops during the Battle of Kursk]

Peculiarities of medical support of Soviet troops during the Battle of Kursk. The article analyzes the experience of medical support of the Red Army troops during the Battle of Kursk (July-August 1943). The data characterizing particular forms and methods of work of the medical service of the fionts in the dynamics of the defensive and offensive operations. The basis of the organization of medical evacuation support was a continuous movement of medical institutions for the conduct of the troops and treating the injured on the spot. The succes of the Medical Service was possible thanks to the mobility and manoeuvrability of surgical forces, the formation of emergency medical teams gain and mobile surgical teams, echelonment specialized medical care. Activities carried out to provide various types of medical care - on the battlefield, in the regimental and divisional health centres, hospitals - allowed to return in order to 180 000 wounded and sick. Due to the effective anti- epidemic protection could prevent the spread of the troops of mass infectious diseases.

[Health problems of combatants during the First World War]

The First World War because of the use of new weapons, injured more than 3 500 000 people (500 000 in the face), more than diseases (tuberculosis, typhoid fever, etc.) or even weather circumstances. The healing of the war wounds through surgery undertook a significant evolution thanks to the use of asepsis and antiseptics. Mortality go down, opening the way to the physical and psychological rehabilitation of those injured by the war.

[A.V. Zinserling (Tsinzerling) school of infectious pathology: advances and prospects]

The paper analyzes the importance of infectious pathology today and discusses the main achievements of A.V. Zinserling (Tsinzerling) and his collaborators when having studied the pathologic anatomy of infectious diseases, primarily respiratory, intestinal, intrauterine ones. An indication is given to the significance of clinic and morphological comparisons, a problem of mixed infections. There is evidence that A.V. Zinserling's studies have opened the new area of science tissue microbiology in which some progress has been also achieved in recent years.

[The infectious diseases experiments conducted on human guinea pigs by Nazis in concentration camps]

The author systematically examined all available publications and web documents, with regard to scientifically documented experiments carried out by Nazi physicians in their concentration camps during World War II. This research focused on human experiments dealing with: malaria, tuberculosis, petechial typhus, viral hepatitis, and those regarding sulphonamides as antimicrobial agents. The concentration camps involved by experimental programmes on human guinea pigs were: Natzweiler Struthof, Dachau, Mauthausen, Buchenwald, Neuengamme, Ravensbrück, Sachsenhausen and Auschwitz. Overall, around 7,200 deported prisoners went to their deaths during or because of these experiments (also considering human trials other than previously quoted ones). At the end of the war several physicians were charged with war crimes in two trials (Nuremberg and Dachau), and those found guilty were sentenced to death, or years of imprisonment. Some of them, including the notorious Josef Mengele, succeeded in escaping capture and being brought to justice. Thanks to these trials, partial light has been shed on these crimes, which not infrequently had children as designated victims, selected with excruciating cruelty in special segregation sections. The SS was the key structure which ensured maximum efficiency for these experimental programmes, from both logistic planning through to an operative control system carried out in concentration camps, and thanks to an autonomous, dedicated medical structure, which included a rigid hierarchy of physicians directly dependent on the head of SS forces (Reichsführer), i.e. Dr. Heinrich Himmler. Moreover, it is worth noting that also physicians who were not part of the SS corps collaborated in the above experiments on human guinea pigs: these included military personnel belonging to the Wehrmacht, academic physicians from German universities, and researchers who worked in some German pharmaceutical industries, such as IG Farben, Bayer and Boehring.

The war against bacteria: how were sulphonamide drugs used by Britain during World War II?

Penicillin is often considered one of the greatest discoveries of 20th century medicine. However, the revolution in therapeutics brought about by sulphonamides also had a profound effect on British medicine, particularly during World War II (WWII). Sulphonamides were used to successfully treat many infections which later yielded to penicillin and so their role deserves wider acknowledgement. The sulphonamides, a pre-war German discovery, were widely used clinically. However, the revolution brought about by the drugs has been either neglected or obscured by penicillin, resulting in less research on their use in Britain during WWII. By examining Medical Research Council records, particularly war memorandums, as well as medical journals, archives and newspaper reports, this paper hopes to highlight the importance of the sulphonamides and demonstrate their critical role in the medical war effort and their importance in both the public and more particularly, the medical, sectors. It will present evidence to show that sulphonamides gained importance due to the increased prevalence of infection which compromised the health of servicemen during WWII. The frequency of these infections led to an increase in demand and production. However, the sulphonamides were soon surpassed by penicillin, which had fewer side-effects and could treat syphilis and sulphonamide-resistant infections. Nevertheless, despite these limitations, the sulphonamides drugs were arguably more important in revolutionising medicine than penicillin, as they achieved the first real success in the war against bacteria.

Health care-associated infection outbreak investigations by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1946-2005

Since 1946, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) personnel have investigated outbreaks of infections and adverse events associated with delivery of health care. CDC Epidemic Intelligence Service officers have led onsite investigations of these outbreaks by systematically applying epidemiology, statistics, and laboratory science. During 1946-2005, CDC Epidemic Intelligence Service officers conducted 531 outbreak investigations in facilities across the United States and abroad. Initially, the majority of outbreaks involved gastrointestinal tract infections; however, in later years, bloodstream, respiratory tract, and surgical wound infections predominated. Among pathogens implicated in CDC outbreak investigations, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus species, Enterobacteriaceae, nonfermentative Gram-negative bacteria, or yeasts predominated, but unusual organisms (e.g., the atypical mycobacteria) were often included. Outbreak types varied and often were linked to transfer of colonized patients or health care personnel between facilities (multihospital outbreaks), national distribution of contaminated products, use of invasive medical devices, or variances in practices and procedures in health care environments (e.g., intensive care units, water reservoirs, or hemodialysis units). Through partnerships with health care facilities and local and state health departments, outbreaks were terminated and lives saved. Data from investigations invariably contributed to CDC-generated guidelines for prevention and control of health care-associated infections.

Birth of the science of immunology

The science of immunology emerged in the last of the 19th and the first of the 20th century. Substantial progress in physics, chemistry and microbiology was essential for its development. Indeed, microorganisms became one of the principal investigative tools of the major founders of that science - Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich and Jules Bordet. It is pertinent that these pioneering scientists were born when questioning and exploration were encouraged because of the legacies of the previous century of enlightenment. Mentors greatly aided their development. Their discoveries were shaped by their individual personalities. In turn they developed other contributors to the nascent field. Their discoveries included the types of leukocytes, the roles of neutrophils in inflammation and defence, cellular lysis due to complement, the principles of humoral and cellular immunology, passive and active immunization, tissue antigens, anaphylaxis, anaphylactoid reactions and autoimmunity. Their work formed the basis of modern immunology that developed many decades later. Immunology has enormously impacted our understanding of the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of infections, immune-mediated disorders and inflammation. Burgeoning advances forecast further important clinical applications of immunology. Yet, their applications will be problematic because few physicians sufficiently understand the science. We propose that understanding modern immunology requires a grasp of how that science developed - who made the discoveries, how they were made, their successes and failures, their interactions and debates all reveal the foundation of modern immunology.

Joseph Lister: first use of a bacterium as a 'model organism' to illustrate the cause of infectious disease of humans

Joseph Lister's goal was to show that a pure culture of Bacterium lactis, normally present in milk, uniquely caused the lactic acid fermentation of milk. To demonstrate this fact he devised a procedure to obtain a pure clonal population of B. lactis, a result that had not previously been achieved for any microorganism. Lister equated the process of fermentation with infectious disease and used this bacterium as a model organism, demonstrating its role in fermentation; from this result he made the inductive inference that infectious diseases of humans are the result of the growth of specific, microscopic, living organisms in the human host.

[Epidemics and disease during the Revolution Period in Mexico]

The health condition in Mexico was bad around de beginning of the revolutionary period. The movement of troops led the development of epidemics like yellow fever, typhus, smallpox, and influenza that were enhance with natural disasters and hunger in whole country, from cost to cost and in the north big cities like Monterrey, Guadalajara and Saltillo. Doctor Liceaga conducted a well planned campaign against yellow fever eradicating water stagnant deposits in order to combat the vector transmission, the Aedes aegypti, mosquito with satisfactory results. The first smallpox epidemic in the XX Century in Mexico was in 1916. The Mexican physicians used the smallpox vaccine against this epidemic. An American physician named Howard Taylor Ricketts arrived to Mexico for studying the typhus transmission. Accidentally he had been infected and finally, he died from typhus. Definitively, the epidemics predominate along de revolutionary period in Mexico.

Scientific discovery and scientific reputation: the reception of Peyton Rous' discovery of the chicken sarcoma virus

This article concerns itself with the reception of Rous' 1911 discovery of what later came to be known as the Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). Rous made his discovery at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research which had been primarily established to conduct research into infectious diseases. Rous' chance discovery of a chicken tumor led him to a series of conjectures about cancer causation and about whether cancer could have an extrinsic cause. Rous' finding was received with some scepticism by the scientific community that held that cancer was not infectious and favored explanations which located the origins of cancer in the inner mechanism of the cell. After 4 years of unsuccessful effort to isolate and further determine the virus Rous felt compelled to discontinue his work on cancer viruses. When 55 years later, the significance of Rous's discovery was attested by the award of the Nobel Prize, it opened up debates about the issues of delayed recognition and scientific reputation. This article also considers why Rous' hypothesis of a viral origin of cancer could not be incorporated into the existing body of knowledge about cancer before the 1950s.

["Infectious disease" theory during the Japanese Shogunate: an analysis of "Ichikawa Hashimoto-Hakuju-cho Dandoku-ron Ikken"]

Dandoku-ron (Treatise on Eliminating Poisons), written at the beginning of the 19th century by Hakuju Hashimoto, a doctor from Kai (Yamanashi Prefecture), is said to be the first book written by a Japanese author who "treated infectious diseases by means of modern concepts." Hashimoto acquired the ideas for his "infectious disease" theory through his own observations and experience. These ideas, suggesting that tangible poisons--not epidemics or congenital eczema--caused diseases such as smallpox, measles, syphilis, and scabies, were fresh and original at the time. The originality that Hashimoto demonstrated in Dandokuron sometimes conflicted, however, with the theories of the Ikeda group of the Igakkan (Tokugawa Shogunate medical school). This paper details information related to this conflict and explores the politicization caused by the "infectious disease" theory during the Japanese Shogunate.

Do conditions in early life affect old-age mortality directly and indirectly? Evidence from 19th-century rural Sweden

Previous research has shown that the disease load experienced during the birth year, measured as the infant mortality rate, had a significant influence on old-age mortality in nineteenth-century rural Sweden. We know that children born in years with very high rates of infant mortality, due to outbreaks of smallpox or whooping cough, and who still survived to adulthood and married, faced a life length several years shorter than others. We do not know, however, whether this is a direct effect, caused by permanent physical damage leading to fatal outcomes later in life, or an indirect effect, via its influence on accumulation of wealth and obtained socio-economic status. The Scanian Demographic Database, with information on five rural parishes in southern Sweden between 1813 and 1894, contains the data needed to distinguish between the two mechanisms. First, the effects of conditions in childhood on obtained socio-economic status as an adult are analyzed, then the effects of both early-life conditions and socio-economic status at various stages of life on old-age mortality. By including random effects, we take into account possible dependencies in the data due to kinship and marriage. We find that a high disease load during the first year of life had a strong negative impact on a person's ability to acquire wealth, never before shown for a historical setting. This means that it is indeed possible that the effects of disease load in the first year of life indirectly affect mortality in old age through obtained socio-economic status. We find, however, no effects of obtained socio-economic status on old-age mortality. While the result is interesting per se, constituting a debatable issue, it means that the argument that early-life conditions indirectly affect old-age mortality is not supported. Instead, we find support for the conclusion that the effect of the disease load in early-life is direct or, in other words, that physiological damage from severe infections at the start of life leads to higher mortality at older ages. Taking random effects at family level into account did not alter this conclusion.

[Edmond Sergent's discoveries on the vectorial transmission of agents of human and animal infectious diseases]

Edmond SERGENT has been head of the Institut Pasteur in Algeria from 1910 to 1963. During these years, he carried out an impressive scientific production and studied a lot of agents responsible for human, animal and plant diseases. In the field of vectorial transmission of infectious diseases, he made two essential discoveries: the transmission of cosmopolitan relapsing fever by human body louse in 1908, a year before Charles NICOLLE discovered the transmission of the classical exanthematic typhus by the same insect, and the transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis by the phlebotomine sandfly. Moreover he made other discoveries in similar fields, such as the transmission of dromedary trypanosomiasis by Tabanids and later by stomoxys calcitrans, or the transmission of the pigeon Haemoproteus by Lynchia maura. Finally he described the transmission of Theileria dispar (now T. annulata) by the tick Hyalomma mauritanicum (1928).

Fieber – Thema seit Jahrtausenden

«Fieber» gilt von der Antike bis ins 19. Jahrhundert als eigenständige Krankheit, wird jedoch zugleich auch als Heilbestrebung des Körpers aufgefasst. Erkannt wird das Fieber an anfänglicher Kälteempfindung, anschließender Hitze und vor allem am schnellen Puls. Ab 1850 wird die instrumentelle Messung der Körperwärme nach und nach zur Routine, und «Fieber» wird gleichbedeutend mit Temperaturerhöhung. An die Stelle der verschiedenen «Fieber»-Arten treten die Infektionskrankheiten, die sich mit Hilfe des Erregernachweises eindeutig unterscheiden lassen. Bis zur Entwicklung der Antibiotika ist jedoch eine ursächliche Behandlung in vielen Fällen nicht möglich.

In memoriam of Rudolf virchow: a historical retrospective including aspects of inflammation, infection and neoplasia

Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (1821-1902) studied medicine and received his academic degree 'Dr. med.' in 1843. In 1856 he was appointed as head of the institute of pathology at the University of Berlin. In 1859, he became a member of the Berlin town council and later additionally a member of the Prussian and the German parliament. With his probably most important publication 'Cellularpathologie' he introduced pathology to a cellular rationale. This was the major basis for his research in oncology. Virchow further studied aspects of inflammation, despite only few links to tumor pathology were drawn. The few links from infection and inflammation to tumor pathology have almost been forgotten or ignored and have never been evaluated and discussed sufficiently. Virchow recognized that inflammation is a pre-disposing factor for tumor genesis. Furthermore, infectious diseases such as syphilis and tuberculosis had elements of a 'tumor process' and were therefore often difficult or impossible to separate from a 'genuine' tumor process, which was recognized by him. He further tried to explain tumor dissemination by an 'infectious' process. Additionally, there were ideas for a coherent explanation of tumor etiology in form of a common bacterial pathogen ('Krebsbacillus').

Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity

Using historical data from cohorts born before the 20th century in four northern European countries, we show that increasing longevity and declining mortality in the elderly occurred among the same birth cohorts that experienced a reduction in mortality at younger ages. Concurrently, these cohorts also experienced increasing adult height. We hypothesize that both the decline in old-age mortality and the increase in height were promoted by the reduced burden of infections and inflammation. Thus, early growth and cardiovascular diseases of old age may share infectious and inflammatory causes rooted in the external environment.

Spondylarthropathy striking prevalence in a 19th-20th century Portuguese collection

The concept of spondylarthropathy (SPAP) covers a series of pathologies sharing a common genetic basis and infectious triggers.

OBJECTIVES

To present and discuss the prevalence of SPAP in the Coimbra identified skeletal collection, a 19th-20th century Portuguese sample.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Each of the 505 individuals was macroscopically examined; each joint being assessed for degenerative, inflammatory, ankylosing, entesopathic, traumatic, congenital, infectious, or associated lesions. For the diagnosis of SPAP, besides the criteria proposed by Rogers and Rothschild, it was also applied a new set of criteria established by Martin-Dupont. Associated and differential diagnoses were also discussed.

RESULTS

Using these latter criteria, SPAP was definitely diagnosed in 34 individuals (6.7%), mostly women and elderly individuals. Furthermore, SPAP was diagnosed as probable in 32 (6.3%) and could not be excluded in 98 skeletons (19.4%). Except for the third category, the results were close to those obtained when using the arguments of others authors.

DISCUSSION

The specificity of each criterion is discussed, and the results are precautiously compared with other studies both from past and contemporary samples. Graduating the diagnosis as certain, probable or unexcluded, seems to us of interest, leading to etiological discussion as in clinical practice.

CONCLUSION

The high prevalence of SPAP achieved for the Portuguese collection might be explained by high exposure to infectious triggers.

[Infectious complications with herpes virus after ritual Jewish circumcision: a historical and cultural analysis]

Ritual circumcision performed on eight-day-old male infants is rooted in the Bible and is discussed in the earliest Jewish sources. The practice has been observed across the generations in every Jewish community in Israel and the Diaspora. According to Jewish ritual, the mohel--the ritual circumcisor--amputates the foreskin and then folds back the membrane that lies beneath it. This is followed by metzitza--"suction"--a practice performed throughout the ages by mouth. Halakhic literature sets down strict rules regarding this surgical intervention in order to prevent medical complications for the newborn. Metzitza by mouth has been recognized as a risk factor in the transfer of infection from the mohel to the newborn. A recent study relates to eight infants who became infected with herpes virus as a result of the procedure. We shall review the halakhic literature in order to clarify the custom of metzitza by mouth and understand the principles underlying the controversy that surrounds it. The custom of metzitza by mouth has been the subject of extensive rabbinic discussion since the middle of the nineteenth century. A better understanding of the historical, social and cultural background of the issue might allow us to formulate alternatives to the practice. The metzitza controversy gave rise to a stimulating discussion in the rabbinic literature with diverse and conflicting opinions. We shall undertake a precise analysis of the rabbinic discussion and its historical and social background, and attempt to identify the ideological underpinnings of the various positions. Rabbinic literature is replete with cautionary measures to be observed when circumcising a newborn child. The halakhic disputes beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century reflect ideological considerations and objectives. Metzitza was performed throughout the generations by mouth because that was the recognized method of disinfection at the time. Beginning in the nineteenth century, medical and esthetic considerations have led to the abolishment of metzitza by mouth or to its performance by way of a swab or through a glass tube in order to prevent infection. Ideological tendentiousness is evident in both approaches: Should the medical risks of metzitza by mouth be overlooked and denied out of loyalty to ancient tradition, thus allowing the practice to be continued? Or should the recognition of such risks along with esthetic considerations lead to changes in halakhic thinking to perform the metzitza in a hygienic technique? Historically, the issue of metzitza by mouth has been a bone of contention between traditional outlook and modern halakhic thinking, which takes into consideration advances in medical knowledge. In light of the reports in the medical literature about complications in the wake of metzitza by mouth, some of the halakhic rulings regarding circumcision should be reconsidered. Clinically, it is important to raise the medical community's awareness of the phenomenon and treat infected infants accordingly.

[Treatment of infectious diseases in al-Andalus]

The treatment used in Islamic Spain, al-Andalus, for a number of infectious diseases such as leprosy, tuberculosis, gonococcal disease, diarrhea, smallpox, measles, parasitic diseases, etc., is reviewed briefly. The different remedies of plant, animal and mineral extracts employed by renowned physicians of the time, such as Isaac, Arib ibn Said, Abulcasis, al-Gafiqi and Averroes among others, are analyzed briefly to provide an understanding of the approach to the treatment of infectious diseases nowadays known to be caused by microorganisms.

[When the Egyptian mummies are speaking about the infections that have made them ill]

The microbiological study of mummies has started in 1910 when Sir M.A. Ruffer first applied the histologic methods to the study of mummified tissues and found Schistosoma haematobium ovas dated from the XXth dynasty. Up to the 1990 years, morphological methods including radiology, computed tomography, endoscopy, history, electron microscopy, and serology have been the main tools used in Paleopathology. They led to identify schistosomiasis, dracunculiasis, trichinosis, ascariasis and bone tuberculosis as the most prevalent diseases of the ancient residents of Egypt. The recent introduction of molecular methods (PCR) allowed t confirm the high prevalence of helminth diseases and tuberculosis among these populations, but also added new data exemplified by the widespread distribution of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. In addition, cases of bacterial septicemias and diphteria possibily occurred. Thousands of human and animal mummies remain to be studied with the hope to discover another pathogens responsible for viral or zoonotic infections prevalent during the pharaons' times.

The history of Pediatric Infectious Diseases

The history of Pediatric Infectious Diseases closely parallels the history of Pediatrics at least until the last century, because historically infections comprised the major causes of childhood morbidity and mortality, as they still do in the developing world. This history reviews developments in the field through the centuries and is written so that it does not overlap the contribution to this series by Baker and Katz entitled 'Childhood Vaccine Development in the United States.' Remarkable descriptions of selected pediatric infections existed long before the invention of printing, and early pediatric texts included many chapters devoted to various infections. Coincident with the establishment of pediatric organizations in America in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, major attention was focused on diphtheria, infant diarrheal illnesses, tuberculosis, streptococcal infections and their complications, and other pediatric infections, and substantial progress was made. The American Pediatric Society (1888), the American Academy of Pediatrics (1930), the Society for Pediatric Research (1931), and the American Board of Pediatrics (1933) all contributed to the evolution of the discipline of Pediatric Infectious Disease, and numerous leaders of these organizations had significant infectious diseases interests. The establishment of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases sub-board, and an accreditation process for training programs, as well as sub-specialty textbooks and journal, further validated the development of this specialty, particularly in North America. The many remaining challenges related to infectious diseases in children (including HIV, emerging infections, antimicrobial resistance, opportunistic infections, and infections in the developing world) insure the future of the specialty. The genomic era of medicine and the tools of molecular biology will lead to new insights into pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of infections. Pediatric Infectious Diseases physicians can celebrate the past triumphs of the discipline and future achievements, all contributing to improved health for children.