Characterization of low molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatases of Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal protozoan parasite of humans and is endemic in developing countries. E. histolytica has two low molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (LMW-PTP) genes, EhLMW-PTP1 and EhLMW-PTP2, which are expressed in cultured trophozoites, clinical isolates, and cysts. The amino acid sequences of proteins EhLMW-PTP1 and EhLMW-PTP2 showed only one amino acid difference between them at position A85V, respectively. Both genes are expressed in cultured trophozoites, mainly EhLMW-PTP2, and in trophozoites recovered from amoebic liver abscess, the expression of EhLMW-PTP1 is downregulated. We cloned the two genes and purified the corresponding recombinant (rEhLMW-PTPs) proteins. Antibodies anti-rEhLMW-PTP2 showed that during red blood cells uptake by E. histolytica, the EhLMW-PTPs were found in the phagocytic cups based on analysis of fluorescence signals. On the other hand, rEhLMW-PTPs showed an optimum phosphatase activity at pH 6.0 with p-nitrophenyl phosphate as the substrate. They dephosphorylate phosphotyrosine and 3-O-methylfluorescein phosphate, but not phosphoserine or phosphothreonine, and the enzymatic activity is inhibited by orthovanadate. rEhLMW-PTP1 and rEhLMW-PTP2 exhibited optimum temperatures of activities at 60 °C and 58 °C, respectively, with high thermal stability at 50 °C. Also, the rEhLMW-PTPs showed high specific activities and specific km value with pNPP or OMFP as the substrates at the physiological temperature (37 °C).

Silencing the cleavage factor CFIm25 as a new strategy to control Entamoeba histolytica parasite

The 25 kDa subunit of the Clevage Factor Im (CFIm25) is an essential factor for messenger RNA polyadenylation in human cells. Therefore, here we investigated whether the homologous protein of Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan responsible for human amoebiasis, might be considered as a biochemical target for parasite control. Trophozoites were cultured with bacterial double-stranded RNA molecules targeting the EhCFIm25 gene, and inhibition of mRNA and protein expression was confirmed by RT-PCR and Western blot assays, respectively. EhCFIm25 silencing was associated with a significant acceleration of cell proliferation and cell death. Moreover, trophozoites appeared as larger and multinucleated cells. These morphological changes were accompanied by a reduced mobility, and erythrophagocytosis was significantly diminished. Lastly, the knockdown of EhCFIm25 affected the poly(A) site selection in two reporter genes and revealed that EhCFIm25 stimulates the utilization of downstream poly(A) sites in E. histolytica mRNA. Overall, our data confirm that targeting the polyadenylation process represents an interesting strategy for controlling parasites, including E. histolytica. To our best knowledge, the present study is the first to have revealed the relevance of the cleavage factor CFIm25 as a biochemical target in parasites.

Curcumin alters the cytoskeleton and microtubule organization on trophozoites of Giardia lamblia

Giardia lamblia is a worldwide protozoan responsible for a significant number of intestinal infections. There are several drugs for the treatment of giardiasis, but they often cause side effects. Curcumin, a component of turmeric, has antigiardial activity; however, the molecular target and mechanism of antiproliferative activity are not clear. The effects of curcumin on cellular microtubules have been widely investigated. Since tubulin is the most abundant protein in the cytoskeleton of Giardia, to elucidate whether curcumin has activity against the microtubules of this parasite, we treated trophozoites with curcumin and the cells were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Curcumin inhibited Giardia proliferation and adhesion in a time-concentration-dependent mode. The higher inhibitory concentrations of curcumin (3 and 15μM) disrupted the cytoskeletal structures of trophozoites; the damage was evident on the ventral disk, flagella and in the caudal region, also the membrane was affected. The immunofluorescence images showed altered distribution of tubulin staining on ventral disk and flagella. Additionally, we found that curcumin caused a clear reduction of tubulin expression. By docking analysis and molecular dynamics we showed that curcumin has a high probability to bind at the interface of the tubulin dimer close to the vinblastine binding site. All the data presented indicate that curcumin may inhibit Giardia proliferation by perturbing microtubules.

[Large trophozoites in blood smear of falciparum malaria: one case report]

This paper reports one case of atypical falciparum malaria imported from Africa, whose blood smear contains many large trophozoites, with punctiform or massive brown pigment granules, the body shape of the plasmodium is similar to that of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale. After the gene detection by PCR, the case was diagnosed as falciparum malaria. As large trophozoites were rarely seen in the peripheral blood of non-severe falciparum malaria cases, much attention should be paid to the identification of Plasmodium falciparum and other plasmodia in microscopic examinations.

Effects of metronidazole analogues on Giardia lamblia: experimental infection and cell organization

The chemotherapeutic agents used for the treatment of giardiasis are often associated with adverse side effects and are refractory cases, due to the development of resistant parasites. Therefore the search for new drugs is required. We have previously reported the giardicidal effects of metronidazole (MTZ) and its analogues (MTZ-Ms, MTZ-Br, MTZ-N(3), and MTZ-I) on the trophozoites of Giardia lamblia. Now we evaluated the activity of some giardicidal MTZ analogues in experimental infections in gerbils and its effects on the morphology and ultrastructural organization of Giardia. The giardicidal activity in experimental infections showed ED(50) values significantly lower for MTZ-I and MTZ-Br when compared to MTZ. Transmission electron microscopy was employed to approach the mechanism(s) of action of MTZ analogues upon the protozoan. MTZ analogues were more active than MTZ in changing significantly the morphology and ultrastructure of the parasite. The analogues affected parasite cell vesicle trafficking, autophagy, and triggered differentiation into cysts. These results coupled with the excellent giardicidal activity and lower toxicity demonstrate that these nitroimidazole derivates may be important therapeutic alternatives for combating giardiasis. In addition, our results suggest a therapeutic advantage in obtaining synthetic metronidazole analogues for screening of activities against other infectious agents.

Improved in vitro culture of Plasmodium falciparum permits establishment of clinical isolates with preserved multiplication, invasion and rosetting phenotypes

To be able to robustly propagate P. falciparum at optimal conditions in vitro is of fundamental importance for genotypic and phenotypic studies of both established and fresh clinical isolates. Cryo-preserved P. falciparum isolates from Ugandan children with severe or uncomplicated malaria were investigated for parasite phenotypes under different in vitro growth conditions or studied directly from the peripheral blood. The parasite cultures showed a minimal loss of parasite-mass and preserved percentage of multiple infected pRBCs to that in peripheral blood, maintained adhesive phenotypes and good outgrowth and multiplication rates when grown in suspension and supplemented with gas. In contrast, abnormal and greatly fluctuating levels of multiple infections were observed during static growth conditions and outgrowth and multiplication rates were inferior. Serum, as compared to Albumax, was found necessary for optimal presentation of PfEMP1 at the pRBC surface and/or for binding of serum proteins (immunoglobulins). Optimal in vitro growth conditions of P. falciparum therefore include orbital shaking (50 rev/min), human serum (10%) and a fixed gas composition (5% O2, 5% CO2, 90% N2). We subsequently established 100% of 76 frozen patient isolates and found rosetting with schizont pRBCs in every isolate (>26% schizont rosetting rate). Rosetting during schizogony was often followed by invasion of the bound RBC as seen by regular and time-lapse microscopy as well as transmission electron microscopy. The peripheral parasitemia, the level of rosetting and the rate of multiplication correlated positively to one another for individual isolates. Rosetting was also more frequent with trophozoite and schizont pRBCs of children with severe versus uncomplicated malaria (p<0.002; p<0.004). The associations suggest that rosetting enhances the ability of the parasite to multiply within the human host.

Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum is associated with an altered temporal pattern of transcription

BACKGROUND

Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria has emerged in Western Cambodia. This is a major threat to global plans to control and eliminate malaria as the artemisinins are a key component of antimalarial treatment throughout the world. To identify key features associated with the delayed parasite clearance phenotype, we employed DNA microarrays to profile the physiological gene expression pattern of the resistant isolates.

RESULTS

In the ring and trophozoite stages, we observed reduced expression of many basic metabolic and cellular pathways which suggests a slower growth and maturation of these parasites during the first half of the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC). In the schizont stage, there is an increased expression of essentially all functionalities associated with protein metabolism which indicates the prolonged and thus increased capacity of protein synthesis during the second half of the resistant parasite IDC. This modulation of the P. falciparum intraerythrocytic transcriptome may result from differential expression of regulatory proteins such as transcription factors or chromatin remodeling associated proteins. In addition, there is a unique and uniform copy number variation pattern in the Cambodian parasites which may represent an underlying genetic background that contributes to the resistance phenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

The decreased metabolic activities in the ring stages are consistent with previous suggestions of higher resilience of the early developmental stages to artemisinin. Moreover, the increased capacity of protein synthesis and protein turnover in the schizont stage may contribute to artemisinin resistance by counteracting the protein damage caused by the oxidative stress and/or protein alkylation effect of this drug. This study reports the first global transcriptional survey of artemisinin resistant parasites and provides insight to the complexities of the molecular basis of pathogens with drug resistance phenotypes in vivo.

Use of pooled sodium acetate acetic acid formalin-preserved fecal specimens for the detection of intestinal parasites

This study aimed at comparing detection of intestinal parasites from single unpreserved stool sample vs. sodium acetate acetic acid formalin (SAF)-preserved pooled samples, and stained with chlorazol black dye in routine practice. Unpreserved samples were collected from 120 patients and represented as Group I. Other three SAF-preserved samples were collected from the same patients over a 6-day period and represented as Groups IIa, IIb, and IIc. The latter groups were equally subdivided into two subgroups. The first subgroup of each of the three samples was examined individually, whereas the second subgroup of each were pooled and examined as a single specimen. All groups were examined by the routine diagnostic techniques; however, in group II when the diagnosis was uncertain, the chlorazol black dye staining procedure was carried out. Results demonstrated that out of 74 patients who continued the study, 12 cases (16%) were positive in group I, compared with 29 (39%) in the subgroups examined individually, and 27 (36%) in the pooled subgroups. Therefore, pooling of preserved fecal samples is an efficient and economical procedure for the detection of parasites. Furthermore, the chlorazol black dye was simple and effective in detecting the nuclear details of different parasites.

Identification of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites in fresh stool sample: comparison of three staining techniques and study on the viability period of the trophozoites

Entamoeba histolytica causes about 50 million infections worldwide with a death rate of over 100,000 annually. In endemic developing countries where resources are limited, microscopic examinations based on Wheatley trichrome staining is commonly used for diagnosis of intestinal amoebiasis. Other than being a time-consuming method, it must be performed promptly after stool collection as trophozoites disintegrate rapidly in faeces. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacies of Eosin-Y, Wheatley trichrome and Iodine stains in delineating the diagnostic features of the parasite, and subsequently to determine the suitable microscopy observation period for detection of erythrophagocytic and non-erythrophagocytic trophozoites spiked in semi-solid stool sample. Wheatley trichrome staining technique was performed using the standard method while the other two techniques were performed on the slides by mixing the respective staining solution with the spiked stool sample. One million of axenically cultured non-erythrophagocytic E. histolytica and erythrophagocytic E. histolytica were separately spiked into 2 g of fresh semisolid faeces. Percentage viability of the trophozoites in the spiked stool sample was determined at 30 minute intervals for eight hours using the 0.4% Trypan blue exclusion method. The results showed that Eosin-Y and Wheatley trichrome stained the karyosome and chromatin granules better as compared to Iodine stain. The percentage viability of non-erythrophagocytic trophozoites decreased faster than the erythrophagocytic form in the first 5 hours and both dropped to ~10% in the 6th hour spiked sample. In conclusion, Eosin-Y staining technique was found to be the easiest to perform, most rapid and as accurate as the commonly used Wheatley trichrome technique; Eosin-Y stained slide sealed with DPX could also be kept as a permanent record. A period not exceeding 6 hours after stool collection was found to be the most suitable in order to obtain good microscopy results of viable trophozoites.

Imaging and analysis of the microtubule cytoskeleton in giardia

Giardia intestinalis, a common parasitic protist, possesses a complex microtubule cytoskeleton critical for cellular function and transitioning between the cyst and trophozoite life cycle stages. The giardial microtubule cytoskeleton is comprised of highly dynamic and stable structures. Novel microtubule structures include the ventral disc that is essential for the parasite's attachment to the intestinal villi to avoid peristalsis. The completed Giardia genome combined with new molecular genetic tools and live imaging will aid in the characterization and analysis of cytoskeletal dynamics in Giardia. Fundamental areas of giardial cytoskeletal biology remain to be explored and knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of cytoskeletal functioning is needed to better understand Giardia's unique biology and pathogenesis.

Light and transmission electron microscopic studies on trophozoites and cyst-like stages of Histomonas meleagridis from cultures

The present study deals with Berlin strains of Histomonas meleagridis, the specimens of which were cultivated in Dwyer's medium. The light and electron microscopic examination revealed that the cultivated trophozoite stages (reaching about 10 mum in size) appeared more or less spherical, although their surface (covered by a single membrane) showed amoeba-like waves. All stages were uni-nucleated and reproduced by binary fission with an extranuclear spindle apparatus. Some trophozoites appeared ovoid and possessed a single flagellum with a typical microtubular 9 x 2 + 2 arrangement. Furthermore, the latter were characterized by an inner row of typical microtubules (remnant of an axostyle) and a Golgi apparatus (both adjacent to the nucleus), multivesicular structures, hydrogenosomes, and many food vacuoles containing either starch grains or bacteria. Their cytoplasm was densely filled with glycogen granules and ribosomes. Similar stages were also documented in the caeca and cloaca of chicken when being inoculated (via cloaca) with such culture stages. In addition to these typical trophozoites, the cultures contained a low number of 10-mum-sized spherical cyst-like stages with a surrounding amorphous layer. The cytoplasm of some of these cyst-like stages-when studied by electron microscopy-appeared with two membranes or had formed an amorphic, cyst-wall-like layer at their surface, apparently corresponding to their light microscopical appearance. Such stages might be involved in transmission from one host to another and probably have been missed before in microscopical examinations of infected poultry.

Entamoeba histolytica: Fibrilar aggregates in dividing trophozoites

Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite cytokinesis is dependent upon cytoskeletal elements such as filamentous actin and myosin. Here we present confocal and transmission electron microscopy studies of this process. A sequence in the formation of the contractile ring was shown with rhodamine-phalloidine staining. Ultrastructural analysis revealed the presence of fibrilar aggregates in the cytoplasm of dividing trophozoites. Among them two filaments of different diameter were identified. These aggregates presented repeating assemblies of thin and thick filaments that in cross section revealed a muscle-like appearance. Our results suggest that these aggregates constitute the contractile ring responsible for the separation of daughter cells.

The effect of blueberry extracts on Giardia duodenalis viability and spontaneous excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, in vitro

The protozoan parasites Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium parvum are common causes of diarrhoea, worldwide. Effective drug treatment is available for G. duodenalis, but with anecdotal evidence of resistance or reduced compliance. There is no effective specific chemotherapeutic intervention for Cryptosporidium. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the antimicrobial properties of berries and their phenolic compounds but little work has been done on their antiparasitic actions. The effect of various preparations of blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) extract on G. duodenalis trophozoites and C. parvum oocysts were investigated. Pressed blueberry extract, a polyphenolic-rich blueberry extract, and a commercially produced blueberry drink (Bouvrage) all demonstrated antigiardial activity. The polyphenol-rich blueberry extract reduced trophozoite viability in a dose dependent manner. At 167 microgml(-1), this extract performed as well as all dilutions of pressed blueberry extract and the Bouvrage beverage (9.6+/-2.8% live trophozoites remaining after 24h incubation). The lowest dilution of blueberry extract tested (12.5% v/v) contained >167 microgml(-1) of polyphenolic compounds suggesting that polyphenols are responsible for the reduced survival of G. duodenalis trophozoites. The pressed blueberry extract, Bouvrage beverage and the polyphenolic-rich blueberry extract increased the spontaneous excystation of C. parvum oocysts at 37 degrees C, compared to controls, but only at a dilution of 50% Bouvrage beverage, equivalent to 213 microgml(-1) gallic acid equivalents in the polyphenolic-rich blueberry extract. Above this level, spontaneous excystation is decreased. We conclude that water soluble extracts of blueberries can kill G. duodenalis trophozoites and modify the morphology of G. duodenalis and C. parvum.

Azasterols impair Giardia lamblia proliferation and induces encystation

The effects of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors on growth and fine structure of Giardia lamblia P1 strain cultures were analyzed. Azasterols demonstrated high efficacy in killing cells. The IC(50) values for 22,26-azasterol and 24(R,S),25-epiminolanosterol were 7muM and 170nM, respectively. Morphological analysis showed that azasterols induced changes in G. lamblia ultrastructure. The most significant alterations were: (a) considerable increase of the size of the peripheral vesicles, which are part of the parasite endosomal-lysosomal system; (b) appearance of autophagosomal structures; and (c) induction of differentiation, followed by an abnormal enlargement of encystation secretory vesicles. We propose that azasterols are effective chemotherapeutic drugs against Giardia lamblia in vitro and may have another target in cells besides sterol biosynthesis.

UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4'-epimerase from the intestinal protozoan Giardia intestinalis lacks UDP-glucose 4'-epimerase activity

The protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis has a simple life cycle consisting of an intestinal trophozoite stage and an environmentally resistant cyst stage. The cyst is formed when a trophozoite encases itself within an external filamentous covering, the cyst wall, which is crucial to the cyst's survival outside of the host. The filaments in the cyst wall consist mainly of a beta (1-3) polymer of N-acetylgalactosamine. Its precursor, UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine, is synthesized from fructose 6-phosphate by a pathway of five inducible enzymes. The fifth, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 4'-epimerase, epimerizes UDP-N-acetylglucosamine to UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine reversibly. The epimerase of G. intestinalis lacks UDP-glucose/UDP-galactose 4'-epimerase activity and shows characteristic amino acyl residues to allow binding of only the larger UDP-N-acetylhexosamines. While the Giardia epimerase catalyzes the reversible epimerization of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine to UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine, the reverse reaction apparently is favored. The enzyme has a higher Vmax and a smaller Km in this direction. Therefore, an excess of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine is required to drive the reaction towards the synthesis of UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine, when it is needed for cyst wall formation. This forms the ultimate regulatory step in cyst wall biosynthesis.

Identification of an Entamoeba histolytica serine-, threonine-, and isoleucine-rich protein with roles in adhesion and cytotoxicity

Entamoeba histolytica is a leading cause of parasitic death globally. However, the molecular framework regulating pathogenesis is poorly understood. We have previously used expression profiling to identify Entamoeba genes whose expressions were strictly associated with virulent strains (R. C. MacFarlane and U. Singh, Infect. Immun. 74:340-351, 2006). One gene, which we have named EhSTIRP (Entamoeba histolytica serine-, threonine-, and isoleucine-rich protein), was exclusively expressed in virulent but not in nonvirulent Entamoeba strains. EhSTIRP is predicted to be a transmembrane protein and is encoded by a multigene family. In order to characterize its function in amebic biology, we used a double-stranded RNA-based approach and were able to selectively down-regulate expression of this gene family. Upon EhSTIRP down-regulation, we were able to ascribe cytotoxic and adhesive properties to the protein family using lactate dehydrogenase release and Chinese hamster ovary cell adhesion assays. EhSTIRP thus likely represents a novel determinant of virulence in Entamoeba histolytica. This work validates the fact that genes expressed exclusively in virulent strains may represent virulence determinants and highlights the need for further functional analyses of other genes with similar expression profiles.

Raman acoustic levitation spectroscopy of red blood cells and Plasmodium falciparum trophozoites

Methods to probe the molecular structure of living cells are of paramount importance in understanding drug interactions and environmental influences in these complex dynamical systems. The coupling of an acoustic levitation device with a micro-Raman spectrometer provides a direct molecular probe of cellular chemistry in a containerless environment minimizing signal attenuation and eliminating the affects of adhesion to walls and interfaces. We show that the Raman acoustic levitation spectroscopic (RALS) approach can be used to monitor the heme dynamics of a levitated 5 microL suspension of red blood cells and to detect hemozoin in malaria infected cells. The spectra obtained have an excellent signal-to-noise ratio and demonstrate for the first time the utility of the technique as a diagnostic and monitoring tool for minute sample volumes of living animal cells.

Identification of Acanthamoeba sp. in paraffin-embedded CNS tissue from an HIV+ individual by PCR

The opportunistic pathogens, Acanthamoeba and Balamuthia, are the causative agents of the fatal central nervous system (CNS) infection granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. We report an infection of Acanthamoeba in an HIV+ individual. In the present case, multiple lesions were observed in the skin, brain, lung, liver, and bone. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay specific for Acanthamoeba was positive on tissue from a brain biopsy that had been embedded in paraffin. This report demonstrates the need for the consideration of Acanthamoeba infections in HIV+ individuals with skin lesions and multiple lesions throughout the body with CNS involvement. The results of the present study demonstrate that opportunistic amoebic infections can be diagnosed by PCR from paraffin-embedded biopsy material.

[Observations on Acanthamoeba trophozoites in axenic cultures and their staining characteristics with different stains]

Acanthamoeba spp. are among the most prevalent protozoa found in the environment. The species of this genus are the causative agents of granulomatous amebic encephalitis (GAE), a fatal disease of the central nervous system (CNS), and amebic keratitis (AK), a painful sight-threatening disease of the eye. In this study we have used two species of Acanthamoeba, Acanthamoeba castellanii and A. hatchetti, both were obtained from Vienna, Austria. They were cultivated on non-nutritious agar seeded with Escherichia coli and PPYG (protease peptone-yeast extract-glucose) medium. Our aim was to concentrate on three points in relation to the trophozoites and cysts stages of these species as follows: (i) to observe their morphology, (ii). to confirm our previous observation of a canal between two trophozoites. The bridge-like connection between these trophozoites greatly resembled the one that can be observed in conjugation during an exchange of genetic material. Two tro-phozoites with a bridge-like extension between them keep their position for at least 200 minutes. (iii). to detect the reactions of trophozoites to various stains. According to our findings in regard to these three points: (i). trophozoites with more than one nucleus are often seen in axenic cultures. (ii). This resembles a type of conjugation with a transfer of genetic material between two trophozoites. Certainly, this needs further investigation using more sophisticated methods. (iii). trophozoites equally stained well with Heidenhain's iron haematoxylin, Giemsa, PAS, Masson Trichrome, and Toludin-O stains. However, our results with reticulin, PAP, Van Gison, Musicarmine and Orsein stains were not satisfactory.

Disulfide bridges in the mesophilic triosephosphate isomerase from Giardia lamblia are related to oligomerization and activity

Triosephosphate isomerase from the mesophile Giardia lamblia (GlTIM) is the only known TIM with natural disulfide bridges. We previously found that oxidized and reduced thiol states of GlTIM are involved in the interconversion between native dimers and higher oligomeric species, and in the regulation of enzymatic activity. Here, we found that trophozoites and cysts have different oligomeric species of GlTIM and complexes of GlTIM with other proteins. Our data indicate that the internal milieu of G. lamblia is favorable for the formation of disulfide bonds. Enzyme mutants of the three most solvent exposed Cys of GlTIM (C202A, C222A, and C228A) were prepared to ascertain their contribution to oligomerization and activity. The data show that the establishment of a disulfide bridge between two C202 of two dimeric GlTIMs accounts for multimerization. In addition, we found that the establishment of an intramonomeric disulfide bond between C222 and C228 abolishes catalysis. Multimerization and inactivation are both reversed by reducing conditions. The 3D structure of the C202A GlTIM was solved at 2.1 A resolution, showing that the environment of the C202 is prone to hydrophobic interactions. Molecular dynamics of an in silico model of GlTIM when the intramonomeric disulfide bond is formed, showed that S216 is displaced 4.6 A from its original position, causing loss of hydrogen bonds with residues of the active-site loop. This suggests that this change perturb the conformational state that aligns the catalytic center with the substrate, inducing enzyme inactivation.