Mutational analysis of mechanosensitive ion channels in the carnivorous Venus flytrap plant

How the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) evolved the remarkable ability to sense, capture, and digest animal prey for nutrients has long puzzled the scientific community.1 Recent genome and transcriptome sequencing studies have provided clues to the genes thought to play a role in these tasks.2,3,4,5 However, proving a causal link between these and any aspect of the plant's hunting behavior has been challenging due to the genetic intractability of this non-model organism. Here, we use CRISPR-Cas9 methods to generate targeted modifications in the Venus flytrap genome. The plant detects prey using touch-sensitive trigger hairs located on its bilobed leaves.6 Upon bending, these hairs convert mechanical touch signals into changes in the membrane potential of sensory cells, leading to rapid closure of the leaf lobes to ensnare the animal.7 Here, we generate mutations in trigger-hair-expressed MscS-like (MSL)-family mechanosensitive ion channel genes FLYCATCHER1 (FLYC1) and FLYCATCHER2 (FLYC2)5 and find that double-mutant plants have a reduced leaf-closing response to mechanical ultrasound stimulation. While we cannot exclude off-target effects of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, our genetic analysis is consistent with these and other functionally redundant mechanosensitive ion channels acting together to generate the sensory system necessary for prey detection.

DRG afferents that mediate physiologic and pathologic mechanosensation from the distal colon

The properties of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons that innervate the distal colon are poorly defined, hindering our understanding of their roles in normal physiology and gastrointestinal (GI) disease. Here, we report genetically defined subsets of colon-innervating DRG neurons with diverse morphologic and physiologic properties. Four colon-innervating DRG neuron populations are mechanosensitive and exhibit distinct force thresholds to colon distension. The highest threshold population, selectively labeled using Bmpr1b genetic tools, is necessary and sufficient for behavioral responses to high colon distension, which is partly mediated by the mechanosensory ion channel Piezo2. This Aδ-HTMR population mediates behavioral over-reactivity to colon distension caused by inflammation in a model of inflammatory bowel disease. Thus, like cutaneous DRG mechanoreceptor populations, colon-innervating mechanoreceptors exhibit distinct anatomical and physiological properties and tile force threshold space, and genetically defined colon-innervating HTMRs mediate pathophysiological responses to colon distension, revealing a target population for therapeutic intervention.

PIEZO2 in somatosensory neurons controls gastrointestinal transit

The gastrointestinal tract is in a state of constant motion. These movements are tightly regulated by the presence of food and help digestion by mechanically breaking down and propelling gut content. Mechanical sensing in the gut is thought to be essential for regulating motility; however, the identity of the neuronal populations, the molecules involved, and the functional consequences of this sensation are unknown. Here, we show that humans lacking PIEZO2 exhibit impaired bowel sensation and motility. Piezo2 in mouse dorsal root, but not nodose ganglia is required to sense gut content, and this activity slows down food transit rates in the stomach, small intestine, and colon. Indeed, Piezo2 is directly required to detect colon distension in vivo. Our study unveils the mechanosensory mechanisms that regulate the transit of luminal contents throughout the gut, which is a critical process to ensure proper digestion, nutrient absorption, and waste removal.

Contact feedback helps snake robots propel against uneven terrain using vertical bending

Snakes can bend their elongate bodies in various forms to traverse various environments. We understand well how snakes use lateral body bending to push against asperities on flat ground for propulsion, and snake robots can do so effectively. However, snakes can also use vertical bending to push against uneven terrain of large height variation for propulsion, and they can adjust this bending to adapt to novel terrain presumably using mechano-sensing feedback control. Although some snake robots can traverse uneven terrain, few have used vertical bending for propulsion, and how to control this process in novel environments is poorly understood. Here we systematically studied a snake robot with force sensors pushing against large bumps using vertical bending to understand the role of sensory feedback control. We compared a feedforward controller and four feedback controllers that use different sensory information and generate distinct bending patterns and body-terrain interaction. We challenged the robot with increasing backward load and novel terrain geometry that break its contact with the terrain. We further varied how much the feedback control modulated body bending to conform to or push against the terrain to test their effects. Feedforward propagation of vertical bending generated large propulsion when the bending shape matched terrain geometry. However, when perturbations caused loss of contact, the robot easily lost propulsion or had motor overload. Contact feedback control resolved these issues by helping the robot regain contact. Yet excessive conformation interrupted shape propagation and excessive pushing stalled motors frequently. Unlike that using lateral bending, for propulsion generation using vertical bending, body weight that can help maintain contact with the environment but may also overload motors. Our results will help snake robots better traverse uneven terrain with large height variation and can inform how snakes use sensory feedback to control vertical body bending for propulsion.

Physiological responses of mechanosensory systems in the head of larval zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The lateral line system of zebrafish consists of the anterior lateral line, with neuromasts distributed on the head, and the posterior lateral line, with neuromasts distributed on the trunk. The sensory afferent neurons are contained in the anterior and posterior lateral line ganglia, respectively. So far, the vast majority of physiological and developmental studies have focused on the posterior lateral line. However, studies that focus on the anterior lateral line, especially on its physiology, are very rare. The anterior lateral line involves different neuromast patterning processes, specific distribution of synapses, and a unique role in behavior. Here, we report our observations regarding the development of the lateral line and analyze the physiological responses of the anterior lateral line to mechanical and water jet stimuli. Sensing in the fish head may be crucial to avoid obstacles, catch prey, and orient in water current, especially in the absence of visual cues. Alongside the lateral line, the trigeminal system, with its fine nerve endings innervating the skin, could contribute to perceiving mechanosensory stimulation. Therefore, we compare the physiological responses of the lateral line afferent neurons to responses of trigeminal neurons and responsiveness of auditory neurons. We show that anterior lateral line neurons are tuned to the velocity of mechanosensory ramp stimulation, while trigeminal neurons either only respond to mechanical step stimuli or fast ramp and step stimuli. Auditory neurons did not respond to mechanical or water jet stimuli. These results may prove to be essential in designing underwater robots and artificial lateral lines, with respect to the spectra of stimuli that the different mechanosensory systems in the larval head are tuned to, and underline the importance and functionality of the anterior lateral line system in the larval fish head.

Prox2 and Runx3 vagal sensory neurons regulate esophageal motility

Vagal sensory neurons monitor mechanical and chemical stimuli in the gastrointestinal tract. Major efforts are underway to assign physiological functions to the many distinct subtypes of vagal sensory neurons. Here, we use genetically guided anatomical tracing, optogenetics, and electrophysiology to identify and characterize vagal sensory neuron subtypes expressing Prox2 and Runx3 in mice. We show that three of these neuronal subtypes innervate the esophagus and stomach in regionalized patterns, where they form intraganglionic laminar endings. Electrophysiological analysis revealed that they are low-threshold mechanoreceptors but possess different adaptation properties. Lastly, genetic ablation of Prox2 and Runx3 neurons demonstrated their essential roles for esophageal peristalsis in freely behaving mice. Our work defines the identity and function of the vagal neurons that provide mechanosensory feedback from the esophagus to the brain and could lead to better understanding and treatment of esophageal motility disorders.

Structure of mechanically activated ion channel OSCA2.3 reveals mobile elements in the transmembrane domain

Members of the OSCA/TMEM63 are mechanically activated ion channels and structures of some OSCA members have revealed the architecture of these channels and structural features that are potentially involved in mechanosensation. However, these structures are all in a similar state and information about the motion of different elements of the structure is limited, preventing a deeper understanding of how these channels work. Here, we used cryo-electron microscopy to determine high resolution structures of Arabidopsis thaliana OSCA1.2 and OSCA2.3 in peptidiscs. The structure of OSCA1.2 resembles previous structures of the same protein in different environments. Yet, in OSCA2.3 the TM6a-TM7 linker constricts the pore on its cytoplasmic side, revealing conformational heterogeneity within the OSCA family. Furthermore, coevolutionary sequence analysis uncovered a conserved interaction between TM6a-TM7 linker and the Beam-Like Domain. Our results support the involvement of TM6a-TM7 in mechanosensation and potentially in the diverse response of OSCA channels to mechanical stimuli.

Repair of noise-induced damage to stereocilia F-actin cores is facilitated by XIRP2 and its novel mechanosensor domain

Prolonged exposure to loud noise has been shown to affect inner ear sensory hair cells in a variety of deleterious manners, including damaging the stereocilia core. The damaged sites can be visualized as 'gaps' in phalloidin staining of F-actin, and the enrichment of monomeric actin at these sites, along with an actin nucleator and crosslinker, suggests that localized remodeling occurs to repair the broken filaments. Herein, we show that gaps in mouse auditory hair cells are largely repaired within 1 week of traumatic noise exposure through the incorporation of newly synthesized actin. We provide evidence that Xin actin binding repeat containing 2 (XIRP2) is required for the repair process and facilitates the enrichment of monomeric γ-actin at gaps. Recruitment of XIRP2 to stereocilia gaps and stress fiber strain sites in fibroblasts is force-dependent, mediated by a novel mechanosensor domain located in the C-terminus of XIRP2. Our study describes a novel process by which hair cells can recover from sublethal hair bundle damage and which may contribute to recovery from temporary hearing threshold shifts and the prevention of age-related hearing loss.

High-fidelity encoding of mechanostimuli by tactile food-sensing neurons requires an ensemble of ion channels

The nematode C. elegans uses mechanosensitive neurons to detect bacteria, which are food for worms. These neurons release dopamine to suppress foraging and promote dwelling. Through a screen of genes highly expressed in dopaminergic food-sensing neurons, we identify a K2P-family potassium channel-TWK-2-that damps their activity. Strikingly, loss of TWK-2 restores mechanosensation to neurons lacking the NOMPC-like channel transient receptor potential 4 (TRP-4), which was thought to be the primary mechanoreceptor for tactile food sensing. The alternate mechanoreceptor mechanism uncovered by TWK-2 mutation requires three Deg/ENaC channel subunits: ASIC-1, DEL-3, and UNC-8. Analysis of cell-physiological responses to mechanostimuli indicates that TRP and Deg/ENaC channels work together to set the range of analog encoding of stimulus intensity and to improve signal-to-noise characteristics and temporal fidelity of food-sensing neurons. We conclude that a specialized mechanosensory modality-tactile food sensing-emerges from coordination of distinct force-sensing mechanisms housed in one type of sensory neuron.

Unraveling the roles of cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons

Sensory neurons previously shown to optimize speed and balance in fish by providing information about the curvature of the spine show similar morphology and connectivity in mice.

An expanded GCaMP reporter toolkit for functional imaging in C. elegans

In living organisms, changes in calcium flux are integral to many different cellular functions and are especially critical for the activity of neurons and myocytes. Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) have been popular tools for reporting changes in calcium levels in vivo . In particular, GCaMP, derived from GFP, are the most widely used GECIs and have become an invaluable toolkit for neurophysiological studies. Recently, new variants of GCaMP, which offer a greater variety of temporal dynamics and improved brightness, have been developed. However, these variants are not readily available to the Caenorhabditis elegans research community. This work reports a set of GCaMP6 and jGCaMP7 reporters optimized for C. elegans studies. Our toolkit provides reporters with improved dynamic range, varied kinetics, and targeted subcellular localizations. Besides optimized routine uses, this set of reporters are also well-suited for studies requiring fast imaging speeds and low magnification or low-cost platforms.

The cellular basis of mechanosensation in mammalian tongue

Mechanosensory neurons that innervate the tongue provide essential information to guide feeding, speech, and social grooming. We use in vivo calcium imaging of mouse trigeminal ganglion neurons to identify functional groups of mechanosensory neurons innervating the anterior tongue. These sensory neurons respond to thermal and mechanical stimulation. Analysis of neuronal activity patterns reveal that most mechanosensory trigeminal neurons are tuned to detect moving stimuli across the tongue. Using an unbiased, multilayer hierarchical clustering approach to classify pressure-evoked activity based on temporal response dynamics, we identify five functional classes of mechanosensory neurons with distinct force-response relations and adaptation profiles. These populations are tuned to detect different features of touch. Molecular markers of functionally distinct clusters are identified by analyzing cluster representation in genetically marked neuronal subsets. Collectively, these studies provide a platform for defining the contributions of functionally distinct mechanosensory neurons to oral behaviors crucial for survival in mammals.

Active antennal movements in Drosophila can tune wind encoding

Insects use their antennae to smell odors,1,2 detect auditory cues,3,4 and sense mechanosensory stimuli such as wind5 and objects,6,7,8 frequently by combining sensory processing with active movements. Genetic access to antennal motor systems would therefore provide a powerful tool for dissecting the circuit mechanisms underlying active sensing, but little is known about how the most genetically tractable insect, Drosophila melanogaster, moves its antennae. Here, we use deep learning to measure how tethered Drosophila move their antennae in the presence of sensory stimuli and identify genetic reagents for controlling antennal movement. We find that flies perform both slow adaptive movements and fast flicking movements in response to wind-induced deflections, but not the attractive odor apple cider vinegar. Next, we describe four muscles in the first antennal segment that control antennal movements and identify genetic driver lines that provide access to two groups of antennal motor neurons and an antennal muscle. Through optogenetic inactivation, we provide evidence that antennal motor neurons contribute to active movements with different time courses. Finally, we show that activation of antennal motor neurons and muscles can adjust the gain and acuity of wind direction encoding by antennal displacement. Together, our experiments provide insight into the neural control of antennal movement and suggest that active antennal positioning in Drosophila may tune the precision of wind encoding.

Lethal respiratory course and additional features expand the phenotypic spectrum of PIEZO2-related distal arthrogryposis type 5

Distal arthrogryposes (DA) are a group of conditions presenting with multiple congenital contractures in the distal joints. The 10 types of DA are distinguished by different extra-articular manifestations. Heterozygous gain-of-function variants in PIEZO2 are known to cause a spectrum of DA conditions including DA type 3, DA type 5, and possibly Marden Walker syndrome, which are usually distinguished by the presence of cleft palate (DA3), ptosis and restriction in eye movements (DA5), and specific facial abnormalities and central nervous system involvement, respectively. We report on a boy with a recurrent de novo heterozygous PIEZO2 variant in exon 20 (NM_022068.3: c.2994G > A, p.(Met998Ile); NM_001378183.1: c.3069G > A, p.(Met1023Ile)), who presented at birth with DA and later developed respiratory insufficiency. His phenotype broadly fits the PIEZO2 phenotypic spectrum and potentially extends it with novel phenotypic features of pretibial linear vertical crease, immobile skin, immobile tongue, and lipid myopathy.

State-specific morphological deformations of the lipid bilayer explain mechanosensitive gating of MscS ion channels

The force-from-lipids hypothesis of cellular mechanosensation posits that membrane channels open and close in response to changes in the physical state of the lipid bilayer, induced for example by lateral tension. Here, we investigate the molecular basis for this transduction mechanism by studying the mechanosensitive ion channel MscS from Escherichia coli and its eukaryotic homolog MSL1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. First, we use single-particle cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of a novel open conformation of wild-type MscS, stabilized in a thinned lipid nanodisc. Compared with the closed state, the structure shows a reconfiguration of helices TM1, TM2, and TM3a, and widening of the central pore. Based on these structures, we examined how the morphology of the membrane is altered upon gating, using molecular dynamics simulations. The simulations reveal that closed-state MscS causes drastic protrusions in the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer, both in the absence and presence of lateral tension, and for different lipid compositions. These deformations arise to provide adequate solvation to hydrophobic crevices under the TM1-TM2 hairpin, and clearly reflect a high-energy conformation for the membrane, particularly under tension. Strikingly, these protrusions are largely eradicated upon channel opening. An analogous computational study of open and closed MSL1 recapitulates these findings. The gating equilibrium of MscS channels thus appears to be dictated by opposing conformational preferences, namely those of the lipid membrane and of the protein structure. We propose a membrane deformation model of mechanosensation, which posits that tension shifts the gating equilibrium towards the conductive state not because it alters the mode in which channel and lipids interact, but because it increases the energetic cost of the morphological perturbations in the membrane required by the closed state.

Highly Stretchable Graphene Scrolls Transistors for Self-Powered Tribotronic Non-Mechanosensation Application

Owing to highly desired requirements in advanced disease diagnosis, therapy, and health monitoring, noncontact mechanosensation active matrix has drawn considerable attention. To satisfy the practical demands of high energy efficiency, in this report, combining the advantage of multiparameter monitoring, high sensitivity, and high resolution of active matrix field-effect transistor (FET) with triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG), we successfully developed the tribotronic mechanosensation active matrix based on tribotronic ion gel graphene scrolls field-effect transistors (GSFET). The tribopotential produced by TENG served as a gate voltage to modulate carrier transport along the semiconductor channel and realized self-powered ability with considerable decreased energy consumption. To achieve high spatial utilization and more pronounced responsivity of the dielectric of this transistor, ion gel was used to act as a triboelectric layer to conduct friction and contact electrification with external materials directly to produce triboelectric charges to power GFET. This tribopotential-driving device has excellent tactile sensing properties with high sensitivity (1.125 mm^-1), rapid response time (~16 ms), and a durability operation of thousands of cycles. Furthermore, the device was transparent and flexible with the capability of spatially mapping touch stimuli and monitoring real-time temperature. Due to all these unique characteristics, this novel noncontact mechanosensation GSFET active matrix provided a new method for self-powered E-skin with promising potential for self-powered wearable devices and intelligent robots.

A Photopolymerized Hydrogel System with Dual Stiffness Gradients Reveals Distinct Actomyosin-Based Mechano-Responses in Fibroblast Durotaxis

Durotaxis, migration of cells directed by a stiffness gradient, is critical in development and disease. To distinguish durotaxis-specific migration mechanisms from those on uniform substrate stiffnesses, we engineered an all-in-one photopolymerized hydrogel system containing areas of stiffness gradients with dual slopes (steep and shallow), adjacent to uniform stiffness (soft and stiff) regions. While fibroblasts rely on nonmuscle myosin II (NMII) activity and the LIM-domain protein Zyxin, ROCK and the Arp2/3 complex are surprisingly dispensable for durotaxis on either stiffness gradient. Additionally, loss of either actin-elongator Formin-like 3 (FMNL3) or actin-bundler fascin has little impact on durotactic response on stiffness gradients. However, lack of Arp2/3 activity results in a filopodia-based durotactic migration that is equally as efficient as that of lamellipodia-based durotactic migration. Importantly, we uncover essential and specific roles for FMNL3 and fascin in the formation and asymmetric distribution of filopodia during filopodia-based durotaxis response to the stiffness gradients. Together, our tunable all-in-one hydrogel system serves to identify both conserved as well as distinct molecular mechanisms that underlie mechano-responses of cells experiencing altered slopes of stiffness gradients.

Mechanotransduction events at the physiological site of touch detection

Afferents of peripheral mechanoreceptors innervate the skin of vertebrates, where they detect physical touch via mechanically gated ion channels (mechanotransducers). While the afferent terminal is generally understood to be the primary site of mechanotransduction, the functional properties of mechanically activated (MA) ionic current generated by mechanotransducers at this location remain obscure. Until now, direct evidence of MA current and mechanically induced action potentials in the mechanoreceptor terminal has not been obtained. Here, we report patch-clamp recordings from the afferent terminal innervating Grandry (Meissner) corpuscles in the bill skin of a tactile specialist duck. We show that mechanical stimulation evokes MA current in the afferent with fast kinetics of activation and inactivation during the dynamic phases of the mechanical stimulus. These responses trigger rapidly adapting firing in the afferent detected at the terminal and in the afferent fiber outside of the corpuscle. Our findings elucidate the initial electrogenic events of touch detection in the mechanoreceptor nerve terminal.

Piezo1 as a force-through-membrane sensor in red blood cells

Piezo1 is the stretch activated Ca2+ channel in red blood cells that mediates homeostatic volume control. Here, we study the organization of Piezo1 in red blood cells using a combination of super-resolution microscopy techniques and electron microscopy. Piezo1 adopts a non-uniform distribution on the red blood cell surface, with a bias toward the biconcave 'dimple'. Trajectories of diffusing Piezo1 molecules, which exhibit confined Brownian diffusion on short timescales and hopping on long timescales, also reflect a bias toward the dimple. This bias can be explained by 'curvature coupling' between the intrinsic curvature of the Piezo dome and the curvature of the red blood cell membrane. Piezo1 does not form clusters with itself, nor does it colocalize with F-actin, Spectrin, or the Gardos channel. Thus, Piezo1 exhibits the properties of a force-through-membrane sensor of curvature and lateral tension in the red blood cell.

Gabapentin Disrupts Binding of Perlecan to the α2δ1 Voltage Sensitive Calcium Channel Subunit and Impairs Skeletal Mechanosensation

Our understanding of how osteocytes, the principal mechanosensors within bone, sense and perceive force remains unclear. Previous work identified "tethering elements" (TEs) spanning the pericellular space of osteocytes and transmitting mechanical information into biochemical signals. While we identified the heparan sulfate proteoglycan perlecan (PLN) as a component of these TEs, PLN must attach to the cell surface to induce biochemical responses. As voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCCs) are critical for bone mechanotransduction, we hypothesized that PLN binds the extracellular α₂δ₁ subunit of VSCCs to couple the bone matrix to the osteocyte membrane. Here, we showed co-localization of PLN and α₂δ₁ along osteocyte dendritic processes. Additionally, we quantified the molecular interactions between α₂δ₁ and PLN domains and demonstrated for the first time that α₂δ₁ strongly associates with PLN via its domain III. Furthermore, α₂δ₁ is the binding site for the commonly used pain drug, gabapentin (GBP), which is associated with adverse skeletal effects when used chronically. We found that GBP disrupts PLN::α₂δ₁ binding in vitro, and GBP treatment in vivo results in impaired bone mechanosensation. Our work identified a novel mechanosensory complex within osteocytes composed of PLN and α₂δ₁, necessary for bone force transmission and sensitive to the drug GBP.

Sugar sensation and mechanosensation in the egg-laying preference shift of Drosophila suzukii

The agricultural pest Drosophila suzukii differs from most other Drosophila species in that it lays eggs in ripe, rather than overripe, fruit. Previously, we showed that changes in bitter taste sensation accompanied this adaptation (Dweck et al., 2021). Here, we show that D. suzukii has also undergone a variety of changes in sweet taste sensation. D. suzukii has a weaker preference than Drosophila melanogaster for laying eggs on substrates containing all three primary fruit sugars: sucrose, fructose, and glucose. Major subsets of D. suzukii taste sensilla have lost electrophysiological responses to sugars. Expression of several key sugar receptor genes is reduced in the taste organs of D. suzukii. By contrast, certain mechanosensory channel genes, including no mechanoreceptor potential C, are expressed at higher levels in the taste organs of D. suzukii, which has a higher preference for stiff substrates. Finally, we find that D. suzukii responds differently from D. melanogaster to combinations of sweet and mechanosensory cues. Thus, the two species differ in sweet sensation, mechanosensation, and their integration, which are all likely to contribute to the differences in their egg-laying preferences in nature.

The mechanosensitive Piezo1 channels contribute to the arterial medial calcification

Vascular calcification (VC) is associated with a number of cardiovascular diseases, as well as chronic kidney disease. The role of smooth muscle cells (SMC) has already been widely explored in VC, as has the role of intracellular Ca²⁺ in regulating SMC function. Increased intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) in vascular SMC has been proposed to stimulate VC. However, the contribution of the non-selective Piezo1 mechanosensitive cation channels to the elevation of [Ca²⁺]_i, and consequently to the process of VC has never been examined. In this work the essential contribution of Piezo1 channels to arterial medial calcification is demonstrated. The presence of Piezo1 was proved on human aortic smooth muscle samples using immunohistochemistry. Quantitative PCR and Western blot analysis confirmed the expression of the channel on the human aortic smooth muscle cell line (HAoSMC). Functional measurements were done on HAoSMC under control and calcifying condition. Calcification was induced by supplementing the growth medium with inorganic phosphate (1.5 mmol/L, pH 7.4) and calcium (CaCl₂, 0.6 mmol/L) for 7 days. Measurement of [Ca²⁺]_i using fluorescent Fura-2 dye upon stimulation of Piezo1 channels (either by hypoosmolarity, or Yoda1) demonstrated significantly higher calcium transients in calcified as compared to control HAoSMCs. The expression of mechanosensitive Piezo1 channel is augmented in calcified arterial SMCs leading to a higher calcium influx upon stimulation. Activation of the channel by Yoda1 (10 μmol/L) enhanced calcification of HAoSMCs, while Dooku1, which antagonizes the effect of Yoda1, reduced this amplification. Application of Dooku1 alone inhibited the calcification. Knockdown of Piezo1 by siRNA suppressed the calcification evoked by Yoda1 under calcifying conditions. Our results demonstrate the pivotal role of Piezo1 channels in arterial medial calcification.

Autoinhibitory module underlies species difference in shear activation of von Willebrand factor

BACKGROUND

Von Willebrand factor (VWF) is a multimeric plasma protein that bridges the gap between vessel injury and platelet capture at high shear rates. Under high shear or tension, VWF can become activated upon the unfolding of its autoinhibitory module (AIM). AIM unfolding exposes the A1 domain, allowing for binding to platelet glycoprotein (GP)Ibα to initiate primary hemostasis. The characteristics of the AIM and its inhibitory properties within mouse VWF are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To determine and characterize the autoinhibitory properties of mouse VWF.

METHODS

Recombinant mouse VWF A1 fragments containing or lacking the flanking regions around the A1 domain were generated. We tested the ability of these fragments to bind to human or mouse GPIbα and platelets. We compared the unfolding of mouse AIM-A1 to human AIM-A1 by single-molecule force spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Recombinant mouse AIM-A1 binds with higher affinity to GPIbα than its human counterpart. Recombinant mouse proteins lacking part of the AIM show increased binding to GPIbα. Activated A1 fragments lacking the AIM can effectively agglutinate platelets across the species barrier. Using single-molecule force spectroscopy, we determined that the mouse AIM unfolds under forces similar to the human AIM. Additionally, the human AIM paired with mouse A1 largely recapitulates the behavior of human AIM-A1.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that the regulation of VWF-GPIbα binding has been specifically tuned to work optimally in different rheological architectures. Differences in the AIM sequence may contribute to the difference in VWF shear response between human and mice.

Elastic properties and shape of the Piezo dome underlying its mechanosensory function

Over the past two decades, structural biology has provided much insight into the shape of membrane proteins. Beyond shape, however, membrane protein function can also depend on the protein’s elastic properties. It has been difficult to characterize protein elastic properties in freestanding, unperturbed lipid bilayer membranes, which is the scenario most relevant for cell membranes. Here we show that, through a physical understanding of how proteins deform lipid bilayer membranes, it is possible to deduce elastic properties of membrane proteins solely from observations of membrane shape. On this basis, we provide the biophysical principles and mechanisms underlying the tension-dependent activation of the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo, which mediates the sensation of touch and many other important biological processes.

We show in the companion paper that the free membrane shape of lipid bilayer vesicles containing the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo can be predicted, with no free parameters, from membrane elasticity theory together with measurements of the protein geometry and vesicle size [C. A. Haselwandter, Y. R. Guo, Z. Fu, R. MacKinnon, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 10.1073/pnas.2208027119 (2022)]. Here we use these results to determine the force that the Piezo dome exerts on the free membrane and hence, that the free membrane exerts on the Piezo dome, for a range of vesicle sizes. From vesicle shape measurements alone, we thus obtain a force–distortion relationship for the Piezo dome, from which we deduce the Piezo dome’s intrinsic radius of curvature, 42±12 nm, and bending stiffness, 18±2.1 kBT, in freestanding lipid bilayer membranes mimicking cell membranes. Applying these estimates to a spherical cap model of Piezo embedded in a lipid bilayer, we suggest that Piezo’s intrinsic curvature, surrounding membrane footprint, small stiffness, and large area are the key properties of Piezo that give rise to low-threshold, high-sensitivity mechanical gating.

PEZO-1 and TRP-4 mechanosensors are involved in mating behavior in Caenorhabditis elegans

Male mating in Caenorhabditis elegans is a complex behavior with a strong mechanosensory component. C. elegans has several characterized mechanotransducer proteins, but few have been shown to contribute to mating. Here, we investigated the roles of PEZO-1, a piezo channel, and TRP-4, a mechanotransducing TRPN channel, in male mating behavior. We show that pezo-1 is expressed in several male-specific neurons with known roles in mating. We show that, among other neurons, trp-4 is expressed in the Post-Cloacal sensilla neuron type A (PCA) sensory neuron, which monitors relative sliding between the male and the hermaphrodite and inhibits neurons involved in vulva detection. Mutations in both genes compromise many steps of mating, including initial response to the hermaphrodite, scanning, turning, and vulva detection. We performed pan-neuronal imaging during mating between freely moving mutant males and hermaphrodites. Both pezo-1 and trp-4 mutants showed spurious activation of the sensory neurons involved in vulva detection. In trp-4 mutants, this spurious activation might be caused by PCA failure to inhibit vulva-detecting neurons during scanning. Indeed, we show that without functional TRP-4, PCA fails to detect the relative sliding between the male and hermaphrodite. Cell-specific TRP-4 expression restores PCA's mechanosensory function. Our results demonstrate new roles for both PEZO-1 and TRP-4 mechanotransducers in C. elegans mating behavior.