Ursolic acid: biological functions and application in animal husbandry

Ursolic acid (UA) is a plant-derived pentacyclic triterpenoid with 30 carbon atoms. UA has anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antimicrobial, hepato-protective, anticancer, and other biological activities. Most studies on the biological functions of UA have been performed in mammalian cell (in vitro) and rodent (in vivo) models. UA is used in animal husbandry as an anti-inflammatory and antiviral agent, as well as for enhancing the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Although UA has been shown to have significant in vitro bacteriostatic effects, it is rarely used in animal nutrition. The use of UA as a substitute for oral antibiotics or as a novel feed additive in animal husbandry should be considered. This review summarizes the available data on the biological functions of UA and its applications in animal husbandry.

Overview of Ursolic Acid Potential for the Treatment of Metabolic Disorders, Autoimmune Diseases, and Cancers via Nuclear Receptor Pathways

Nuclear receptors (NRs) form a family of druggable transcription factors that are regulated by ligand binding to orchestrate multifaceted physiological functions, including reproduction, immunity, metabolism, and growth. NRs represent attractive and valid targets for the management and treatment of a vast array of ailments. Pentacyclic triterpenes (PTs) are ubiquitously distributed natural products in medicinal and aromatic plants, of which ursolic acid (UA) is an extensively studied member, due to its diverse bio-pertinent activities against different cancers, inflammation, aging, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and liver injury. In fact, PTs share a common lipophilic structure that resembles NRs' endogenous ligands. Herein, we present a review of the literature on UA's effect on NRs, showcasing the resulting health benefits and potential therapeutic outcomes. De facto, UA exhibited numerous pharmacodynamic effects on PPAR, LXR, FXR, and PXR, resulting in remarkable anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemic, and hepatoprotective properties, by lowering lipid accumulation in hepatocytes and mitigating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and its subsequent liver fibrosis. Furthermore, UA reversed valproate and rifampicin-induced hepatic lipid accumulation. Additionally, UA showed great promise for the treatment of autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune arthritis by antagonizing RORγ. UA exhibited antiproliferative effects against skin, prostate, and breast cancers, partially via PPARα and RORγ pathways. Herein, for the first time, we explore and provide insights into UA bioactivity with respect to NR modulation.

Current Nutritional and Pharmacological Approaches for Attenuating Sarcopenia

Sarcopenia is characterized by a gradual slowing of movement due to loss of muscle mass and quality, decreased power and strength, increased risk of injury from falls, and often weakness. This review will focus on recent research trends in nutritional and pharmacological approaches to controlling sarcopenia. Because nutritional studies in humans are fairly limited, this paper includes many results from nutritional studies in mammals. The combination of resistance training with supplements containing amino acids is the gold standard for preventing sarcopenia. Amino acid (HMB) supplementation alone has no significant effect on muscle strength or muscle mass in sarcopenia, but the combination of HMB and exercise (whole body vibration stimulation) is likely to be effective. Tea catechins, soy isoflavones, and ursolic acid are interesting candidates for reducing sarcopenia, but both more detailed basic research on this treatment and clinical studies in humans are needed. Vitamin D supplementation has been shown not to improve sarcopenia in elderly individuals who are not vitamin D-deficient. Myostatin inhibitory drugs have been tried in many neuromuscular diseases, but increases in muscle mass and strength are less likely to be expected. Validation of myostatin inhibitory antibodies in patients with sarcopenia has been positive, but excessive expectations are not warranted.

Ursolic Acid Promotes Autophagy by Inhibiting Akt/mTOR and TNF-α/TNFR1 Signaling Pathways to Alleviate Pyroptosis and Necroptosis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Infected Macrophages

As a lethal infectious disease, tuberculosis (TB) is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Its complex pathophysiological process limits the effectiveness of many clinical treatments. By regulating host cell death, Mtb manipulates macrophages, the first line of defense against invading pathogens, to evade host immunity and promote the spread of bacteria and intracellular inflammatory substances to neighboring cells, resulting in widespread chronic inflammation and persistent lung damage. Autophagy, a metabolic pathway by which cells protect themselves, has been shown to fight intracellular microorganisms, such as Mtb, and they also play a crucial role in regulating cell survival and death. Therefore, host-directed therapy (HDT) based on antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory interventions is a pivotal adjunct to current TB treatment, enhancing anti-TB efficacy. In the present study, we showed that a secondary plant metabolite, ursolic acid (UA), inhibited Mtb-induced pyroptosis and necroptosis of macrophages. In addition, UA induced macrophage autophagy and enhanced intracellular killing of Mtb. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms, we explored the signaling pathways associated with autophagy as well as cell death. The results showed that UA could synergistically inhibit the Akt/mTOR and TNF-α/TNFR1 signaling pathways and promote autophagy, thus achieving its regulatory effects on pyroptosis and necroptosis of macrophages. Collectively, UA could be a potential adjuvant drug for host-targeted anti-TB therapy, as it could effectively inhibit pyroptosis and necroptosis of macrophages and counteract the excessive inflammatory response caused by Mtb-infected macrophages via modulating the host immune response, potentially improving clinical outcomes.

Combinatorial drug-loaded quality by design adapted transliposome gel formulation for dermal delivery: In vitro and dermatokinetic study

BACKGROUND

Ursolic acid is a powerful drug that possesses many therapeutic properties, such as hepatoprotection, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, antiulcer, and anticancer activity. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Umbelliferae) contains a triterpene called asiatic acid, which has been used effectively in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine system for centuries. Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties are only some of the many pharmacological actions previously attributed to asiatic acid .

AIM

The present work developed an optimized combinatorial drug-loaded nano-formulation by Quality by design approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The optimize transliposome for accentuated dermal delivery of dual drug. The optimization of drug-loaded transliposome was done using the "Box-Behnken design." The optimized formulation was characterized for vesicles size, entrapment efficiency (%), and in vitro drug release. Additionally, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and dermatokinetic study were performed for further evaluation of drug-loaded optimized transliposome formulation.

RESULTS

The optimized combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome formulation showed a particle size of 86.36 ± 2.54 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) 0.230 ± 0.008, and an entrapment efficiency of 87.43 ± 2.66% which depicted good entrapment efficiency. In vitro drug release of ursolic acid and asiatic acid transliposomes was found to be 85.12 ± 2.54% and 80.23 ± 3.23%, respectively, as compared to optimized ursolic acid and asiatic acid transliposome gel drug release that was 67.18 ± 2.85% and 60.28 ± 4.12%, respectively. The skin permeation study of ursolic and asiatic acid conventional formulation was only 32.48 ± 2.42%, compared with optimized combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome gel (79.83 ± 4.52%) at 12 h. After applying combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome gel, rhodamine was able to more easily cross rat skin, as observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy, in comparison with when the rhodamine control solution was used.

DISCUSSION

The UA_AA-TL gel formulation absorbed more ursolic acid and asiatic acid than the UA_AA-CF gel formulation, as per dermatokinetic study. Even after being incorporated into transliposome vesicles, the antioxidant effects of ursolic and asiatic acid were still detectable. In most cases, transliposomes vesicular systems generate depots in the skin's deeper layers and gradually release the medicine over time, allowing for fewer applications.

CONCLUSION

In overall our studies, it may be concluded that developed dual drug-loaded transliposomal formulation has great potential for effective topical drug delivery for skin cancer.

Ursolic Acid Alleviates Neuroinflammation after Intracerebral Hemorrhage by Mediating Microglial Pyroptosis via the NF-κB/NLRP3/GSDMD Pathway

The neuroinflammatory response after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) causes a large amount of neuronal loss, and inhibiting the inflammatory response can improve the prognosis. In previous laboratory studies and clinical trials, ursolic acid (UA) inhibited the inflammatory response, but whether it can be administered to inhibit the neuroinflammatory response after cerebral hemorrhage is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of ursolic acid after cerebral hemorrhage. Online databases were used to obtain potential therapeutic targets of ursolic acid for the treatment of cerebral hemorrhage, and possible mechanisms were analyzed by KEGG, GO, and molecular docking. A rat model of cerebral hemorrhage was established using collagenase, and an in vitro cerebral hemorrhage model was constructed by adding hemin to BV2 cell culture medium. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting (WB), immunofluorescence, TUNEL staining, and calcein/PI staining were used to investigate the degree of microglial M1 polarization, changes in the levels of inflammatory factors, activation of the NF-κB pathway, and changes in the indicators of cellular death after ursolic acid treatment. In addition, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) was used to activate the NF-κB pathway to verify that ursolic acid exerts its anti-neuroinflammatory effects by regulating the NF-κB/NLRP3/GSDMD pathway. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analyses revealed that ursolic acid may exert its therapeutic effects on cerebral hemorrhage through multiple pathways. Together, in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that ursolic acid inhibited microglial M1 polarization and significantly reduced the levels of p-NF-κB, GSDMD-N, cleaved caspase-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, which were significantly inhibited by the use of PMA. Ursolic acid inhibits microglial pyroptosis via the NF-κB/NLRP3/GSDMD pathway to alleviate neuroinflammatory responses after cerebral hemorrhage.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of ursolic acid: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction: There is currently evidence suggesting that ursolic acid may exert a favorable influence on both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant impact. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of ursolic acid have not been systematically evaluated. Consequently, this study aims to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis regarding the impact of ursolic acid on markers of inflammatory and antioxidant activity in both animal models and in vitro systems. Methods: The search encompassed databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect, up until May 2023. All eligible articles in English were included in the analysis. Standard mean difference (SMD) was pooled using a random-effects model, and the included studies underwent a thorough assessment for potential bias. Results: The final review comprised 31 articles. In disease-model related studies, animal experiments have consistently shown that ursolic acid significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory parameters IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in mouse tissues. In vitro studies have similarly showed that ursolic acid significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory parameters IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α. Our results showed that ursolic acid could significantly elevate SOD and GSH levels, while significantly reducing MDA levels in animal tissues. The results of in vitro studies shown that ursolic acid significantly increased the level of GSH and decreased the level of MDA. Discussion: Findings from both animal and in vitro studies suggest that ursolic acid decreases inflammatory cytokine levels, elevates antioxidant enzyme levels, and reduces oxidative stress levels (graphical abstract). This meta-analysis furnishes compelling evidence for the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of ursolic acid.

LC-MS Fingerprinting Development for Standardized Precipitate from Agastache mexicana, Which Induces Antihypertensive Effect through NO Production and Calcium Channel Blockade

The aim of this work was to evaluate the vasorelaxant and antihypertensive effects of a standardized precipitate of the hydroalcoholic extract from Agastache mexicana (PPAm), comprising ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, acacetin, luteolin and tilianin, among others. In the ex vivo experiments, preincubation with L-NAME (nonspecific inhibitor of nitric oxide synthases) reduced the relaxation induced by PPAm; nevertheless, preincubation with indomethacin (nonspecific inhibitor of cyclooxygenases) did not generate any change in the vasorelaxation, and an opposed effect was observed to the contraction generated by CaCl2 addition. Oral administration of 100 mg/kg of PPAm induced a significant acute decrease in diastolic (DBP) and systolic (SBP) blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats, without changes in heart rate. Additionally, PPAm showed a sustained antihypertensive subacute effect on both DBP and SBP for 10 days compared to the control group. On the other hand, human umbilical vein cells treated with 10 µg/mL of PPAm showed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in intracellular adhesion molecule-1, compared to the control, but not on vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. In conclusion, PPAm induces a significant antihypertensive effect in acute- and subacute-period treatments, due to its direct vasorelaxant action on rat aortic rings through NO production and Ca2+ channel blockade.

Ursolic Acid Ameliorated Neuronal Damage by Restoring Microglia-Activated MMP/TIMP Imbalance in vitro

Purpose

The oxygen and glucose deprivation-reoxygenation (OGDR) model is widely used to evaluate ischemic stroke and cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in vitro. Excessively activated microglia produce pro-inflammatory mediators such as matrix metalloproteinases [MMPs] and their specific inhibitors, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases [TIMPs], causing neuronal damage. Ursolic acid (UA) acts as a neuroprotective agent in the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model keeping the MMP/TIMP balance with underlying mechanisms unclear. Our study used OGDR model to determine whether and how UA reduces neuronal damage by reversing MMP/TIMP imbalance caused by microglia in I/R injury in vitro.

Methods

SH-SY5Y cells were first cultured with 95% N2 and 5% CO2 and then cultivated regularly for OGDR model. Cell viability was tested for a proper UA dose. We established a co-culture system with SH-SY5Y cells and microglia-conditioned medium (MCM) stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-gamma (IFNγ). MMP9 and TIMP1 levels were measured with ELISA assay to confirm the UA effect. We added recombinant MMP9 (rMMP9) and TIMP1 neutralizing antibody (anti-TIMP1) for reconfirmation. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe cell morphology, and flow cytometry and Annexin V-FITC and PI labeling for apoptotic conditions. We further measured the calcium fluorescence intensity in SH-SY5Y cells.

Results

The MCM significantly reduced cell viability of SH-SY5Y cells after OGDR (p<0.01), which was restored by UA (0.25 µM) (p<0.05), whereas lactate dehydrogenase activity, intraneuronal Ca2+ concentration, and apoptosis-related indexes were showed significant improvement after UA treatment (p<0.01). UA corrected the MMP/TIMP imbalance by decreasing MMP9 expression and increasing TIMP1 expression in the co-culture system (p<0.01) and the effects of UA on SH-SY5Y cells were mitigated by the administration of rMMP9 and anti-TIMP1 (p<0.01).

Conclusion

We demonstrated that UA inhibited microglia-induced neuronal cell death in an OGDR model of ischemic reperfusion injury by stabilizing the MMP9/TIMP1 imbalance.

Exploration of diagnostic biomarkers, microenvironment characteristics, and ursolic acid's therapeutic effect for benign prostate hyperplasia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and early-stage prostate cancer (PC) have similar symptoms, making it challenging to differentially diagnose these two conditions. The study used Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis, as well as two machine learning strategies to identify BPH-specific biomarkers based on an integrated transcriptome data from 922 samples. Eight prognostic genes (ALCAM, COL6A2, CRISP2, FOXF2, IGF1, PTN, SCN7A, and UAP1) were identified to be BPH-specific biomarkers with high accuracy and specificity. Moreover, we constructed a seven-gene diagnostic classifier to distinguish BPH from PC. The infiltrations of plasmacytoid dendritic cells and neutrophil cells showed distinct differences between BPH and non-BPH groups. Additionally, ursolic acid can reverse transcriptional features associated with the occurrence and progression of BPH. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments have confirmed that it induces apoptosis of BPH cells and inhibits cell proliferation by promoting cell cycle S-phase arrest. The diagnostic biomarkers, microenvironment characteristics, and therapeutic effect of ursolic acid explored in this study offer new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for BPH.

Ursolic acid-downregulated long noncoding RNA ASMTL-AS1 inhibits renal cell carcinoma growth via binding to HuR and reducing vascular endothelial growth factor expression

It has been reported ursolic acid (UA), one of the naturally abundant pentacyclic triterpenes, possesses a wide range of biological activities including anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic, and anticancer properties. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a severe malignancy due to its asymptomatically spreading ability. Our study aimed to investigate the role and molecular mechanism of UA in RCC. RCC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis were assessed using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, Transwell, and tube formation assays. Xenograft tumor models were established to confirm the role of UA and long noncoding RNA ASMTL antisense RNA 1 (ASMTL-AS1) in vivo. Expression levels of ASMTL-AS1 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were measured using reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. The interaction probabilities of ASMTL-AS1 or VEGF with RNA-binding protein human antigen R (HuR) were verified by RNA immunoprecipitation experiment. The half-life period of messenger RNA (mRNA) was determined using actinomycin D. UA inhibited RCC cell growth in vivo and tumorigenesis in vitro. ASMTL-AS1 was highly expressed in RCC cell lines. Of note, UA downregulated ASMTL-AS1 expression, and overexpressed ASMTL-AS1 reversed the UA-induced suppression on RCC cell migration, invasion, and tube formation. Additionally, ASMTL-AS1 bound to HuR to maintain the stability of VEGF mRNA. Rescue experiments showed that the suppressed malignancy of RCC cells mediated by ASMTL-AS1 knockdown was counteracted by overexpression of VEGF. Moreover, silenced ASMTL-AS1 inhibited RCC tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. The obtained data suggest UA as a promising therapeutic agent to attenuate the development of RCC via regulation of the targeted molecules.

Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas, a New Herbal Source for Ursolic Acid: Quantitative Analysis, Purification and Bioactivity Studies

In this study, methanol, ethanol, methanol-dichloromethane (1 : 1, v/v), acetone, ethyl acetate, diethyl ether, and chloroform extracts of lavender (Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas) were prepared by maceration, and the ursolic acid contents in the extracts were determined quantitatively by HPLC analyses. The present results show that the methanol-dichloromethane (1 : 1, v/v) solvent system is the most efficient solvent system for the extraction of ursolic acid from the plant sample with the highest yield (2.22 g/100 g plant sample). In the present study, a new practical method for the isolation of ursolic acid from polar extracts was also demonstrated for the first time. The inhibition effects of the extracts and ursolic acid were also revealed on α-glycosidase, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, and human carbonic anhydrase I and II enzymes by determining IC50 values for the first time. The extracts and ursolic acid acted as potent antidiabetic agents by strongly inhibiting the α-glycosidase activity, whereas they were found to be very weak neuroprotective agents. In view of the present results, L. stoechas and its major metabolite, ursolic acid, can be recommended as a herbal source to control postprandial blood sugar levels and prevent diabetes by delaying the digestion of starch in food.

Explore the mechanism of ursolic acid acting on atherosclerosis through network pharmacological and bioinformatics methods

To explore the deep mechanisms of ursolic acid (UA) for treating atherosclerosis based on network pharmacology and bioinformatics. UA target genes were derived from traditional Chinese medicine system pharmacology, BATMAN-TCM, and SwissTargetPrediction databases. Atherosclerosis-related genes were derived from genecards, NCBI genes, and OMIM databases. The protein interaction network was constructed through the STRING database, and the hub network was extracted by using the Cytoscape software MCODE app. The enrichment analysis of gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes was performed by the R software clusterProfiler package, and the expression and prognostic value of the hub genes were verified on the data set. Screen the genes for expression and prognosis conclusions, conduct methylation analysis, and ceRNA construction. UA had 145 targets in the treatment of atherosclerosis. The top 7 gene ontology (biological process, molecular function, and cellular component) and pathways related to atherosclerosis were screened out. It is principally involved in biological processes, including response to lipopolysaccharide and regulation of inflammatory response. The main signaling pathways incorporated the TNF signaling pathway and the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway. Androgen receptor (AR) and interleukin-1 beta gene (IL1B) were further screened as core target genes. Methylation analysis demonstrated that the AR methylation level was elevated in the atherosclerotic group. On the contrary, the IL1B methylation level was lower in the atherosclerotic group. The results of the ceRNA analysis indicated that there were 43 targeted miRNAs in AR and 3 miRNAs in IL1B. We speculate that the target genes of UA regulating atherosclerosis are AR and IL1B. The mechanism may be that UA regulates the expression of target genes by regulating the methylation of target genes.

Ursolic acid reduces oxidative stress injury to ameliorate experimental autoimmune myocarditis by activating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

Background: Oxidative stress is crucial in experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM)-induced inflammatory myocardial injury. Ursolic acid (UA) is an antioxidant-enriched traditional Chinese medicine formula. The present study aimed to investigate whether UA could alleviate inflammatory cardiac injury and determine the underlying mechanisms. Methods: Six-week-old male BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: Sham, EAM group, or UA intervention group (UA group) by gavage for 2 weeks. An EAM model was developed by subcutaneous injection of α-myosin heavy chain derived polypeptide (α-MyHC peptide) into lymph nodes on days 0 and 7. Echocardiography was used to assess cardiac function on day 21. The inflammation level in the myocardial tissue of each group was compared using hematoxylin and eosin staining (HE) of heart sections and Interleukin-6 (IL-6) immunohistochemical staining. Masson staining revealed the degree of cardiac fibrosis. Furthermore, Dihydroethidium staining, Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to determine the mechanism of cardioprotective effects of UA on EAM-induced cardiac injury, and the level of IL-6, Nrf2, and HO-1. Results: In EAM mice, UA intervention significantly reduced the degree of inflammatory infiltration and myocardial fibrosis while improving cardiac function. Mechanistically, UA reduced myocardial injury by inhibiting oxidative stress (as demonstrated by a decrease of superoxide and normalization of pro- and antioxidant enzyme levels). Interestingly, UA intervention upregulated the expression of antioxidant factors such as Nrf2 and HO-1. In vitro experiments, specific Nrf2 inhibitors reversed the antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects of ursolic acid, which further suggested that the amelioration of EAM by UA was in a Nrf2/HO-1 pathway-dependent manner. Conclusion: These findings indicate that UA is a cardioprotective traditional Chinese medicine formula that reduces EAM-induced cardiac injury by up-regulating Nrf2/HO-1 expression and suppressing oxidative stress, making it a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of EAM.

Purification of ursolic acid and β-sitosterol from endophytic Alternaria alternata for their alpha-amylase inhibitory activity

Fungal endophytes are a known warehouse of bioactive compounds with multifarious applications. In the present investigation two compounds, β-Sitosterol (1) and ursolic acid (2), were isolated from Alternaria alternata, an endophytic fungus associated with Morus alba Linn for the first time. The structure of the compounds was elucidated on the basis of comprehensive spectral analysis (UV, IR, 1 H-, 13 C- and 2D-NMR, as well as HRESI-MS). In the in vitro alpha amylase inhibitory assay both compounds (1) and (2) show potent antidiabetic activity. In support, Docking studies indicate significant binding affinity of the isolated compounds. Hence from the present study, it can be concluded that endophytic fungi in Morus alba Linn can find use in antidiabetic drug development in the medicinal industry.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Ursolic acid ameliorates obesity of mice fed with high-fat diet via alteration of gut microbiota and amino acid metabolism

Obesity has been regarded as one of the major health problems worldwide. Studies demonstrated that ursolic acid (UA) can significantly ameliorate the progress of obesity. However, whether the effect of UA on obesity depends on the regulation of gut microbiota and metabolism is uncertain. To investigate the regulatory role of UA in obese mice from the perspective of intestinal microbiome and metabolomics analyses, an obese mice model was established with a high-fat diet, and the effect of UA on obesity was evaluated. The alterations of gut microbiota and metabolism related to obesity were evaluated by bioinformatic analysis. The results of the gut microbiota analysis showed that UA intervention could shift the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio at the phylum level and increase in the genera of Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, and Akkermansia. Additionally, metabolomics analysis showed that the beneficial influence of UA on obesity partly depended on amino acid metabolism. The current study demonstrated the roles of UA in the anti-obesity process, which depends in part on alterations in the gut microbiota and metabolism. Therefore, our findings highlight the potential therapeutic effect of UA on the improvement of diet-induced obesity in humans.

Therapeutic potential and novel formulations of ursolic acid and its derivatives: an updated review

Plants produce biologically active metabolites that have been utilised to cure a variety of severe and persistent illnesses. There is a possibility that understanding how these bioactive molecules work would allow researchers to come up with better treatments for diseases including malignancy, cardiac disease and neurological disorders. A triterpene called ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic prevalent triterpenoid found in fruits, leaves, herbs and blooms. The biological and chemical aspects of UA, as well as their presence, plant sources and biosynthesis, and traditional and newer technologies of extraction, are discussed in this review. Because of its biological function in the creation of new therapeutic techniques, UA is a feasible option for the evolution and medical management of a wide range of medical conditions, including cancer and other life threatening diseases. Despite this, the substance's poor solubility in aquatic environments makes it unsuitable for medicinal purposes. This hurdle was resolved in many different ways. The inclusion of UA into various pharmaceutical delivery approaches was found to be quite effective in this respect. This review also describes the properties of UA and its pharmacokinetics, as well as therapeutic applications of UA for cancer, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, in addition to its anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective and anti-microbial properties. Some of the recent findings related to novel nano-sized carriers as a delivery system for UA and the patents related to the applications of UA and its various derivatives are covered in this review. The analytical study of UA, oleanolic acid and other phytoconstituents by UV, HPLC, high-performance thin-layer chromatography and gas chromatography is also discussed. In the future, UA could be explored in vivo using various animal models and, in addition, the regulatory status regarding UA needs to be explored. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Discovery of Novel Pentacyclic Triterpene Acid Amide Derivatives as Excellent Antimicrobial Agents Dependent on Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species

Developing new agricultural bactericides is a feasible strategy for stopping the increase in the resistance of plant pathogenic bacteria. Some pentacyclic triterpene acid derivatives were elaborately designed and synthesized. In particular, compound A₂₂ exhibited the best antimicrobial activity against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) with EC₅₀ values of 3.34 and 3.30 mg L^-1, respectively. The antimicrobial mechanism showed that the compound A₂₂ induced excessive production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Xoo cells, leading to a decrease in superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities and an increase in malondialdehyde content. A₂₂ also produced increases in Xoo cell membrane permeability and eventual cell death. In addition, in vivo experiments showed that A₂₂ at 200 mg L^-1 exhibited protective activity against rice bacterial blight (50.44%) and citrus canker disease (84.37%). Therefore, this study provides a paradigm for the agricultural application of pentacyclic triterpene acid.

Combination of Oncolytic Measles Virus and Ursolic Acid Synergistically Induces Oncolysis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a difficult-to-treat cancer due to late diagnosis and limited curative treatment options. Developing more effective therapeutic strategies is essential for the management of HCC. Oncolytic virotherapy is a novel treatment modality for cancers, and its combination with small molecules merits further exploration. In this study, we combined oncolytic measles virus (MV) with the natural triterpenoid compound ursolic acid (UA) and evaluated their combination effect against HCC cells, including those harboring hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication. We found that the combination of MV and UA synergistically induced more cell death in Huh-7 HCC cells through enhanced apoptosis. In addition, increased oxidative stress and loss of mitochondrial potential were observed in the treated cells, indicating dysregulation of the mitochondria-dependent pathway. Similar synergistic cytotoxic effects were also found in HCC cells harboring HBV or HCV genomes. These findings underscore the potential of oncolytic MV and UA combination for further development as a treatment strategy for HCC.

Effect of the Composition of Leuzea and Cranberry Meal Extracts on Metabolic Processes in Norm and Pathology

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of long-term administration of a new herbal composition of leuzea and cranberry meal extracts at a dose of 70:500 mg/kg in healthy and pathological mice. After 4 weeks of daily composition administration to healthy CD-1 mice and C57BL/6 mice with diet-induced metabolic syndrome, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), serum biochemical examination and histology of internal organs were performed. Additionally, histological examination of white and brown adipose tissue was performed to evaluate the ability of the composition to prevent abdominal obesity in C57BL/6Ay (agouti yellow) mice. The results showed that the composition increased tissue sensitivity to glucose in healthy CD-1 mice; at the same time, it did not worsen the course of pathological processes in pathological mice. In both cases, the application of the developed composition was safe and contributed to the restoration of metabolic parameters.

Synthesis, Biological Activity, ADME and Molecular Docking Studies of Novel Ursolic Acid Derivatives as Potent Anticancer Agents

A series of new ursolic acid (UA) derivatives substituted with various amino acids (AAs) or dipeptides (DP) at the C-3 position of the steroid skeleton was designed and synthesized. The compounds were obtained by the esterification of UA with the corresponding AAs. The cytotoxic activity of the synthesized conjugates was determined using the hormone-dependent breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA. Three derivatives (l-seryloxy-, l-prolyloxy- and l-alanyl-l-isoleucyloxy-) showed micromolar IC₅₀ values and reduced the concentrations of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9. Further studies revealed that for two compounds (l-seryloxy- and l-alanyl-l-isoleucyloxy-), a possible mechanism of their antiproliferative action is the activation of caspase-7 and the proapoptotic Bax protein in the apoptotic pathway. The third compound (l-prolyloxy- derivative) showed a different mechanism of action as it induced autophagy as measured by an increase in the concentrations of three autophagy markers: LC3A, LC3B, and beclin-1. This derivative also showed statistically significant inhibition of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6. Finally, for all synthesized compounds, we computationally predicted their ADME properties as well as performed molecular docking to the estrogen receptor to assess their potential for further development as anticancer agents.

Exploring the potential mechanism of action of ursolic acid against gastric cancer and COVID-19 using network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis

BACKGROUND

Patients with gastric cancer (GC) are more likely to be infected with 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and the prognosis is worse. It is urgent to find effective treatment methods.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the potential targets and mechanism of ursolic acid (UA) on GC and COVID-19 by network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis.

METHODS

The online public database and weighted co-expression gene network analysis (WGCNA) were used to screen the clinical related targets of GC. COVID-19-related targets were retrieved from online public databases. Then, a clinicopathological analysis was performed on GC and COVID-19 intersection genes. Following that, the related targets of UA and the intersection targets of UA and GC/COVID-19 were screened. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Gene and Genome Analysis (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed on the intersection targets. Core targets were screened using a constructed protein-protein interaction network. Finally, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) of UA and core targets were performed to verify the accuracy of the prediction results.

RESULTS

A total of 347 GC/COVID-19-related genes were obtained. The clinical features of GC/COVID-19 patients were revealed using clinicopathological analysis. Three potential biomarkers (TRIM25, CD59, MAPK14) associated with the clinical prognosis of GC/COVID-19 were identified. A total of 32 intersection targets of UA and GC/COVID-19 were obtained. The intersection targets were primarily enriched in FoxO, PI3K/Akt, and ErbB signaling pathways. HSP90AA1, CTNNB1, MTOR, SIRT1, MAPK1, MAPK14, PARP1, MAP2K1, HSPA8, EZH2, PTPN11, and CDK2 were identified as core targets. Molecular docking revealed that UA strongly binds to its core targets. The MDS results revealed that UA stabilizes the protein-ligand complexes of PARP1, MAPK14, and ACE2.

CONCLUSION

This study found that in patients with gastric cancer and COVID-19, UA may bind to ACE2, regulate core targets such as PARP1 and MAPK14, and the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, and participate in antiinflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-virus, and immune regulation to exert therapeutic effects.

Natural compounds ursolic acid and digoxin exhibit inhibitory activities to cancer cells in RORγ-dependent and -independent manner

Natural compounds ursolic acid (UA) and digoxin isolated from fruits and other plants display potent anti-cancer effects in preclinical studies. UA and digoxin have been at clinical trials for treatment of different cancers including prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer and breast cancer. However, they displayed limited benefit to patients. Currently, a poor understanding of their direct targets and mechanisms of action (MOA) severely hinders their further development. We previously identified nuclear receptor RORγ as a novel therapeutic target for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and demonstrated that tumor cell RORγ directly activates gene programs such as androgen receptor (AR) signaling and cholesterol metabolism. Previous studies also demonstrated that UA and digoxin are potential RORγt antagonists in modulating the functions of immune cells such as Th17 cells. Here we showed that UA displays a strong activity in inhibition of RORγ-dependent transactivation function in cancer cells, while digoxin exhibits no effect at clinically relevant concentrations. In prostate cancer cells, UA downregulates RORγ-stimulated AR expression and AR signaling, whereas digoxin upregulates AR signaling pathway. In TNBC cells, UA but not digoxin alters RORγ-controlled gene programs of cell proliferation, apoptosis and cholesterol biosynthesis. Together, our study reveals for the first-time that UA, but not digoxin, acts as a natural antagonist of RORγ in the cancer cells. Our finding that RORγ is a direct target of UA in cancer cells will help select patients with tumors that likely respond to UA treatment.

Ursolic Acid Alleviates Cancer Cachexia and Prevents Muscle Wasting via Activating SIRT1

Skeletal muscle wasting is the most remarkable phenotypic feature of cancer cachexia that increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. However, there are currently no effective drugs against cancer cachexia. Ursolic acid (UA) is a lipophilic pentacyclic triterpene that has been reported to alleviate muscle atrophy and reduce muscle decomposition in some disease models. This study aimed to explore the role and mechanisms of UA treatment in cancer cachexia. We found that UA attenuated Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC)-conditioned medium-induced C2C12 myotube atrophy and muscle wasting of LLC tumor-bearing mice. Moreover, UA dose-dependently activated SIRT1 and downregulated MuRF1 and Atrogin-1. Molecular docking results revealed a good binding effect on UA and SIRT1 protein. UA rescued vital features wasting without impacting tumor growth, suppressed the elevated spleen weight, and downregulated serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines in vivo. The above phenomena can be attenuated by Ex-527, an inhibitor of SIRT1. Furthermore, UA remained protective against cancer cachexia in the advanced stage of tumor growth. The results revealed that UA exerts an anti-cachexia effect via activating SIRT1, thereby downregulating the phosphorylation levels of NF-κB and STAT3. UA might be a potential drug against cancer cachexia.

Ursolic Acid against Prostate and Urogenital Cancers: A Review of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Prostate cancer is the second most diagnosed form of cancer in men worldwide and accounted for roughly 1.3 million cases and 359,000 deaths globally in 2018, despite all the available treatment strategies including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Finding novel approaches to prevent and treat prostate and other urogenital cancers effectively is of major importance. Chemicals derived from plants, such as docetaxel and paclitaxel, have been used in cancer treatment, and in recent years, research interest has focused on finding other plant-derived chemicals that can be used in the fight against cancer. Ursolic acid, found in high concentrations in cranberries, is a pentacyclic triterpenoid compound demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. In the present review, we summarize the research studies examining the effects of ursolic acid and its derivatives against prostate and other urogenital cancers. Collectively, the existing data indicate that ursolic acid inhibits human prostate, renal, bladder, and testicular cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis. A limited number of studies have shown significant reduction in tumor volume in animals xenografted with human prostate cancer cells and treated with ursolic acid. More animal studies and human clinical studies are required to examine the potential of ursolic acid to inhibit prostate and other urogenital cancers in vivo.