Cricothyroidotomy needle length is associated with posterior tracheal wall injury: A randomized crossover simulation study (CONSORT)

BACKGROUND

Cricothyroidotomy is the final strategy in the "cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate" scenario, but half of needle cricothyroidotomy attempts result in failure. The most frequent complication in needle cricothyroidotomy is posterior tracheal wall injury. We hypothesized that needle length is related to posterior wall injury and compared needle cricothyroidotomy with a commercial kit to a modified shorter needle to evaluate success and posterior wall injury rates.

METHODS

The commercial kit has a needle stopper to prevent posterior wall injury, with a penetrating length of 25 mm. We made long stopper to shorten the length by 5 mm (net 20 mm penetrating length). Residents were recruited, received a lecture about cricothyroidotomy and practiced needle cricothyroidotomy using the commercial kit on a simulator. They then performed cricothyroidotomy using the commercial kit or the shorter needle on an ex-vivo porcine larynx covered with artificial skin. An intra-tracheal endoscope recorded the procedure. The video was evaluated for success/failure or posterior wall injury by independent evaluators. Larynxes with a distance from the outer surface to the inner lumen exceeding 13 mm were excluded. The distance in each larynx was measured by dissection after the study. Success and posterior wall injury rates were analyzed using Fisher exact test (P < .05 was statistically significant).

RESULTS

Forty-seven residents participated in the study. Data for two residents were excluded. There was no statistically significant difference in success rate between the commercial kit (100%, 45/45) and the shorter needle (91%, 41/45, P = .12). Failure was defined if the needle tip did not reach the lumen in four trials. Cannulated but complicated by posterior wall injury occurred in 33% (15/45) with the commercial kit and 5% (2/43) with the shorter needle (P < .01).

CONCLUSION

During needle cricothyroidotomy, force is needed for the needle to penetrate the cricothyroid ligament. The advancing needle sometimes cannot be stopped after penetrating the cricothyroid ligament. These data suggest that needle length is associated with posterior wall injury.

An investigation into the effectiveness of compressed straw blocks in reducing abnormal behaviour in growing pigs

The provision of manipulable material to pigs is a legal requirement to ensure their good welfare. Loose straw is edible, chewable, investigable and manipulable, and has been proven to be effective in reducing abnormal behaviour. However, it is incompatible with slatted systems and therefore not a viable option for many intensive units. Thus, there is a need to identify enrichment materials that are as effective as loose straw and compatible with slatted floors. This study investigated the viability of using compressed straw blocks on a commercial farm in terms of cost and effectiveness in reducing biting relative to plastic hanging toys. A total of 880 slaughter pigs were used, among which half (n = 440, 8 groups) were provided with commercial pig toys (TOY) and the other half (n = 440, 8 groups) were provided compressed straw blocks (STRAW BLOCK). Animals were separated according to sex to investigate whether there was a higher propensity to tail and ear bite depending on sex. Pigs were monitored from weaning to slaughter, with tails being examined post scalding and any condemnations recorded at the abattoir. Throughout their life, the tails and ears of all pigs were examined individually, and behavioural observations of each pig group were conducted fortnightly. Salivary cortisol was also obtained from a subsample of pigs from each group every fortnight to monitor stress levels. The highest straw usage was recorded in the second weaner stage (39 to 67 days after weaning). Enrichment type or sex had no effect on tail lesion scores or cold carcass weight recorded at the abattoir. There was also no effect of enrichment type or sex on body, tail, or ear lesion scores during either the weaner (0 to 39 days after weaning) or finisher stage (67 to145 days after weaning). Female pigs showed more biting behaviour than males, and female pigs that were provided STRAW BLOCK performed better than those provided TOY. In both the weaner and finisher accommodation, more instances of interaction were recorded with TOY pens as enrichment than with STRAW BLOCK, but the interaction duration was not recorded. There was no effect of sex on either stage. More instances of aggression were observed with the TOY than with STRAW BLOCK in the weaner stage (P < 0.05). Enrichment type or sex had no effect on cortisol levels. Thus, relative to plastic hanging toys, compressed straw blocks provided in this manner did not benefit pig welfare.

Evaluation of renal injury caused by acute volume replacement with hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 or Ringer's lactate solution in pigs

This work aimed to evaluate the effects on renal tissue integrity after hydroxyethyl starch (HES) 130/0.4 and Ringer's lactate (RL) administration in pigs under general anesthesia after acute bleeding. A total of 30 mL/kg of blood were passively removed from the femoral artery in two groups of Large White pigs, under total intravenous anesthesia with propofol and remifentanil. After bleeding, Group 1 (n = 11) received RL solution (25 mL/kg) and Group 2 (n = 11) received HES 130/0.4 solution (20 mL/kg). Additionally, Group 3 (n = 6) was not submitted to bleeding or volume replacement. Pigs were euthanized and kidneys were processed for histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. Minimal to moderate glomerular, tubular, and interstitial changes, as well as papillary necrosis, were observed in all experimental groups. Pre-apoptosis and apoptosis indicators were higher in pigs that received HES 130/0.4, indicating a higher renal insult. Both HES 130/0.4 and RL administration may cause renal injury, although renal injury may be more significant in pigs receiving HES 13/0.4. Results also suggest that total intravenous anesthesia with propofol and remifentanil may cause renal injury, and this effect can be dose related.

The 'Real Welfare' scheme: benchmarking welfare outcomes for commercially farmed pigs

Animal welfare standards have been incorporated in EU legislation and in farm assurance schemes, based on scientific information and aiming to safeguard the welfare of the species concerned. Recently, emphasis has shifted from resource-based measures of welfare to animal-based measures, which are considered to assess more accurately the welfare status. The data used in this analysis were collected from April 2013 to May 2016 through the 'Real Welfare' scheme in order to assess on-farm pig welfare, as required for those finishing pigs under the UK Red Tractor Assurance scheme. The assessment involved five main measures (percentage of pigs requiring hospitalization, percentage of lame pigs, percentage of pigs with severe tail lesions, percentage of pigs with severe body marks and enrichment use ratio) and optional secondary measures (percentage of pigs with mild tail lesions, percentage of pigs with dirty tails, percentage of pigs with mild body marks, percentage of pigs with dirty bodies), with associated information about the environment and the enrichment in the farms. For the complete database, a sample of pens was assessed from 1928 farm units. Repeated measures were taken in the same farm unit over time, giving 112 240 records at pen level. These concerned a total of 13 480 289 pigs present on the farm during the assessments, with 5 463 348 pigs directly assessed using the 'Real Welfare' protocol. The three most common enrichment types were straw, chain and plastic objects. The main substrate was straw which was present in 67.9% of the farms. Compared with 2013, a significant increase of pens with undocked-tail pigs, substrates and objects was observed over time (P0.3). The results from the first 3 years of the scheme demonstrate a reduction of the prevalence of animal-based measures of welfare problems and highlight the value of this initiative.

Safety of the long-term application of QuikClot Combat Gauze, ChitoGauze PRO and Celox Gauze in a femoral artery injury model in swine - a preliminary study

The purpose of this study was to examine the safety of the long-term application of QuikClot Combat Gauze, ChitoGauze PRO and Celox Gauze using a swine model. The study was conducted on nine pigs weighing approximately 30 kg, which were randomly divided into three groups. Under deep anesthesia, the pigs underwent complete transverse cutting of the femoral artery in the groin region. Hemostatic dressings were left in the wound for 24 hours. The animals were euthanized 24 hours after dressing application. In each group, macroscopic and microscopic severe changes and shock symptoms were observed in the lungs, liver, kidneys and heart. Fibrino-gaseous embolic material was found in the pulmonary artery of each group and in the lung vessels of the animals from the ChitoGauze PRO and Celox Gauze groups. In conclusion, the long-term application of the evaluated hemostatic dressings has the risk of coagulopathy and reaching the progressive stage of shock. The residues from the hemostatic dressings can ingress into the systemic circulation, thereby increasing the risk of embolus formation. Because of these harmful effects, the evaluated hemostatic dressings are not appropriate for long-term use. Future studies are needed on the consequences of the long-term application of these hemostatic agents.

[Head injuries in Duckburg in 1959 and 2009]

Comic books have been a part of popular culture through generations. Debates concerning their graphic depictions of violence have been ongoing for nearly as long. Our aim was to examine if the violence in "Donald Duck & Co." (a weekly published Danish comic book), illustrated through the number of head injuries, increased in the period from 1959 to 2009. The comic book vintages from the years 1959 and 2009 were read, and the number of head injuries noted. The head injuries were characterized by severity, in part by a modified Glasgow Coma Scale and in part by a newly developed Comic Book Coma Scale. The number of head injuries were equal in the examined years, however, the number of head injuries per page decreased from 1/10 pages to 1/20 pages. Donald Duck sustained a better part of the injuries increasing from 17% in 1959 to 33% in 2009. The study indicates that we, with peace of mind, can read a comic book while the rest of the family takes care of the dishes at Christmas.

Wider stall space affects behavior, lesion scores, and productivity of gestating sows

Limited space allowance within the standard gestation stall is an important welfare concern because it restricts the ability of the sow to make postural adjustments and hinders her ability to perform natural behaviors. Therefore, we evaluated the impacts of increasing stall space and/or providing sows the freedom to access a small pen area on sow well-being using multiple welfare metrics. A total of 96 primi- and multiparous crossbred sows were randomly assigned in groups of 4 sows/treatment across 8 replicates to 1 of 3 stall treatments (TRT): standard stall (CTL; dimensions: 61 by 216 cm), width-adjustable stall (flex stall [FLX]; dimensions: adjustable width of 56 to 79 cm by 216 cm), or an individual walk-in/lock-in stall with access to a small communal open-pen area at the rear of the stall (free-access stall [FAS]; dimensions: 69 by 226 cm). Lesion scores, behavior, and immune and productivity traits were measured at various gestational days throughout the study. Total lesion scores were greatest for sows in FAS and least for sows in FLX ( < 0.001). Higher-parity sows in FAS had the most severe lesion scores (TRT × parity, < 0.0001) and scores were greatest at all gestational days (TRT × day, < 0.05). Regardless of parity, sows in FLX had the least severe scores ( < 0.0001). As pregnancy progressed, lesion scores increased among sows in CTL ( < 0.05). Sow BW and backfat (BF) were greater for sows in FLX and FAS ( < 0.05), and BCS and BF were greater for parity 1 and 2 sows in FAS than the same parity sows in CTL (TRT × parity, < 0.05). Duration and frequency of some postural behaviors and sham chew behavior were affected by TRT ( < 0.05) and time of day (TRT × day, < 0.05). These data indicate that adequate stall space, especially late in gestation, may improve the well-being of higher-parity and heavier-bodied gestating sows as assessed by changes in postural behaviors, lesion severity scores, and other sow traits. Moreover, compromised welfare measures found among sows in various stall environments may be partly attributed to the specific constraints of each stall system such as restricted stall space in CTL, insufficient floor space in the open-pen area of the FAS system, and gate design of the FLX (e.g., direction of bars and feeder space). These results also indicate that parity and gestational day are additional factors that may exacerbate the effects of restricted stall space or insufficient pen space, further compromising sow well-being.

A pilot study on the improvement of the lying area of finishing pigs by a soft lying mat

In this pilot study, we tested whether a soft mat (foam covered with a heat-sealed thermoplastic) reduces alterations and injuries at the skin and the leg joints.The soft mat in the lying area of partly slatted pens was compared to a lying area consisting of either bare or slightly littered (100 g straw per pig and day) concrete flooring. In this study we focused on skin lesions on the legs of finishing pigs as indicators of impaired welfare. Pigs were kept in 19 groups of 8-10 individuals and were examined for skin lesions around the carpal and tarsal joints either at a weight of <35 kg, or at close to 100 kg. The likelihood of hairless patches and wounds at the tarsal joints was significantly lower in pens with the soft lying mat than in pens with a bare concrete floor. Pens with a littered concrete floor did not differ compared to pens with a bare concrete floor. The soft lying mat thus improved floor quality in the lying area in terms of preventing skin lesions compared to bare and slightly littered concrete flooring. Such soft lying mats have thus the potential to improve lying comfort and welfare of finishing pigs.

Epidemiological investigation of femoral fractures in market pigs and the associated economic implications

The cause of an increased number of femoral fractures in market pigs from a single producer is described. Blood chemical, bone ash, radiographic, and feed analyses revealed that the fractures were caused by insufficient calcium in the diet. Associated economic and welfare implications are discussed.

Effects of distance moved during loading and floor space on the trailer during transport on losses of market weight pigs on arrival at the packing plant1

Effects of distance moved during loading and floor space on the trailer during transport on the incidence of transport losses (dead and nonambulatory pigs) on arrival at the packing plant were evaluated in a study involving 42 loads of pigs (average BW = 131.2 kg, SD 5.05). A split-plot design was used with a 2 x 6 factorial arrangement of the following treatments: 1) distance moved from the pen to the exit of the building [short (0 to 30.5 m) vs. long (61.0 to 91.4 m)] and 2) transport floor space (0.396, 0.415, 0.437, 0.462, 0.489, or 0.520 m(2)/pig). Loading distance treatments (sub-plots) were compared within transport floor space treatments (main plot). Pigs were loaded at the farm using sorting boards and, if necessary, electric goads, transported approximately 3 h to a commercial packing plant and unloaded using livestock paddles. The number of nonambulatory pigs during loading and the number of dead and nonambulatory pigs at the plant were recorded. Nonambulatory pigs were classified as fatigued, injured, or injured and fatigued. In addition, the incidence of pigs exhibiting signs of stress (open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, and muscle tremors) during loading and unloading was recorded. There were no interactions (P > 0.05) between distance moved and transport floor space treatments. Moving pigs long compared with short distances during loading increased (P < 0.001) the incidence of open-mouth breathing after loading (24.9 vs. 11.0 +/- 1.03%, respectively) and tended to increase the incidence of nonambulatory pigs during loading (0.32 vs. 0.08 +/- 0.09%, respectively; P = 0.09) and of nonambulatory, injured pigs at the plant (0.24 vs. 0.04 +/- 0.07%, respectively; P = 0.06). However, distance moved did not affect other losses at the plant. Total losses at the plant were greater (P < 0.05) for the 3 lowest floor spaces compared with the 2 highest floor spaces, and pigs provided 0.462 m(2)/pig during transport had similar transport losses to those provided 0.489 and 0.520 m(2)/pig (total losses at the plant = 2.84, 1.88, 1.87, 0.98, 0.13, and 0.98 +/- 0.43% of pigs transported, for 0.396, 0.415, 0.437, 0.462, 0.489, and 0.520 m(2)/pig, respectively). These data confirm previous findings that transport floor space has a major effect on transport losses and suggest that these losses are minimized at a floor space of 0.462 m(2)/pig or greater.

Host-guest composites for induced hemostasis and therapeutic healing in traumatic injuries

INTRODUCTION

The United States military currently outfits our soldiers with a zeolite-based hemostatic agent (HA) that is applied directly onto a traumatic wound to induce hemostasis and prevent loss of life from exsanguination. The goals of this work were to identify and implement strategies to attenuate a tissue burning side effect associated with the HA, resulting from a large release of heat upon hydration, without adversely affecting the wound healing properties. Five ion exchanged derivatives of the parent HA were prepared and characterized with regard to their material and thermal properties, in vitro hemostatic efficacy, and antibacterial activity.

METHODS

The five host-guest high-surface-area HAs were prepared by ion exchanging the zeolite linde type 5A with aqueous salt solutions under controlled conditions. The modified HAs were characterized by TGA, DSC, Thermal Imaging, SEM, XRD, XPS, BET, and a Thromboelastograph (TEG) was employed to assay the in vitro hemostatic efficacy. Antibacterial activity was assayed by measuring the zone of no growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms growing in contact with the ion exchanged HAs.

RESULTS

The heat released during application of the HA can be minimized from 680 J/g to 420 J/g by ion exchanging the calcium ions in zeolite linde type 5A with cations of a reduced hydration enthalpy. Zeolite-based HAs that demonstrate in vitro clot induction time of R < or = 1.8 min, and with surfaces areas > or = 634 m2/g, correlate with 75% in vivo swine survivability of a universally lethal groin injury. Silver exchanged HA maintained a zone of no growth of P. aeruginosa with a surface area twice the geometrical surface area of an HA pressed pellet for 24 hours in an LB Agar assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Two strategies for reducing the large amount of heat released by a zeolite-based HA during application have been described and quantified: (1) ion exchange and (2) prehydration. Five ion-exchanged derivatives of the original HA have been prepared and assayed for hemostatic efficacy both in vitro, by TEG, and in vivo, by clinical swine trials. Contact activation coagulation rates, alpha, were found to increase with the amount of heat released by the HA. In Vitro clot induction time, R, and HA surface area have been identified as predictors of in vivo hemostatic performance. A proposed rationale for selecting hemostatic materials based on these parameters will likely reduce the quantity of experiments involving animals, and the associated labor and capital costs, necessary to test a new HA. A method for incorporating antibacterial activity against gram negative P. aeruginosa into the Ag-exchanged formulation of zeolite LTA-5A has been described and substantiated.

Effect of group size and structure on the welfare and performance of pregnant sows in pens with electronic sow feeders

Pregnant sows were housed in dynamic, twice-mixed, and static groups of different sizes in pens with electronic sow feeders (ESFs) to study the effect of group size and structure on sow welfare and performance. The total injury score (TIS) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group than in the other groups in general and 2 wk after mixing. The salivary cortisol concentrations were similar in the 3 groups. The frequency of queuing was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the twice-mixed group and the frequency of nonagonistic social interactions significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group. The total number of aggressive acts was positively and significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with the frequency and duration of queuing in all the groups. Farrowing performance and longevity did not differ between the groups. The higher TIS and lower number of nonagonistic social interactions indicated that welfare was compromised in the dynamic group as compared with the other groups.

Surgical repair of a tibial fracture in a Belgian Landrace pig

This paper reports the surgical treatment of a tibial fracture in a castrated adult male Belgian Landrace pig of 180 kg. The fracture was repaired using an intramedullary Steinmann pin, combined with cerclage wire and external transfixation. In contrast to other animal species, the fracture repair in the pig was hindered by the short and curved bones, the thick subcutaneous fat layer and the pronounced musculature. Postoperatively, the pig developed an osteomyelitis of the tibia due to pin tract contamination. Despite this complication, the fracture healed acceptably when all fixation material was removed two months after surgery. The infection resolved quickly and a satisfactory clinical result was obtained.

Tail-biting in outdoor pig production

A study was performed in five identical outdoor production units in the same geographic area using growing-finishing pigs of similar genetic makeup, age, diet and feed management. The severity of tail-biting (TS) was scored 1-4. The average group prevalence of bitten tails at slaughter on different farms was between 14.1+/-2.1% and 20.1+/-3.0% (P<0.05). The odds of a barrow being bitten were 2.9 times higher than those for a gilt. The most frequently recorded score of bitten tails was TS3, indicating moderate wounds with low grade infection. The prevalence of bitten barrows was positively correlated with the percentage of gilts in a group (r = 0.54, P<0.001). Pigs with zero TS score had no significantly higher weights at slaughter compared to pigs with a score of TS1. As the TS increased from 1 to 4, weights decreased (TS 1 to TS 2 to 4, P<0.05). TS 3 and 4 were positively (P<0.001) associated with subsequent carcass condemnation. We concluded that outdoor rearing does not prevent tail-biting.

Brain damage in pigs produced by impact with a non-penetrating captive bolt pistol

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of impact with a nonpenetrating captive bolt pistol in pigs by studying the resulting traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to compare the pathological changes with those found previously in the brains of sheep using a similar experimental paradigm.

PROCEDURE

The unrestrained heads of six, anaesthetised, 7- to 8-week-old, Large White pigs were impacted in the temporal region with a nonpenetrating captive bolt pistol. Four hours postimpact, brains were perfusion-fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde. Coronal sections from six levels along the brain were cut and stained with haematoxylin and eosin and immunohistochemically for amyloid precursor protein, a sensitive marker of axonal injury (AI) in the brain after trauma.

RESULTS

TBI in pigs was characterised only by very mild AI, whereas AI in sheep after captive bolt impact to the same head region was much more severe and widely distributed and often associated with vascular damage such as contusions, subarachnoid and intraparenchymal haemorrhage.

CONCLUSIONS

TBI in pigs was much less severe than in sheep after non-penetrating mechanical impact of similar magnitude, confirming the importance of interspecies differences in determining an appropriate physical method of euthanasia.

Comparison of injuries in sows housed in gestation stalls versus group pens with electronic sow feeders

OBJECTIVE

To compare the location and severity of injuries in pregnant sows housed in individual gestation stalls with that in pregnant sows housed in dynamic groups in pens with electronic sow feeders.

DESIGN

Prospective study.

ANIMALS

100 pregnant sows of parity 1 to 3 and various body weights.

PROCEDURE

Fifty sows each were randomly allotted to gestation stalls or group pens with electronic sow feeders. Injuries were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth of wounds. Injury scores for sows in both housing systems were compared during a period of 90 days. The influence of factors such as duration of stay in the housing system, parity, and body weight on sow injuries was also examined.

RESULTS

Injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. As body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in group pens with electronic sow feeders and increased for sows housed in gestation stalls. There was a significant negative association between second parity and total injury scores.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Modifications in housing system design and management procedures are needed to reduce injuries in pregnant sows.

Lightning injury in an outdoor swine herd

Three pigs, weighing 63 kg-70 kg each, from a group of 8 pigs in an outdoor pen that was struck by lightning were necropsied. All 3 pigs presented with hind limb paralysis. The only lesions identified were multiple fractures of the last (seventh) lumbar vertebral body and first sacral vertebral segment, with dorsal displacement of the sacrum and transection of the distal spinal cord and spinal nerves. Hemorrhages extended from the fracture sites into muscles immediately surrounding the lumbosacral junction and retroperitoneally into the pelvic cavity. These hemorrhages were not clearly visible until the pelvic region was dissected. Lesions commonly found in human lightning-strike victims were not present in these pigs. Because vertebral fractures may be the only lesions and may be grossly subtle in heavily muscled pigs, careful pelvic and vertebral dissection is recommended in cases of suspected lightning strike and electrocution.

[Effects of muscle needle biopsy on parameters of humoral and cellular immunity in pigs]

The shot biopsy is a common experimental technique for the collection of samples to investigate muscle tissue characteristics or to determine meat quality features in pigs. Its application seems to be also possible in interdisciplinary research projects investigating animal stress, behaviour, and welfare. The present study on 12 group-housed pigs (age: 12 weeks, weight: 29.3 kg) shows the influence of this wound-causing technique on different humoral and cell-mediated parameters of the immune system at 1, 3, 5, and 9 days after biopsy compared to the initially investigated levels before. An enhancement of the blood sedimentation rate and both the IgG and the cellular immune response in vivo (leukocytes, lymphocytes) as well as in vitro (ConA) was observed. Furthermore, there were signs of a secondary wound infection 5 days after biopsies were taken possibly caused by mutual oral manipulation of the animals. We conclude that the muscle shot biopsy technique can be used on group-housed pigs as a method to investigate muscle physiological characteristics. The technique, however, induces immunological reactions which may interfere with stress-induced immune reactions.

[Prevalence of herd specific factors and limb disorders, and their associations in intensive swine production]

A longitudinal observational study in 180 pig breeding herds was performed to calculate prevalences of herd specific factors as well as typical limb disorders and to estimate their associations in a 2-step regression analysis. Regarding herd size, genetics, feeding and weight gain herds were distributed almost equal. The population density and the hygiene status were considered proper in most herds. In the farrowing units partially slatted floors of metal or plastic with slats > 9 mm, in the weaning units fully slatted floors of plastic, and in the rearing units fully slatted floors of concrete were most common. Less than 6% of the farms housed their pigs on solid concrete with straw bedding. Herd prevalences of fault floors varied between 18 and 43%. As a herd health problem (morbidity > 25%) claw hematomas and limb abrasions in just 1-week old piglets, overgrown claws and bursa swellings in weaned pigs, and bursa swellings in rearing pigs were wide spread. Leg deformations by osteopathy or arthritis occurred only sporadically. In the risk analysis claw hematomas of piglets were associated with slatted floors, particulary with slats < 10 mm. Abrasions were associated with concrete and rough floor surfaces at all. Overgrown claws and bursa swellings in weaned and in rearing pigs were associated with damaged, slippery or rough floor surfaces. Other associations were not detected. The quality of floor might be more important than the type of housing.

Evaluation of the relationship between injuries and size of gestation stalls relative to size of sows

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether there is a relationship between sow injuries and size of gestation stalls relative to sow size.

DESIGN

Prospective study.

ANIMALS

267 pregnant sows.

PROCEDURE

Sows were randomly selected from 4 swine farms. Sow and stall measurements were obtained, and injuries were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth. Ratios of stall length to sow length and stall width to sow height were calculated.

RESULTS

High injury scores were associated with low ratios of stall length to sow length and stall width to sow height.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

A small increase in stall dimensions could reduce injuries and improve well-being of sows considerably.

[Alterations of the integument of fattening pigs in different housing systems]

Alterations of the integument of fattening pigs were investigated on a total of eleven farms with the following housing systems: "Krieger" system, fully slatted floors, partially slatted floors and kennel housing systems. For this purpose, the alterations of the integument of the animals were visually assessed at different times during fattening. In addition, spot investigations were carried out on three farms with deep litter systems. In the non-littered systems, significantly more changes at the limbs were observed than in the littered systems. The least damages occurred in the deep litter system. Similar as with cattle, soft and deformable lying areas seem to be a prerequisite for the prevention of such alterations. With respect to injuries caused by tailbiting, apart from possibilities of activity, other parameters such as air quality and space availability also play an important role.

The relationship between tail biting in pigs, docking procedure and other management practices

The tail length (docked, tipped or undocked) and tail status (bitten or unbitten) of 27,870 pigs from 450 units was recorded at six UK abattoirs. A farm survey of the final finishing stage was used to investigate the relationship between management practice and tail biting. This showed that docking was the most important factor influencing the probability of being not bitten, with 2.4% of docked and 8.5% of long-tailed pigs being tail-bitten. The following factors reduced the probability of long-tailed pigs being tail-bitten; light straw provision, use of natural ventilation or artificially controlled natural ventilation (ACNV), mixed sex grouping, meal or liquid feeding, and use of double or multi-space feeders. Docked and long-tailed pigs provided with light straw and natural ventilation/ACNV had levels of tail biting of 1.2% and 4.3% respectively; 3.9% of docked pigs with artificial ventilation and no straw were tail-bitten. Long-tailed pigs fed via double or multi-space feeders also had 3.9% of tails bitten.

Risk factors for vulva biting in breeding sows in south-west England

A postal survey was conducted on 410 pig farms in south-west England to investigate the risk factors for vulva biting. The results of the bivariate analyses indicated that group housing, keeping a boar in the same pen and the number of sows per drinker were significantly associated (P < or = 0.05) with vulva biting in service sows. Group housing, group size, keeping a boar in the same pen, straw bedding, electronic sow feeders, feeding once daily, providing water automatically and the number of sows per drinker were significantly associated with vulva biting in dry sows. Vulva biting was also significantly associated with an increased percentage of culled sows and the occurrence of tail biting on the farm. A logistic regression analysis showed that group size and the number of sows per drinker were significant risk factors for vulva biting in service sows, and once a day feeding, group size, the number of sows per drinker and providing water automatically were significant risk factors for dry sows.

Shoulder joint luxation in large animals: 14 cases (1976-1997)

OBJECTIVE

To determine clinical and radiographic findings in and treatment and outcome of large animals with shoulder joint luxations.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

5 horses, 3 goats, 1 calf, 1 sheep, 1 Himalayan tahr, 1 pot-bellied pig, 1 reindeer, and 1 white-tailed deer.

PROCEDURE

Medical records and radiographs were reviewed to determine signalment, history, physical examination findings, type of luxation, treatment, and outcome. Owners and referring veterinarians were contracted for follow-up information.

RESULTS

Goats, sexually intact males, and animals < 1 year old were overrepresented, compared with the general hospital population during the study period. Closed reduction was attempted in 3 animals and was successful in 1. Open reduction and internal stabilization was attempted in 4 animals, including 1 in which closed reduction was unsuccessful. Long-term stabilization of the joint was achieved in 3 animals, but overall results were poor because of osteoarthritis and chronic lameness. Three animals were not treated, and 5 were euthanatized because of a poor prognosis.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Large animals with shoulder joint luxation and concurrent fractures had a poorer prognosis than did those with shoulder joint luxation alone.

Assessment of the injuries sustained by pregnant sows housed in groups using electronic feeders

The incidence of injuries to pregnant sows kept in dynamic groups in a commercial herd was recorded over a period of 18 months. The sows were maintained in a solid-floored building with a straw-bedded lying area allowing 1.7 m2 per sow and fed by means of electronic feeders. Injuries on 12 possible areas of the body were assessed every week, and graded on the scale of 0 to 3 (maximum body score 36). The lesion scores sustained by the sows were very low, with a maximum of 19 and a median of 4. Lesions of the greatest severity constituted only 0.16 per cent of all the recorded injuries. The injuries were not distributed uniformly over the body, most being on the shoulders, flanks and hindquarters, with very few on the head or in the vulval region. The total injury score was related to parity, with sows in parities one, two and three sustaining more injuries than sows in later parities, and it was also related negatively to bodyweight. More agonistic interactions were observed between sows in the lying area and in the vicinity of the feeders than in the dunging area.

Objective scoring of animal handling and stunning practices at slaughter plants

OBJECTIVE

To develop objective methods for monitoring animal welfare at slaughter plants to ensure compliance with the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act.

DESIGN

Survey of existing procedures.

SAMPLE POPULATION

24 federally inspected slaughter plants.

PROCEDURE

6 variables evaluated at each plant were stunning efficacy, insensibility of animals hanging on the bleeding rail, vocalization, electric prod use, number of animals slipping, and number of animals falling.

RESULTS

Of 11 beef plants, only 4 were able to render 95% of cattle insensible with a single shot from a captive-bolt stunner. Personnel at 7 of 11 plants placed the stunning wand correctly on 99% or more of pigs and sheep. At 4 beef plants, percentage of cattle prodded with an electric prod ranged from 5% at a plant at which handlers only prodded cattle that refused to move to 90% at another plant. Use of electric prods at 6 pork plants scored for prod use ranged from 15 to almost 100% of pigs. Percentage of cattle that vocalized during stunning and handling ranged from 1.1% at a plant at which electric prods were only used on cattle that refused to move to 32% at another plant at which electric prods were used on 90% of cattle and a restraint device was inappropriately used to apply excessive pressure.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

To obtain the most accurate assessment of animal welfare at slaughter plants, it is important to score all of the aforementioned variables.

Repair of a mid-diaphyseal femoral fracture in a boar

A simple, oblique fracture of the middle portion of the diaphysis of the right femur was successfully repaired in a 10-month-old 150-kg Berkshire boar, using a 4.5-mm 9-hole broad dynamic compression plate applied to the lateral surface of the bone. A lateral surgical approach provided excellent access to the fragment ends. Intravenous administration of atracurium besylate facilitated traction along the long axis of the bone and fracture reduction. The plate was luted with 5% gentamicin sulfate-impregnated polymethyl methacrylate. Lack of a third trochanter in the porcine species facilitated retraction of the superficial gluteal muscle and provided a smooth plating surface. Full breeding activity by the boar resumed 190 days after surgery without complications. Massive soft tissue in the area over the femur, extensive production of callus, and cautious behavior by the boar contributed to successful fracture repair, indicating that domestic swine may be good surgical candidates for femoral fracture repair.

A field study on group housing of lactating sows with special reference to sow health at weaning

Four farms that group-housed sows from 2 weeks of lactation until weaning (G-farms) and 3 farms that kept the sows individually penned throughout the 5 to 6-week-long lactation period (C-farms), were compared in terms of sow health. All sows were crossbred Swedish Yorkshire x Swedish Landrace. The daily food ration was similar on all farms except during the group-housing period, when G-farm sows were fed ad libitum. Sows were grouped in the breeding section and kept grouped on deep litter in the dry sow section on all farms. Individual health examinations were performed at the time of weaning (+/- 4 days) on 179 G-farm sows and on 167 C-farm sows. Teat- and udder skin wounds occurred less frequently (p < 0.001) in G-farm sows than in C-farm sows. In addition, preweaning atrophy of all mammary glands occurred in 6.6% of the G-farm-sows but not in a single C-farm sow (p < 0.001). This indicates that sow-piglet interactions decrease when sows are group housed. However, these differences did not occur in primiparous sows, suggesting that the relation between the primiparous sow and her litter is not affected. Mastitis frequency was the same in the 2 systems. Moreover, the frequency of locomotor disorders was the same in the 2 groups, and hoof overgrowth was common in both systems. These similarities could be due to the fact that all farms group housed dry sows on deep litter. A strong relation (p < 0.001) between hoof overgrowth and locomotor disorders was evident. Low access to food due to low rank among primiparous group-housed sows was indicated by a lower (p < 0.05) backfat thickness compared with multiparous sows, and a higher (p < 0.001) frequency of skin wounds compared with individually housed primiparous sows.

Housing of pregnant sows in loose and confined systems--a field study 1. Vulva and body lesions, culling reasons and production results

A field study was carried out in 18 herds with loose housing of pregnant sows (loose herds) and in 18 herds with tethered or stalled pregnant sows (confined herds). Three of the loose herds were excluded due to different kind of flooring from the rest of the herds. The remaining 15 herds had partly slatted concrete floors and electronic sow feeding. The frequencies of sows with vulva and body lesions, thin sows as well as the culling reasons and production results were used as animal welfare indicators for the herds. Vulva lesions were found only in the loose herds and the mean prevalence proportion of sows with lesions within these herds was 15.2%. All vulva lesions observed in this study seemed to be caused by biting. The relative risk of vulva lesions was 2.6 times higher in the loose herds with no roughage feeding as compared to loose herds with appetite feeding of roughage. The sows in the loose herds, that had a feeding station with a mechanical hind gate had 1.8 greater risk of vulva lesions than sows in the loose herds that used a feeding station with an electronic gate. The mean prevalence proportion of sows with body lesions was 13.1% in the loose herds and 4.0% in the confined herds. Aggression between sows seemed to be the main cause of body lesions in the loose herds, while decubitus ulcers on the shoulders were the main cause of body lesions in the confined herds. Sows in loose herds that were not fed additional roughage feeding had 1.7 times greater risk of body lesions than sows in herds that used additional roughage feeding. The main culling reasons and production results were similar in the loose and confined herds. This study showed that there were welfare problems both in confined and loose herds, however, with improved management, many of the welfare problems associated with loose housing can be reduced.

Articular fractures of the distal portion of the humerus in Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs: six cases (1988-1992)

Medical records of 6 Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs with articular fractures of the distal portion of the humerus were reviewed. Evaluation of the medical records did not reveal a sex predilection. All fractures were associated with minor traumatic episodes in young pigs. Of 6 fractures involving the humeral condyle, 4 involved the medial portion, 1 involved the lateral portion, and 1 was a Y-shaped fracture. Five of the pigs underwent surgical repair of the fracture, and all 5 did not have signs of lameness at follow-up evaluations (mean, 11 months). Of 4 pigs that had follow-up radiography, all had evidence of mild to moderate degenerative joint disease. Articular fractures of the distal portion of the humerus should be considered as a differential diagnosis in all Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs with forelimb lameness, even if the trauma sustained appeared mild. Surgical repair in Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs is straightforward, and excellent clinical results can be expected.

The effect of claw lesions and claw infections on lameness in loose housing of pregnant sows

During a 12-month period lameness, claw lesions and claw infections were studied in 15 herds with loose housing of pregnant sows on partly slatted concrete floors. Of these herds, 12 herds had concrete slats and 3 herds had plastic slats. The mean prevalence proportion of lame sows in the herds was 13.1%. The risk of lameness increased with increasing claw lesion score and with the presence of claw infections. In the herds with concrete slats, the relative risk of lame sows was 2.4 times higher than in the herds with plastic slats. In the herds with poor floor hygiene, the relative risk of lameness was 2.8 times higher than in the herds with dry and clean floors. The mean prevalence proportion of sows with claw infections at the 3 separate examinations in the 15 herds was 3.8%. Claw infections were more prevalent in herds with dirty floors and in herds with little space per animal (< 2 m2). In the herds with concrete slats, the relative risk of claw infections was 2 times higher than in the herds with plastic slats.

Housing of pregnant sows in loose and confined systems--a field study. 3. The impact of housing factors on claw lesions

The relationship of claw lesions to housing was studied in 36 sow herds. Eighteen herds with loose housing of pregnant sows and 18 herds with confined (stalled or tethered) pregnant sows, were followed over a 12 month period. Fifteen of the loose housing herds had partly slatted concrete floors, while 3 herds had other types of flooring. The mean herd prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions in loose housing herds with partly slatted floors was about twice as high as in the herds with confined sows. In the only loose housing herd with deep litter based on straw, the prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions was lower than any of the other loose or confined herds. Within herds with loose sows on partly slatted floors, the prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions seemed to be higher in the loose housing compartment than in the farrowing compartment. The prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions did not differ between loose herds with plastic slats and loose herds with concrete slats.