Novel Chitosan-Coated Liposomes Coloaded with Exemestane and Genistein for an Effective Breast Cancer Therapy

For achieving high effectiveness in the management of breast cancer, coadministration of drugs has attracted a lot of interest as a mode of therapy when compared to a single chemotherapeutic agent that often results in reduced therapeutic end results. Owing to their proven effectiveness, good patient compliance, and lower costs, oral anticancer drugs have received much attention. In the present work, we formulated the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes loaded with two lipophilic agents, namely, exemestane (EXE) and genistein (GEN). The formulation was prepared using the ethanol injection method, which is considered a simple method for getting the nanoliposomes. The formulation was optimized using Box-Behnken design (BBD) and was extensively characterized for particle size, ζ-potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The sizes of conventional and coated liposomes were found to be 104.6 ± 3.8 and 120.3 ± 6.4 nm with a low polydispersity index of 0.399 and 0.381, respectively. The ζ-potential of the liposomes was observed to be -16.56 mV, which changed to a positive value of +22.4 mV, clearly indicating the complete coating of the nanoliposomes by the chitosan. The average encapsulation efficiency was found to be between 70 and 80% for all prepared formulations. The compatibility of the drug with excipients and complete dispersion of the drug inside the system were verified by FTIR, XRD, and DSC studies. Furthermore, the in vitro release studies concluded the sustained release pattern following the Korsmeyer-Peppas model as the best-fitting model with Fickian diffusion. Ex vivo studies showed better permeation of the chitosan-coated liposomes, which was further confirmed by confocal studies. The prepared chitosan-coated liposomes showed superior antioxidant activity (94.56%) and enhanced % cytotoxicity (IC50 7.253 ± 0.34 μM) compared to the uncoated liposomes. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay displayed better cytotoxicity of the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes compared to the plain drug, showing the better penetration and enhanced bioavailability of drugs inside the cells. The formulation was found to be safe for administration, which was confirmed using the toxicity studies performed on an animal model. The above data suggested that poorly soluble lipophilic drugs could be successfully delivered via chitosan-coated liposomes for their effective delivery in breast cancer.

Hypothesizing the Green Synthesis of Tamoxifen Loaded Magnetic Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death all over the world and is not only limited to females but also affects males. For estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, tamoxifen has been considered the gold-line therapy for many decades. However, due to the side effects associated with the use of tamoxifen, its use is only limited to individuals in high-risk groups and limits its clinical application to moderate and/or lower-risk groups. Thus, there is a necessity to decrease the dose of tamoxifen, which can be achieved by targeting the drug to breast cancer cells and limiting its absorption to other body parts. Artificial antioxidants used in the formulation preparation are assumed to upsurge the risk of cancer and liver damage in humans. The need of the hour is to explore bioefficient antioxidants from natural plant sources as they are safer and additionally possess antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. The objective of this hypothesis is to prepare tamoxifen-loaded PEGylated NiO nanoparticles using green chemistry, tumbling the toxic effects of the conventional method of synthesis for targeted delivery to breast cancer cells. The significance of the work is to hypothesize a green method for the synthesis of NiO nanoparticles that are eco-friendly, cost-effective, decrease multidrug resistance, and can be used for targeted therapy. Garlic extract contains an organosulfur compound (Allicin) which has drug-metabolizing, anti-oxidant, and tumour growth inhibition effects. In breast cancer, allicin sensitizes estrogen receptors, increasing the anticancer efficacy of tamoxifen and reducing offsite toxicity. Thus, this garlic extract would act as a reducing agent and a capping agent. The use of nickel salt can help in targeted delivery to breast cancer cells and, in turn, reduces drug toxicity in different organs. This novel strategy may aim for cancer management with less toxic agents acting as an apt therapeutic modality.

Investigation of Luliconazole-Loaded Mucoadhesive Electrospun Nanofibers for Anticandidal Activity in the Management of Vaginal Candidiasis

In this study, we fabricated and evaluated luliconazole-loaded electrospun nanofibers for anticandidal activity in the management of vaginal candidiasis. Polycaprolactone (PCL)/gelatin nanofibers were designed by the electrospinning technique, and the Box-Behnken design (BBD) was adopted for optimization to get tailored fibers. The luliconazole (LCZ) drug was mixed into different concentrations (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10%) of tea tree oil (TT oil) and loaded into the PCL/gelatin nanofibrous mats. The effective anticandidal potential of nanofiber samples were analyzed by the disk-diffusion method. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), XRD analysis, and in silico study were performed. The entrapment efficiency, swelling degree, mechanical strength, contact angle, mucoadhesion, drug release, and permeation study were assessed. The average diameter of the PCL/gelatin-optimized nanofiber was 153 nm. SEM reflected that the fabricated nanofibers were uniform and bead-free. FTIR and DSC analyzed the interaction and physical entrapment of the drug in the polymeric fibers. The entrapment efficiency of the drug-loaded nanofiber was found to be 89.2 ± 0.8%. Maximum swelling percentages at 4 h were 40.8, 18.9, and 14.0% and contact angles were 46.5°, 62.95°, and 65.78° for the blank, TT oil-loaded, and drug-loaded nanofiber, respectively, which indicated the hydrophilic nature of the fibers. The drug-loaded nanofiber had a high tensile strength with satisfactory mucoadhesive property that led to its adhesion to the vaginal mucosa with no tear. The drug-loaded nanofiber had a cumulative drug release of 67.7 ± 3.4% in 48 h, and the 12.8 ± 0.53 mm of zone of inhibition (ZOI) in 48 h illustrated an effective anticandidal activity. The TT oil-loaded nanofiber also exhibited a small ZOI of 4.3 ± 0.30 mm, indicating a synergistic effect to the antifungal activity of the drug-loaded nanofiber. LCZ-loaded nanofibers can emerge as a novel approach for vaginal drug delivery in the treatment of candida infection. Thus, this pharmaceutical investigation can help in formulating preclinical and clinical models.

Deciphering the role of gut metabolites in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Perturbations in microbial abundance or diversity in the intestinal lumen leads to intestinal inflammation and disruption of intestinal membrane which eventually facilitates the translocation of microbial metabolites or whole microbes to the liver and other organs through portal vein. This process of translocation finally leads to multitude of health disorders. In this review, we are going to focus on the mechanisms by which gut metabolites like SCFAs, tryptophan (Trp) metabolites, bile acids (BAs), ethanol, and choline can either cause the development/progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or serves as a therapeutic treatment for the disease. Alterations in some metabolites like SCFAs, Trp metabolites, etc., can serve as biomarker molecules whereas presence of specific metabolites like ethanol definitely leads to disease progression. Thus, proper understanding of these mechanisms will subsequently help in designing of microbiome-based therapeutic approaches. Furthermore, we have also focussed on the role of dysbiosis on the mucosal immune system. In addition, we would also compile up the microbiome-based clinical trials which are currently undergoing for the treatment of NAFLD and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). It has been observed that the use of microbiome-based approaches like prebiotics, probiotics, symbiotics, etc., can act as a beneficial treatment option but more research needs to be done to know how to manipulate the composition of gut microbes.

Lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated combination therapy for breast cancer management: a comprehensive review

Breast cancer due to the unpredictable and complex etiopathology combined with the non-availability of any effective drug treatment has become the major root of concern for oncologists globally. The number of women affected by the said disease state is increasing at an alarming rate attributed to environmental and lifestyle changes indicating at the exploration of a novel treatment strategy that can eradicate this aggressive disease. So far, it is treated by promising nanomedicine monotherapy; however, according to the numerous studies conducted, the inadequacy of these nano monotherapies in terms of elevated toxicity and resistance has been reported. This review, therefore, puts forth a new multimodal strategic approach to lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated combination drug delivery in breast cancer, emphasizing the recent advancements. A basic overview about the combination therapy and its index is firstly given. Then, the various nano-based combinations of chemotherapeutics involving the combination delivery of synthetic and herbal agents are discussed along with their examples. Further, the recent exploration of chemotherapeutics co-delivery with small interfering RNA (siRNA) agents has also been explained herein. Finally, a section providing a brief description of the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has been presented. From this review, we aim to provide the researchers with deep insight into the novel and much more effective combinational lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated nanomedicines tailored specifically for breast cancer treatment resulting in synergism, enhanced antitumor efficacy, and low toxic effects, subsequently overcoming the hurdles associated with conventional chemotherapy.

In-silico, in-vitro and ex-vivo evidence of combining silymarin phytopharmaceutical with piperine, and fulvic acid for enhancing its solubility and permeability

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Even if with such a high mortality there is no definite treatment approved. Thus, there is a need to develop a formulation which can have multiple pharmacological activities. Herbal drugs are among the most promising compounds that act by different pharmacological actions. For increasing the bio-activity of Silymarin we had isolated five active biomarker molecules from silymarin extract (as a Phytopharmaceutical) in our previous work. It possesses lower bioavailability due to poor solubility, lesser permeability and first pass metabolism effect. Therefore, from the literature we had screened two bioavailability enhancers i.e. piperine and fulvic acid for overcoming the drawbacks associated with silymarin. Hence, in this study we had first explored the ADME-T parameters and then evaluated their in-silico activity for different enzymes involved in inflammation and fibrosis. Interestingly, it was found that besides the bioavailability enhancing property, piperine and fulvic acid also shown anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic action, particularly more activity was demonstrated by fulvic acid than piperine. Furthermore, the concentration of the bioavailability enhancers i.e. 20% FA and 10% PIP were optimized by QbD assisted solubility studies. Moreover, the percentage release and apparent permeability coefficient of the optimized formulation was found to be 95% and 90%, respectively as compared to 6.54*106 and 1.63*106 respectively by SM suspension alone. Furthermore, it was found that plain rhodamine solution penetrated only up to 10 um whereas, formulation penetrated up to 30 um. Thus, combining these three, can not only increase the bioavailability of silymarin, but might also, increase the physiological action synergistically.

Simultaneous Determination of Posaconazole and Hemp Seed Oil in Nanomicelles through RP-HPLC via a Quality-by-Design Approach

The present study involves the development of a reverse-phase HPLC method employing the quality-by-design methodology for the estimation of posaconazole and hemp seed oil simultaneously in nanomicelles formulation. The successful separation of posaconazole and hemp seed oil was achieved together, and this is the first study to develop and quantify posaconazole and hemp seed oil nanomicelles with linoleic acid as the internal standard and developed a dual drug analytical method employing a quality-by-design approach. The study was performed on a Shimadzu Prominence-I LC-2030C 3D Plus HPLC system with a PDA detector and the Shim-pack Solar C8 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) for analysis with a mobile phase ratio of methanol:water (80:20% v/v) maintaining the flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The final wavelength was selected as 240 nm and the elution of hemp seed oil and posaconazole was obtained at 2.7 and 4.6 min, respectively, with a maximum run time of 8.0 min. Box Behnken design was employed to optimize the method, keeping the retention time, peak area, and theoretical plates as dependent variables, while the mobile phase composition, flow rate, and wavelengths were chosen as independent variables. Parameters such as specificity, accuracy, robustness, linearity, sensitivity, precision, ruggedness, and forced degradation study were performed to validate the method. The calibration curves of posaconazole and hemp seed oil were determined to be linear throughout the range for concentration. The suggested approach can be effectively utilized for estimating the content of drugs from their nanoformulation and proved suitable for both in vivo and in vitro research.

Rapid Analytical Method Development and Validation of RP-HPLC Method for the Simultaneous Estimation of Exemestane and Genistein with Specific Application in Lipid-Based Nanoformulations

Exemestane (EXE), an irreversible aromatase inhibitor, is employed as a therapy for hormone-dependent breast cancer. Several studies have also established the budding effects of genistein (GEN) in various types of cancer such as breast, prostate, as well as skin due to its feeble estrogenic and anti-estrogenic properties. Considering the promising benefits of GEN, it was combined with EXE to accomplish superior therapeutic efficiency with fewer side effects. The quantification of the exact concentration of EXE and GEN when delivered as a combination would be required for which HPLC method was developed and validated. For this purpose, the C18 ODS column having dimensions of 150 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm, using mobile phase A as methanol:water (35:15, v/v), with formic acid (0.01%), and B as acetonitrile (in the ratio of A:B--30:70 v/v) at a flow rate of 1 mL/min was commonly used. The Box-Behnken design was chosen as our experimental model, and the interactions among the independent and dependent variables were analyzed. Parameters like linearity, system suitability, specificity, precision (intra- and interday), robustness, ruggedness, LOD (limit of detection), and LOQ (limit of quantification) were selected for the validation of our proposed method. EXE and GEN were eluted individually at 245 and 270.5 nm, respectively, while both of the agents were determined simultaneously at 256 nm, showing retention time as 2.10 and 1.67 min, respectively, and the calibration plot was observed to be linear in the range of 5-110 μg/mL. Hence, the method that we developed and validated was found to be suitable for the identification of both the drugs simultaneously in combination and in our in-house-developed nanoformulation.

Development and Evaluation of Nanoformulations Containing Timur Oil and Rosemary Oil for Treatment of Topical Fungal Infections

The pervasiveness of fungal infections is an issue for skin health globally, and there are a reported 40 million cases in developed and developing countries. Novel drug delivery systems provide better therapeutic efficacy over conventional drug therapy due to their lower side effects and toxicity. Furthermore, combinations of essential oils can represent alternative therapies for fungal infections that are resistant to synthetic drugs. This study is aimed at developing Timur oil into a nanoemulgel and evaluating its antifungal effects. The development of the formulation involved the preparation of a nanoemulsion by the titration method, followed by its evaluation for various physicochemical properties. The antifungal activity of the nanoemulgel against Candida albicans was evaluated. The zone of inhibition was determined using the disk diffusion method. The results show that the developed nanoemulgel has a particle size of 139 ± 6.11 nm, a PDI of 0.309, and a zeta potential of -19.12 ± 2.73 mV. An in vitro drug release study showed a sustained release of 70 ± 0.289% of the drug over a period of 24 h. The % drug permeation across the skin was found to be 79.11 ± 0.319% over 24 h. However, the amount of drug retained in the skin was 56.45 µg/g. The flux for the nanoemulgel was found to be 94.947 µg/cm²/h, indicating a better permeability profile. The nanoemulgel formulation showed a zone of inhibition of 15 ± 2.45 mm, whereas the 1% ketoconazole cream (marketed preparation) exhibited a zone of inhibition of 13 ± 2.13 mm. The results of this study suggest that developed nanoemulgel containing Timur oil and rosemary oil has the potential to be used for treating topical fungal infections caused by Candida albicans.

Cannabis Sativa in Phytotherapy: Reappraisal of Therapeutic Potential and Regulatory Aspects

Cannabis sativa is widely used as a folk medicine in many parts of the globe and has been reported to be a treasure trove of phytoconstituents, including cannabinoids, terpenoids, and flavonoids. Accumulating evidence from various pre-clinical and clinical studies revealed the therapeutic potential of these constituents in various pathological conditions, including chronic pain, inflammation, neurological disorders, and cancer. However, the psychoactive effect and addiction potential associated with cannabis use limited its clinical application. In the past two decades, extensive research on cannabis has led to a resurgence of interest in the clinical application of its constituents, particularly cannabinoids. This review summarizes the therapeutic effect and molecular mechanism of various phytoconstituents of cannabis. Furthermore, recently developed nanoformulations of cannabis constituents have also been reviewed. Since cannabis is often associated with illicit use, regulatory aspects are of vital importance and this review therefore also documented the regulatory aspects of cannabis use along with clinical data and commercial products of cannabis.

Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized via Green Chemistry for the Potential Treatment of Breast Cancer

In the emerging field of nanomedicine, nanoparticles have been widely considered as drug carriers and are now used in various clinically approved products. Therefore, in this study, we synthesized superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) via green chemistry, and the SPIONs were further coated with tamoxifen-conjugated bovine serum albumin (BSA-SPIONs-TMX). The BSA-SPIONs-TMX were within the nanometric hydrodynamic size (117 ± 4 nm), with a small poly dispersity index (0.28 ± 0.02) and zeta potential of -30.2 ± 0.09 mV. FTIR, DSC, X-RD, and elemental analysis confirmed that BSA-SPIONs-TMX were successfully prepared. The saturation magnetization (M_s) of BSA-SPIONs-TMX was found to be ~8.31 emu/g, indicating that BSA-SPIONs-TMX possess superparamagnetic properties for theragnostic applications. In addition, BSA-SPIONs-TMX were efficiently internalized into breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and T47D) and were effective in reducing cell proliferation of breast cancer cells, with IC₅₀ values of 4.97 ± 0.42 μM and 6.29 ± 0.21 μM in MCF-7 and T47D cells, respectively. Furthermore, an acute toxicity study on rats confirmed that these BSA-SPIONs-TMX are safe for use in drug delivery systems. In conclusion, green synthesized superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles have the potential to be used as drug delivery carriers and may also have diagnostic applications.

Recent advances in microbeads-based drug delivery system for achieving controlled drug release

Novel drug delivery system endows a beneficial method for achieving a desired drug concentration at the appropriate site in the body. The concept of targeted drug delivery has been emerged to localize the drug in the targeted tissue of interest while reducing the relative concentration of the medication in the surrounding tissues. This could be easily accomplished by using different multi-particulate dosage forms like pellets, granules, microcapsules, liposomes, beads. But the major drawbacks associated with them are the use of harsh chemicals and an elevated temperature for their preparation. Preparation of microbeads by ionotropic gelation and emulsion gelation method overcomes these problems by neither using harsh chemicals nor elevated temperature for their preparation. Thus, this can be proved to be a better alternative over other dosage forms. Several parameters were studied in terms of their morphology, particle size, encapsulation efficiency, swelling ratio, mucoadhesivity, etc. The endeavor of present article is toward presenting a wider perspective of the comprehensive knowledge available in the field of microbeads. Thus, the intent of this review is to recapitulate the relevance of microbeads.

Targeted Delivery Strategies of Herbal-Based Nanogels: Advancements and Applications

The objective of this review is to thoroughly investigate herbal nano gels as a promising drug delivery approach for the management of various chronic and acute disorders. Herbal nano gels are a novel and promising drug delivery technique, offering special benefits for better therapeutic efficacy. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of the herbal nano gels with a particular emphasis on their evaluation concerning conventional dosage forms, polymer selection criteria, drug release mechanisms, and applications. The comparison study demonstrates that herbal nano gels have different benefits over conventional dose forms. In the areas of oral administration for improved bioavailability and targeted delivery to the gastrointestinal tract, topical drug delivery for dermatological conditions, and targeted delivery strategies for the site-specific treatment of cancer, inflammatory diseases, and infections, they demonstrate encouraging results in transdermal drug delivery for systemic absorption. A promising platform for improved medication delivery and therapeutic effectiveness is provided by herbal nanogels. Understanding drug release mechanisms further contributes to the controlled and sustained delivery of herbal therapeutics. Some of the patents are discussed and the comparative analysis showcases their superiority over conventional dosage forms, and the polymer selection criteria ensure the design of efficient and optimized formulations. Herbal-based nano gels have become a potential approach for improving drug administration. They provide several advantages such as better stability, targeted delivery, and controlled release of therapeutic components. Herbal nano gels are a promising therapeutic approach with the ability to combat a wide range of conditions like cancer, wound healing and also improve patient compliance.

Combinatorial Chemosensitive Nanomedicine Approach for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed type of cancer and ranks second among cancer that leads to death. From becoming the foremost reason for global concern, this multifactorial disease is being treated by conventional chemotherapies that are associated with severe side effects, with chemoresistance being the ruling reason. Exemestane, an aromatase inhibitor that has been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of breast cancer in post-menopausal women, acts by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, in turn, inhibiting the production of estrogen. However, the clinical application of exemestane remains limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability. Furthermore, the treatment regimen of exemestane often leads to thinning of bone mineral density. Thymoquinone, a natural compound derived from the oil of the seeds of Nigella sativa Linn, possesses the dual property of being a chemosensitizer and chemotherapeutic agent. In addition, it has been found to exhibit potent bone protection properties, as evidenced by several studies. To mitigate the limitations associated with exemestane and to deliver to the cancerous cells overcoming chemoresistance, the present hypothesis has been put forth, wherein a natural chemosensitizer and chemotherapeutic agent thymoquinone will be incorporated into a lipid nanocarrier along with exemestane for combinatorial delivery to cancer cells. Additionally, thymoquinone being bone protecting will help in ousting the untoward effect of exemestane at the same time delivering it to the required malignant cells, safeguarding the healthy cells, reducing the offsite toxicity, and providing potent synergistic action.

Folic acid engineered sulforaphane loaded microbeads for targeting breast cancer

Non-targeted cancer therapy poses a huge risk to the cancer patients' life due to high toxicity offered by chemotherapy. Breast carcinoma is one of such deleterious disease, demanding a highly effectual treatment option which could reduce the toxicity and extend survival rate. Since, folate receptors extensively display themselves on the cancer cell surface, targeting them would help to ameliorate the progression and metastasis. Considering this, we envisaged and developed sulforaphane loaded folate engineered microbeads to target breast cancer cells over-expressing folate receptors. The surface engineered microbeads were optimized and developed using emulsion gelation technique, among which the best developed preparation demonstrated the particle size of 1302 ± 3.98 µm, % EE of 84.1 ± 3.32% and in vitro drug release of 98.1 ± 4.42%@24h. The spherical sized microbead showed controlled release with improved haem-compatibility in comparison to the bare drug. Free radical scavenging activity by ABTS assay showed strong anti-oxidant activity (IC₅₀ 20.62 µg/ml) of the targeted microbeads with profound cancer cell sup pressing effect (IC₅₀ 17.48 ± 3.5 µM) as observed in MCF-7 cells by MTT assay. Finally, in comparison to lone SFN, the targeted therapy showed enhanced uptake by the intestinal villi indicating a suitable oral targeted therapy against breast carcinoma.

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Engineering biosafe cisplatin loaded nanostructured lipid carrier: optimisation, synthesis, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution

Low aqueous solubility, adverse effects of Cisplatin includes hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity necessitates development of nanoparticulate drug delivery. The study pertains to development of CisNLC (Cisplatin loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier) by ultrasonication. Physical characterisation includes particle size, zeta potential, TEM, SEM-EDX, DSC. Its ex vivo biocompatibility, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution along with acute toxicity induced oxidative stress in Balb/c mice were evaluated. The mean particle diameter of CisNLC was observed to be 141.5 ± 3.86 nm with zeta potential of -41.5 ± 1.62 mV. In vitro release studies at pH 7.4 and 5.8 showed burst release following a sustained release pattern post-72 h. CisNLC showed anticancer efficacy against PA-1. Negligible ex vivo haemolysis indicated bio-compatibility. Improved pharmacokinetics of CisNLC was observed. Acute toxicity and oxidative stress evaluation proved negligible toxicity by CisNLC. The formulated CisNLC had a good physical stability, biocompatible, indicated enhanced circulation and caused negligible toxicity on liver and kidney as compared to pure Cis.

Nanostructured Lipid Carrier-Based Codelivery of Raloxifene and Naringin: Formulation, Optimization, In Vitro, Ex Vivo, In Vivo Assessment, and Acute Toxicity Studies

This work aimed to develop dual drug-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers of raloxifene and naringin (RLX/NRG NLCs) for breast cancer. RLX/NRG NLCs were prepared using Compritol 888 ATO and oleic acid using a hot homogenization-sonication method and optimized using central composite design (CCD). The optimized RLX/NRG NLCs were characterized and evaluated using multiple technological means. The optimized RLX/NRG NLCs exhibited a particle size of 137.12 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.266, zeta potential (ZP) of 25.9 mV, and entrapment efficiency (EE) of 91.05% (raloxifene) and 85.07% (naringin), respectively. In vitro release (81 ± 2.2% from RLX/NRG NLCs and 31 ± 1.9% from the RLX/NRG suspension for RLX and 93 ± 1.5% from RLX/NRG NLCs and 38 ± 2.01% from the RLX/NRG suspension for NRG within 24 h). Concurrently, an ex vivo permeation study exhibited nearly 2.3 and 2.1-fold improvement in the permeability profiles of RLX and NRG from RLX/NRG NLCs vis-à-vis the RLX/NRG suspension. The depth of permeation was proved with CLSM images which revealed significant permeation of the drug from the RLX/NRG NLCs formulation, 3.5-fold across the intestine, as compared with the RLX/NRG suspension. An in vitro DPPH antioxidant study displayed a better antioxidant potential of RLX/NRG in comparison to RLX and NRG alone due to the synergistic antioxidant effect of RLX and NRG. An acute toxicity study in Wistar rats showed the safety profile of the prepared nanoformulations and their excipients. Our findings shed new light on how poorly soluble and poorly permeable medicines can be codelivered using NLCs in an oral nanoformulation to improve their medicinal performance.

Recent Advances in Nanotechnology-Based Targeted Therapeutics for Breast Cancer Management

Despite the great efforts that have been achieved in breast cancer treatment, it remains a significant cause of death in women and is a serious health problem. Treatment with chemotherapy drugs faces various challenges, such as toxicity and chemoresistance to chemotherapeutic drugs, which hinder their therapeutic success and clinical experiments. This review focuses on targeting nanocarrier approaches to target chemotherapy drugs to receptor targets that are overexpressed on the surface of breast cancer cells. In particular, the most commonly targeted nanocarriers for the chemotherapeutic agents examined by the different researcher groups, such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric micelles, lipid particulates, polymeric nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes, have been reviewed. Moreover, we summarized the molecular receptors or targets that are the most commonly overexpressed in breast cancer cells and the natural and synthetic ligands studied for use as targeting moieties to functionalize chemotherapeutically loaded nanocarriers for potential specific breast cancer targeting.

Nanocarriers-Assisted Needle-Free Vaccine Delivery Through Oral and Intranasal Transmucosal Routes: A Novel Therapeutic Conduit

Drug delivery using oral route is the most popular, convenient, safest and least expensive approach. It includes oral transmucosal delivery of bioactive compounds as the mucosal cavity offers an intriguing approach for systemic drug distribution. Owing to the dense vascular architecture and high blood flow, oral mucosal layers are easily permeable and can be an ideal site for drug administration. Recently, the transmucosal route is being investigated for other therapeutic candidates such as vaccines for their efficient delivery. Vaccines have the potential to trigger immune reactions and can act as both prophylactic and therapeutic conduit to a variety of diseases. Administration of vaccines using transmucosal route offers multiple advantages, the most important one being the needle-free (non-invasive) delivery. Development of needle-free devices are the most recent and pioneering breakthrough in the delivery of drugs and vaccines, enabling patients to avoid needles, reducing anxiety, pain and fear as well as improving compliance. Oral, nasal and aerosol vaccination is a novel immunization approach that utilizes a nanocarrier to administer the vaccine. Nanocarriers improve the bioavailability and serve as adjuvants to elicit a stronger immune response, resulting in increased effectiveness of vaccination. Drugs and vaccines with lower penetration abilities can also be delivered transmucosally while maintaining their biological function. The development of micro/nanocarriers for transmucosal delivery of macromolecules, vaccines and other substances is currently drawing much attention and a number of studies were performed recently. This comprehensive review is aimed to summarize the most recent investigations on needle-free and non-invasive approaches for the delivery of vaccines using oral transmucosal route, their strengths and associated challenges. The oral transmucosal vaccine delivery by nanocarriers is the most upcoming advancement in efficient vaccine delivery and this review would help further research and trials in this field.

Recent advances in targeted nanotherapeutic approaches for breast cancer management

Breast cancer is the most commonly occurring tumor disease worldwide. Breast cancer is currently managed by conventional chemotherapy, which is inadequate in curbing this heterogeneous disease and results in off-site toxic effects, suggesting effective treatment approaches with better therapeutic profiles are needed. This review, therefore, focuses on the recent advancements in delivering therapeutics to the target site using passive and/or active targeted nanodrug-delivery systems to ameliorate endolysosomal escape. In addition, recent strategies in targeting breast cancer stem cells are discussed. The role of naturally cell-secreted nanovesicles (exosomes) in the management of triple-negative breast cancer is also discussed.