Sequence diversity in CYP3A promoters and characterization of the genetic basis of polymorphic CYP3A5 expression

Variation in the CYP3A enzymes, which act in drug metabolism, influences circulating steroid levels and responses to half of all oxidatively metabolized drugs. CYP3A activity is the sum activity of the family of CYP3A genes, including CYP3A5, which is polymorphically expressed at high levels in a minority of Americans of European descent and Europeans (hereafter collectively referred to as 'Caucasians'). Only people with at least one CYP3A5*1 allele express large amounts of CYP3A5. Our findings show that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CYP3A5*3 and CYP3A5*6 that cause alternative splicing and protein truncation result in the absence of CYP3A5 from tissues of some people. CYP3A5 was more frequently expressed in livers of African Americans (60%) than in those of Caucasians (33%). Because CYP3A5 represents at least 50% of the total hepatic CYP3A content in people polymorphically expressing CYP3A5, CYP3A5 may be the most important genetic contributor to interindividual and interracial differences in CYP3A-dependent drug clearance and in responses to many medicines.

Origins of circulating endothelial cells and endothelial outgrowth from blood

Normal adults have a small number of circulating endothelial cells (CEC) in peripheral blood, and endothelial outgrowth has been observed from cultures of blood. In this study we seek insight into the origins of CEC and endothelial outgrowth from cultures of blood. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of blood samples from bone marrow transplant recipients who had received gender-mismatched transplants 5-20 months earlier showed that most CEC in fresh blood had recipient genotype. Endothelial outgrowth from the same blood samples after 9 days in culture (5-fold expansion) was still predominantly of the recipient genotype. In contrast, endothelial outgrowth after approximately 1 month (102-fold expansion) was mostly of donor genotype. Thus, recipient-genotype endothelial cells expanded only approximately 20-fold over this period, whereas donor-genotype endothelial cells expanded approximately 1000-fold. These data suggest that most CEC in fresh blood originate from vessel walls and have limited growth capability. Conversely, the data indicate that outgrowth of endothelial cells from cultures of blood is mostly derived from transplantable marrow-derived cells. Because these cells have more delayed outgrowth but a greater proliferative rate, our data suggest that they are derived from circulating angioblasts.

Tannins and human health: a review

Tannins (commonly referred to as tannic acid) are water-soluble polyphenols that are present in many plant foods. They have been reported to be responsible for decreases in feed intake, growth rate, feed efficiency, net metabolizable energy, and protein digestibility in experimental animals. Therefore, foods rich in tannins are considered to be of low nutritional value. However, recent findings indicate that the major effect of tannins was not due to their inhibition on food consumption or digestion but rather the decreased efficiency in converting the absorbed nutrients to new body substances. Incidences of certain cancers, such as esophageal cancer, have been reported to be related to consumption of tannins-rich foods such as betel nuts and herbal teas, suggesting that tannins might be carcinogenic. However, other reports indicated that the carcinogenic activity of tannins might be related to components associated with tannins rather than tannins themselves. Interestingly, many reports indicated negative association between tea consumption and incidences of cancers. Tea polyphenols and many tannin components were suggested to be anticarcinogenic. Many tannin molecules have also been shown to reduce the mutagenic activity of a number of mutagens. Many carcinogens and/or mutagens produce oxygen-free radicals for interaction with cellular macromolecules. The anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic potentials of tannins may be related to their antioxidative property, which is important in protecting cellular oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. The generation of superoxide radicals was reported to be inhibited by tannins and related compounds. The antimicrobial activities of tannins are well documented. The growth of many fungi, yeasts, bacteria, and viruses was inhibited by tannins. We have also found that tannic acid and propyl gallate, but not gallic acid, were inhibitory to foodborne bacteria, aquatic bacteria, and off-flavor-producing microorganisms. Their antimicrobial properties seemed to be associated with the hydrolysis of ester linkage between gallic acid and polyols hydrolyzed after ripening of many edible fruits. Tannins in these fruits thus serve as a natural defense mechanism against microbial infections. The antimicrobial property of tannic acid can also be used in food processing to increase the shelf-life of certain foods, such as catfish fillets. Tannins have also been reported to exert other physiological effects, such as to accelerate blood clotting, reduce blood pressure, decrease the serum lipid level, produce liver necrosis, and modulate immunoresponses. The dosage and kind of tannins are critical to these effects. The aim of this review is to summarize and analyze the vast and sometimes conflicting literature on tannins and to provide as accurately as possible the needed information for assessment of the overall effects of tannins on human health.

Cleavage of the death domain kinase RIP by caspase-8 prompts TNF-induced apoptosis

Although the molecular mechanisms of TNF signaling have been largely elucidated, the principle that regulates the balance of life and death is still unknown. We report here that the death domain kinase RIP, a key component of the TNF signaling complex, was cleaved by Caspase-8 in TNF-induced apoptosis. The cleavage site was mapped to the aspartic acid at position 324 of RIP. We demonstrated that the cleavage of RIP resulted in the blockage of TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation. RIPc, one of the cleavage products, enhanced interaction between TRADD and FADD/MORT1 and increased cells' sensitivity to TNF. Most importantly, the Caspase-8 resistant RIP mutants protected cells against TNF-induced apopotosis. These results suggest that cleavage of RIP is an important process in TNF-induced apoptosis. Further more, RIP cleavage was also detected in other death receptor-mediated apoptosis. Therefore, our study provides a potential mechanism to convert cells from life to death in death receptor-mediated apoptosis.

Regulation of PTEN transcription by p53

PTEN tumor suppressor is frequently mutated in human cancers and is a negative regulator of PI3'K/PKB/Akt-dependent cellular survival. Investigation of the human genomic PTEN locus revealed a p53 binding element directly upstream of the PTEN gene. Deletion and mutation analyses showed that this element is necessary for inducible transactivation of PTEN by p53. A p53-independent element controlling constitutive expression of PTEN was also identified. In contrast to p53 mutant cell lines, induction of p53 in primary and tumor cell lines with wild-type p53 increased PTEN mRNA levels. PTEN was required for p53-mediated apoptosis in immortalized mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Our results reveal a unique role for p53 in regulation of cellular survival and an interesting connection in tumor suppressor signaling.

Nanoparticle assembly and transport at liquid-liquid interfaces

The self-assembly of particles at fluid interfaces, driven by the reduction in interfacial energy, is well established. However, for nanoscopic particles, thermal fluctuations compete with interfacial energy and give rise to a particle-size-dependent self-assembly. Ligand-stabilized nanoparticles assembled into three-dimensional constructs at fluid-fluid interfaces, where the properties unique to the nanoparticles were preserved. The small size of the nanoparticles led to a weak confinement of the nanoparticles at the fluid interface that opens avenues to size-selective particle assembly, two-dimensional phase behavior, and functionalization. Fluid interfaces afford a rapid approach to equilibrium and easy access to nanoparticles for subsequent modification. A photoinduced transformation is described in which nanoparticles, initially soluble only in toluene, were transported across an interface into water and were dispersed in the water phase. The characteristic fluorescence emission of the nanoparticles provided a direct probe of their spatial distribution.

Expression of heme oxygenase-1 can determine cardiac xenograft survival

The rejection of concordant xenografts, such as mouse-to-rat cardiac xenografts, is very similar to the delayed rejection of porcine-to-primate discordant xenografts. In concordant models, this type of rejection is prevented by brief complement inhibition by cobra venom factor (CVF) and sustained T-cell immunosuppression by cyclosporin A (CyA). Mouse hearts that survive indefinitely in rats treated with CVF plus CyA express the anti-inflammatory gene heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in their endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. The anti-inflammatory properties of HO-1 are thought to rely on the ability of this enzyme to degrade heme and generate bilirubin, free iron and carbon monoxide. Bilirubin is a potent anti-oxidant, free iron upregulates the transcription of the cytoprotective gene, ferritin, and carbon monoxide is thought to be essential in regulating vascular relaxation in a manner similar to nitric oxide. We show here that the expression of the HO-1 gene is functionally associated with xenograft survival, and that rapid expression of HO-1 in cardiac xenografts can be essential to ensure long-term xenograft survival.

Circulating activated endothelial cells in sickle cell anemia

BACKGROUND

The vascular wall participates in the pathogenesis of sickle cell disease. To determine whether the endothelium is activated in this disease, we studied the number, origin, and surface phenotype of circulating endothelial cells in patients with sickle cell anemia.

METHODS

We used immunohistochemical examination of buffy-coat smears to enumerate circulating endothelial cells, and we evaluated the surface phenotype by applying preparations of circulating endothelial cells. An immunofluorescence microscopy panel of antibodies was used, including a specific anti-endothelial-cell antibody, P1H12.

RESULTS

Mean (+/-SD) numbers of circulating endothelial cells in normal blood donors, patients with sickle cell trait, and patients with hemolytic anemias not due to hemoglobin S were 2.6+/-1.6, 3.0+/-2.6, and 2.0+/-0.8 per milliliter of whole blood, respectively. Patients with sickle cell anemia who presented with acute painful episodes had 22.8+/-18.2 circulating endothelial cells per milliliter of blood (P<0.001 for the comparison with normal donors), and patients with no such events within one month before or after blood sampling had 13.2+/-11.8 circulating endothelial cells per milliliter of blood (P=0.002 for the comparison with normal donors and P=0.019 for the comparison with patients with acute events). Serial observations of three patients showed a tendency toward higher levels of circulating endothelial cells at the onset of acute painful crises. The average viability of circulating endothelial cells was 66+/-30 percent. In patients with sickle cell anemia, regardless of clinical status, the circulating endothelial cells were predominantly microvascular in origin (CD36-positive), and most of the cells expressed four markers of endothelial-cell activation: intercellular adhesion molecule 1, vascular-cell adhesion molecule 1, E-selectin, and P-selectin.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies suggest that the vascular endothelium is activated in patients with sickle cell anemia, regardless of the patients' clinical status. Adhesion proteins on activated endothelial cells may have a role in the vascular pathology of sickle cell disease.

Targeted disruption of cd39/ATP diphosphohydrolase results in disordered hemostasis and thromboregulation

CD39, or vascular adenosine triphosphate diphosphohydrolase, has been considered an important inhibitor of platelet activation. Unexpectedly, cd39-deficient mice had prolonged bleeding times with minimally perturbed coagulation parameters. Platelet interactions with injured mesenteric vasculature were considerably reduced in vivo and purified mutant platelets failed to aggregate to standard agonists in vitro. This platelet hypofunction was reversible and associated with purinergic type P2Y1 receptor desensitization. In keeping with deficient vascular protective mechanisms, fibrin deposition was found at multiple organ sites in cd39-deficient mice and in transplanted cardiac grafts. Our data indicate a dual role for adenosine triphosphate diphosphohydrolase in modulating hemostasis and thrombotic reactions.

Carbon monoxide generated by heme oxygenase-1 suppresses the rejection of mouse-to-rat cardiac transplants

Mouse-to-rat cardiac transplants survive long term after transient complement depletion by cobra venom factor and T cell immunosuppression by cyclosporin A. Expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) by the graft vasculature is critical to achieve graft survival. In the present study, we asked whether this protective effect was attributable to the generation of one of the catabolic products of HO-1, carbon monoxide (CO). Our present data suggests that this is the case. Under the same immunosuppressive regimen that allows mouse-to-rat cardiac transplants to survive long term (i.e., cobra venom factor plus cyclosporin A), inhibition of HO-1 activity by tin protoporphyrin, caused graft rejection in 3--7 days. Rejection was associated with widespread platelet sequestration, thrombosis of coronary arterioles, myocardial infarction, and apoptosis of endothelial cells as well as cardiac myocytes. Under inhibition of HO-1 activity by tin protoporphyrin, exogenous CO suppressed graft rejection and restored long-term graft survival. This effect of CO was associated with inhibition of platelet aggregation, thrombosis, myocardial infarction, and apoptosis. We also found that expression of HO-1 by endothelial cells in vitro inhibits platelet aggregation and protects endothelial cells from apoptosis. Both these actions of HO-1 are mediated through the generation of CO. These data suggests that HO-1 suppresses the rejection of mouse-to-rat cardiac transplants through a mechanism that involves the generation of CO. Presumably CO suppresses graft rejection by inhibiting platelet aggregation that facilitates vascular thrombosis and myocardial infarction. Additional mechanisms by which CO overcomes graft rejection may involve its ability to suppress endothelial cell apoptosis.

Admission glucose level and clinical outcomes in the NINDS rt-PA Stroke Trial

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia during acute ischemic stroke may augment brain injury, predispose to intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), or both.

METHOD

To analyze the relationship between admission glucose level and clinical outcomes from acute ischemic stroke, the authors performed multivariate regression analysis with the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) Stroke Trial data. Neurologic improvement was defined as improvement on the NIH Stroke Scale by 4 or more points from baseline to 3 months, or a final score of zero. Favorable outcome was defined as both Glasgow Outcome score of 1 and Barthel Index 95 to 100 at 3 months. Symptomatic ICH was defined as CT-documented hemorrhage temporally related to clinical deterioration within 36 hours of treatment. Potential confounding factors were controlled, including acute treatment (rt-PA or placebo), age, baseline NIH Stroke Scale score, history of diabetes mellitus, stroke subtype, and admission blood pressure.

RESULTS

There were 624 patients enrolled within 3 hours after stroke onset. As admission glucose increased, the odds for neurologic improvement decreased (odds ratio [OR] = 0.76 per 100 mg/dL increase in admission glucose, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.95, p = 0.01). The relation between admission glucose and favorable outcome depended on admission mean blood pressure (MBP): as admission MBP increased, the odds for favorable outcome related to increasing admission glucose levels progressively decreased (p = 0.02). As admission glucose increased, the odds for symptomatic ICH also increased (OR = 1.75 per 100 mg/dL increase in admission glucose, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.78, p = 0.02). Admission glucose level was not associated with altered effectiveness of rt-PA.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with acute ischemic stroke, higher admission glucose levels are associated with significantly lower odds for desirable clinical outcomes and significantly higher odds for symptomatic ICH, regardless of rt-PA treatment. Whether this represents a cause and effect relationship remains to be determined.

Repression of c-myc transcription by Blimp-1, an inducer of terminal B cell differentiation

Transcription of c-myc in plasma cells, which are terminally differentiated B cells, is repressed by plasmacytoma repressor factor. This factor was identified as Blimp-1, known for its ability to induce B cell differentiation. Blimp-1 repressed c-myc promoter activity in a binding site-dependent manner. Treatment of BCL1 lymphoma cells with interleukin-2 (IL-2) plus IL-5 induced Blimp-1 and caused a subsequent decline in c-Myc protein. Ectopic expression of Blimp-1 in Abelson-transformed precursor B cells repressed endogenous c-Myc and caused apoptosis; Blimp-1-induced death was partially overcome by ectopic expression of c-Myc. Thus, repression of c-myc is a component of the Blimp-1 program of terminal B cell differentiation.

Induction of interleukin 2 messenger RNA inhibited by cyclosporin A

Cyclosporin A blocked production of the lymphokine interleukin 2 by activated T lymphocytes. In a human and a murine cell line this inhibition reflected an absence of interleukin 2 messenger RNA. Under conditions in which these cells are normally stimulated to secrete high levels of interleukin 2, they failed to do so in the presence of cyclosporin A. In both cell lines this failure was accompanied by an absence of interleukin 2 messenger accumulation.

Specific inhibition of cyclooxygenase 2 restores antitumor reactivity by altering the balance of IL-10 and IL-12 synthesis

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the enzyme at the rate-limiting step of prostanoid production, has been found to be overexpressed in human lung cancer. To evaluate lung tumor COX-2 modulation of antitumor immunity, we studied the antitumor effect of specific genetic or pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 in a murine Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL) model. Inhibition of COX-2 led to marked lymphocytic infiltration of the tumor and reduced tumor growth. Treatment of mice with anti-PGE2 mAb replicated the growth reduction seen in tumor-bearing mice treated with COX-2 inhibitors. COX-2 inhibition was accompanied by a significant decrement in IL-10 and a concomitant restoration of IL-12 production by APCs. Because the COX-2 metabolite PGE2 is a potent inducer of IL-10, it was hypothesized that COX-2 inhibition led to antitumor responses by down-regulating production of this potent immunosuppressive cytokine. In support of this concept, transfer of IL-10 transgenic T lymphocytes that overexpress IL-10 under control of the IL-2 promoter reversed the COX-2 inhibitor-induced antitumor response. We conclude that abrogation of COX-2 expression promotes antitumor reactivity by restoring the balance of IL-10 and IL-12 in vivo.

Protein kinase C modulates NMDA receptor trafficking and gating

Regulation of neuronal N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) by protein kinases is critical in synaptic transmission. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying protein kinase C (PKC) potentiation of NMDARs are uncertain. Here we demonstrate that PKC increases NMDA channel opening rate and delivers new NMDA channels to the plasma membrane through regulated exocytosis. PKC induced a rapid delivery of functional NMDARs to the cell surface and increased surface NR1 immunofluorescence in Xenopus oocytes expressing NMDARs. PKC potentiation was inhibited by botulinum neurotoxin A and a dominant negative mutant of soluble NSF-associated protein (SNAP-25), suggesting that receptor trafficking occurs via SNARE-dependent exocytosis. In neurons, PKC induced a rapid delivery of functional NMDARs, assessed by electrophysiology, and an increase in NMDAR clusters on the surface of dendrites and dendritic spines, as indicated by immunofluorescence. Thus, PKC regulates NMDAR channel gating and trafficking in recombinant systems and in neurons, mechanisms that may be relevant to synaptic plasticity.

The distinct roles of TRAF2 and RIP in IKK activation by TNF-R1: TRAF2 recruits IKK to TNF-R1 while RIP mediates IKK activation

The death domain kinase RIP and the TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2) are essential effectors in TNF signaling. To understand the mechanism by which RIP and TRAF2 regulate TNF-induced activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, we investigated their respective roles in TNF-R1-mediated IKK activation using both RIP-/- and TRAF2-/- fibroblasts. We found that TNF-R1-mediated IKK activation requires both RIP and TRAF2 proteins. Although TRAF2 or RIP can be independently recruited to the TNF-R1 complex, neither one of them alone is capable of transducing the TNF signal that leads to IKK activation. Moreover, we demonstrated that IKK is recruited to the TNF-R1 complex through TRAF2 upon TNF treatment and that IKK activation requires the presence of RIP in the same complex.

The essential role of MEKK3 in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation

Activation of IkappaB kinase (IKK) is the key step in stimulation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, which regulates many genes in the inflammatory response pathway. The molecular mechanism that underlies IKK activation in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is still unknown. Using mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 3 (MEKK3)-deficient fibroblast cells, we found that MEKK3 plays a critical role in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation. We have shown that MEKK3 is required for IKK activation and functions downstream of receptor-interacting protein (RIP) and TNF receptor- associated factor 2. We have also shown that MEKK3 interacts with RIP and directly phosphorylates IKK. The kinase activity of MEKK3 is pivotal to its function and, therefore, MEKK3 links RIP and IKK in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation.

The lipopolysaccharide-activated toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 induces synthesis of the closely related receptor TLR-2 in adipocytes

The central regulatory role of the adipocyte in whole body energy homeostasis is well established. However, recent findings suggest that preadipocytes and adipocytes may play an important physiological role in the regulation of both the innate and adaptive immune response. To systematically characterize the molecular machinery of the adipocyte that mediates the recognition of pathogens, we have focused our analysis on the recently identified Toll-like receptors (TLRs). These receptors have been implicated as mediators of the cellular response to bacterial lipopolysacharides (LPSs). Here, we report the cloning and functional characterization of mouse TLR-2 from 3T3-L1 adipocytes. TLR-2 synthesis is strongly induced in the adipocyte by LPS, TNFalpha, and the yeast cell wall extract zymosan. TLR-2 undergoes a lengthy intracellular maturation process with a half-life of exit from the ER of approximately 3 h. Furthermore, LPS treatment of adipocytes results in dramatic changes at the level of gene expression, including the synthesis of a distinct set of secretory proteins such as interleukin-6. Our studies demonstrate the presence of a fully intact pathway of innate immunity in the adipocyte that can be activated by LPS binding to the cell surface and results in the secretion of immunomodulatory molecules.

Disruption of hsp90 function results in degradation of the death domain kinase, receptor-interacting protein (RIP), and blockage of tumor necrosis factor-induced nuclear factor-kappaB activation

The death domain kinase, receptor interacting protein (RIP), is one of the major components of the tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) complex and plays an essential role in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-mediated nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation. The activation of NF-kappaB protects cells against TNF-induced apoptosis. Heat-shock proteins (Hsps) are chaperone molecules that confer protein stability and help to restore protein native folding following heat shock and other stresses. The most abundant Hsp, Hsp90, is also involved in regulating the stability and function of a number of cell-signaling molecules. Here we report that RIP is a novel Hsp90-associated kinase and that disruption of Hsp90 function by its specific inhibitor, geldanamycin (GA), selectively causes RIP degradation and the subsequent inhibition of TNF-mediated IkappaB kinase and NF-kappaB activation. MG-132, a specific proteasome inhibitor, abrogated GA-induced degradation of RIP but failed to restore the activation of IkappaB kinase by TNF, perhaps because, in the presence of GA and MG-132, RIP accumulated in a detergent-insoluble subcellular fraction. Most importantly, the degradation of RIP sensitizes cells to TNF-induced apoptosis. These data indicate that Hsp90 plays an important role in TNF-mediated NF-kappaB activation by modulating the stability and solubility of RIP. Thus, inhibition of NF-kappaB activation by GA may be a critical component of the anti-tumor activity of this drug.

Transcriptional control of intestinal cytochrome P-4503A by 1alpha,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3

It was previously shown that CYP3A4 is induced in the human intestinal Caco-2 cell model by treatment with 1alpha,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 (1,25-D3). We demonstrate the vitamin D analog, 19-nor-1alpha,25-dihydroxy vitamin D2, is also an effective inducer of CYP3A4 in Caco-2 cells, but with half the potency of 1,25-D3. We report that treatment of LS180 cells, a human intestinal cell line, with 1 to 10 nM 1,25-D3 dose dependently increased CYP3A4 protein and CYP3A4 mRNA expression. CYP3A4- and CYP3A23-promoter-Luciferase reporter constructs transiently transfected into LS180 cells were transcriptionally activated in a dose-dependent manner by 1,25-D3, whereas mutation of the nuclear hormone receptor binding motif (ER6) in the CYP3A4 promoter abrogated 1,25-D3 activation of CYP3A4. Although the CYP3A4 ER6 promoter element has been shown to bind the pregnane X receptor (PXR), this receptor does not mediate 1,25-D3 induction of CYP3A4 because a) PXR is not expressed in Caco-2 cells; b) PXR mRNA expression is not induced by 1,25-D3 treatment of LS180 cells; and c) the ligand binding domain of human PXR was not activated by 1,25-D3. 1,25-D3 uses the vitamin D receptor to induce CYP3A4 because a) the vitamin D receptor (VDR)-retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimer binds specifically to the CYP3A4 ER6; b) selective mutation of the CYP3A4 ER6 disrupted the binding of VDR-RXR; and c) reporter constructs containing only three copies of the CYP3A4 ER6 linked to a TK-CAT reporter were activated by 1,25-D3 only in cells cotransfected with a human VDR expression plasmid. These data support the hypothesis that 1,25-D3 and VDR induce expression of intestinal CYP3A by binding of the activated VDR-RXR heterodimer to the CYP3A PXR response element and promoting gene transcription.

CART peptides: regulators of body weight, reward and other functions

Over the past decade or so, CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptides have emerged as major neurotransmitters and hormones. CART peptides are widely distributed in the CNS and are involved in regulating many processes, including food intake and the maintenance of body weight, reward and endocrine functions. Recent studies have produced a wealth of information about the location, regulation, processing and functions of CART peptides, but additional studies aimed at elucidating the physiological effects of the peptides and at characterizing the CART receptor(s) are needed to take advantage of possible therapeutic applications.