Prevalence of Antibodies Against JC Virus in Patients With Refractory Crohn's Disease and Effects of Natalizumab Therapy

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Natalizumab, a humanized antibody against the α4 integrin subunit, effectively induces and maintains remission in patients with Crohn's disease (CD) refractory to conventional treatments. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy is a rare but fatal brain infection caused by John Cunningham (JC) virus and has been associated with natalizumab use. We assessed the prevalence of and risk factors for antibodies to JC virus in serum of patients with refractory CD who were candidates for, or already were receiving, natalizumab. We also assessed the effects of natalizumab treatment of these patients.

METHODS

In a retrospective study, we analyzed clinical charts from 191 patients with CD (74 males; mean age, 38.7 y; mean duration of disease, 14.9 y) tested for serum JC virus antibody from December 2012 through May 2014 at 2 medical centers in the United States. We calculated JC virus antibody prevalence and compared the characteristics of patients who tested negative vs those who tested positive, to identify risk factors. We also assessed the rate of subsequent natalizumab use, surgery, and seroconversion during natalizumab therapy.

RESULTS

A total of 129 of the patients (67.5%) tested positive for serum JC virus antibody. Multivariate analysis showed that past use of thiopurine was a risk factor for testing positive for JC virus antibody (odds ratio, 7.8; 95% confidence interval, 2.0-30.4; P = .003). Twenty-two of the patients who tested negative for JC virus antibody (35.5%) and 16 of the 129 patients who tested positive (12.4%) had been treated with natalizumab. Cox regression analysis determined that natalizumab use was the only factor associated with avoiding subsequent surgery (hazard ratio, 0.23; 95% confidence interval, 0.06-0.98). Seroconversion (from testing negative to positive for JC virus antibody) occurred in 1 of the 22 patients (4.5%) who initially tested negative during natalizumab therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of CD patients exposed to JC virus is comparable with that of the general population. In this retrospective study, prior thiopurine use was associated with an increased risk for testing positive for JC virus antibody. Natalizumab use reduced the risk of subsequent surgery.

Synthetic antibodies and peptides recognizing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-specific point mutations in polyomavirus JC capsid viral protein 1

Polyomavirus JC (JCV) is the causative agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare and frequently fatal brain disease that afflicts a small fraction of the immune-compromised population, including those affected by AIDS and transplantation recipients on immunosuppressive drug therapy. Currently there is no specific therapy for PML. The major capsid viral protein 1 (VP1) involved in binding to sialic acid cell receptors is believed to be a key player in pathogenesis. PML-specific mutations in JCV VP1 sequences present at the binding pocket of sialic acid cell receptors, such as L55F and S269F, abolish sialic acid recognition and might favor PML onset. Early diagnosis of these PML-specific mutations may help identify patients at high risk of PML, thus reducing the risks associated with immunosuppressive therapy. As a first step in the development of such early diagnostic tools, we report identification and characterization of affinity reagents that specifically recognize PML-specific mutations in VP1 variants using phage display technology. We first identified 2 peptides targeting wild type VP1 with moderate specificity. Fine-tuning via selection of biased libraries designed based on 2 parental peptides yielded peptides with different, yet still moderate, bindinspecificities. In contrast, we had great success in identifying synthetic antibodies that recognize one of the PML-specific mutations (L55F) with high specificity from the phage-displayed libraries. These peptides and synthetic antibodies represent potential candidates for developing tailored immune-based assays for PML risk stratification in addition to complementing affinity reagents currently available for the study of PML and JCV.

Characterization of self-assembled virus-like particles of Merkel cell polyomavirus

In our recombinant baculovirus system, VP1 protein of merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), which is implicated as a causative agent in Merkel cell carcinoma, was self-assembled into MCPyV-like particles (MCPyV-LP) with two different sizes in insect cells, followed by being released into the culture medium. DNA molecules of 1.5- to 5-kb, which were derived from host insect cells, were packaged in large, ~50-nm spherical particles but not in small, ~25-nm particles. Structure reconstruction using cryo-electron microscopy showed that large MCPyV-LPs are composed of 72 pentameric capsomeres arranged in a T = 7 icosahedral surface lattice and are 48 nm in diameter. The MCPyV-LPs did not share antigenic determinants with BK- and JC viruses (BKPyV and JCPyV). The VLP-based enzyme immunoassay was applied to investigate age-specific prevalence of MCPyV infection in the general Japanese population aged 1–70 years. While seroprevalence of MCPyV increased with age in children and young individuals, its seropositivity in each age group was lower compared with BKPyV and JCPyV.

JCV-specific T-cells producing IFN-gamma are differently associated with PmL occurrence in HIV patients and liver transplant recipients

Aim of this work was to investigate a possible correlation between the frequency of JCV-specific T-cells and PML occurrence in HIV-infected subjects and in liver transplant recipients. A significant decrease of JCV-specific T-cells was observed in HIV-PML subjects, highlighting a close relation between JCV-specific T-cell immune impairment and PML occurrence in HIV-subjects. Interestingly, liver-transplant recipients (LTR) showed a low frequency of JCV-specific T-cells, similar to HIV-PML subjects. Nevertheless, none of the enrolled LTR developed PML, suggesting the existence of different immunological mechanisms involved in the maintenance of a protective immune response in LTR.

Immune reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is associated with selective control of JC virus reactivation

JC virus (JCV) causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in immunocompromised patients. The mechanism of JCV reactivation and immunity in a transplanted immune system remains unclear. We prospectively studied 30 patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and collected blood and urine samples before HSCT and 3, 6, and 12 to 18 months after HSCT. Before HSCT, JCV DNA was detected in 7 of 30 urine, 5 of 30 peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and 6 of 30 plasma samples. Although JC viruria remained stable after HSCT with detection in 5 of 21 samples, viremia was detected in only 1 of 22 plasma and none of 22 PBMC samples 12 to 18 months after HSCT. Prevalence of anti-JCV IgG was 83% before HSCT and decreased to 72% at 12 to 18 months. Anti-JCV IgM was rarely detected. JCV-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses increased 12 to 18 months after HSCT. Although JC viruria correlated directly with detection of anti-JCV IgG, the cellular immune response to JCV measured by ELISpot was inversely correlated with anti-JCV IgG response. The diagnosis of acute myelogenous leukemia and age group were 2 independent patient factors associated with significantly reduced cellular immune responses to JCV. This prospective study in HSCT patients provides a model of interactions between the host immune response and viral activation in multiple compartments during the recovery of the immune system.

MicroRNA miR-J1-5p as a potential biomarker for JC virus infection in the gastrointestinal tract

Introduction

JC virus (JCV), a human polyomavirus that causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), has been linked to colorectal cancer (CRC). However, determination of JCV infection and its role in carcinogenesis has been challenging, highlighting the need for better diagnostic strategies for this virus. JCV-specific microRNAs (miRNAs) were identified and shown to negatively regulate oncogenic JCV T-Ag. Herein, we determined the pattern of JCV miRNA expression in clinical specimens from healthy subjects and CRC patients.

Material and Methods

JCV miRNA expression was validated in CRC cell lines transfected with the JCV T-Ag. Results were confirmed using CRC tissues that were expressed T-Ag. Expression of JCV-specific miR-J1-5p was measured in fresh stool samples from healthy volunteers, and samples from fecal occult blood test kits from healthy subject, and patients with colorectal neoplasms.

Results

JCV miR-J1-5p was detected in JCV-transfected, but not vector-transfected, CRC cells, and was stable between cell passages. MiR-J1-5p was present in all six JCV T-Ag+ CRC samples. Surprisingly, JCV miRNA was detectable in all normal tissues, but the expression was much lower in CRC tissues. Similarly, miR-J1-5p expression was present in all fecal samples, but expression was lower in CRCs compared to controls or adenoma patients.

Conclusion

JC virus-specific miR-J1-5p miRNA is a potential biomarker for viral infection, and the lower expression in patients with colonic neoplasia highlights its biological role regulating oncogenic T-Ag expression in CRC.

Impact

JCV-specific miRNA is a candidate for the development of a non-invasive screening test, as well as therapeutic intervention for JCV-associated diseases.

Immune surveillance and response to JC virus infection and PML

The ubiquitous human polyomavirus JC virus (JCV) is the established etiological agent of the debilitating and often fatal demyelinating disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Most healthy individuals have been infected with JCV and generate an immune response to the virus, yet remain persistently infected at subclinical levels. The onset of PML is rare in the general population, but has become an increasing concern in immunocompromised patients, where reactivation of JCV leads to uncontrolled replication in the CNS. Understanding viral persistence and the normal immune response to JCV provides insight into the circumstances which could lead to viral resurgence. Further, clues on the potential mechanisms of reactivation may be gleaned from the crosstalk among JCV and HIV-1, as well as the impact of monoclonal antibody therapies used for the treatment of autoimmune disorders, including multiple sclerosis, on the development of PML. In this review, we will discuss what is known about viral persistence and the immune response to JCV replication in immunocompromised individuals to elucidate the deficiencies in viral containment that permit viral reactivation and spread.

JCV epidemiology in MS (JEMS)--epidemiology of anti-JCV antibody prevalence in multiple sclerosis patients--Portuguese data

BACKGROUND

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, caused by oligodendrocyte lytic infection by JCVirus, is a growing concern for patients undergoing immune modulatory therapies for treatment of autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). The objective of JEMS was to describe the prevalence of anti-JCV antibodies in MS patients and to assess the various factors associated to it.

METHODS

Serum samples were collected and tested for anti-JCV antibody using the STRATIFY JCV™ assay in 131 Portuguese MS patients. Factors potentially associated with prevalence were also evaluated, as well as the effect of established risk factors.

RESULTS

In the population of 131 Portuguese patients included in the JEMS, the overall anti-JCV antibody prevalence was 69.5% (95% CI, 61.6-77.4). The anti-JCV antibody prevalence did not seem to be influenced by demographic characteristics, although results demonstrate a non-significant trend for increased prevalence with age. Disease characteristics, treatment duration, treatment history, prior immunosuppressive therapy use and natalizumab exposure duration did not seem to be associated with anti-JCV prevalence.

CONCLUSION

The results of Portuguese MS patients participating in the JEMS study present some differences when compared with the global population and literature results. An overall prevalence higher than expected raises awareness for data confirmation with greater sample size studies.

[Targeted therapy and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML): PML in the era of monoclonal antibody therapies]

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system and is associated with John Cunningham (JC) virus infection in the oligodendrocytes. The number of patients with PML increased after the pandemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Thereafter, an association between PML and monoclonal antibody therapy has come into light. Thus far, several monoclonal antibodies have been reported to cause PML. Currently, according to the Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, the number of PML cases due to natalizumab treatment for multiple sclerosis is 395 (incidence is 3.28/1,000). Moreover, the number of individuals with PML due to rituximab treatment is increasing (over 100 cases). Efalizumab, infliximab, adalimumab, etanercept, ibritumomab tiuxetan, bevacizumab, alemtuzumab, cetuximab, and brentuximab are also reported as risk factors of PML. The diagnosis of PML is based on clinical, neuroradiological, pathological, and molecular analyses. In clinical setting, magnetic resonance imaging provides the most important information in the diagnosis of PML. Patients with PML due to monoclonal antibody treatment may present clinical symptoms different from that of the classic PML, such as sensory disturbance and seizure. Once PML is identified in an individual receiving monoclonal antibody therapy, the monoclonal antibody must be immediately discontinued and removed from the body by plasmapheresis. Because most patients may present immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), steroid therapy must be considered immediately. However, the prognosis of PML is still worse in patients receiving monoclonal antibody therapy. To prevent PML development, sophisticated and well-organized strategies must be established for monoclonal antibody treatment. Besides neurologists, physicians from other fields must be aware of PML associated with resulted from monoclonal antibody therapy.

Changes in JC virus-specific T cell responses during natalizumab treatment and in natalizumab-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) induced by JC virus (JCV) is a risk for natalizumab-treated multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Here we characterize the JCV-specific T cell responses in healthy donors and natalizumab-treated MS patients to reveal functional differences that may account for the development of natalizumab-associated PML. CD4 and CD8 T cell responses specific for all JCV proteins were readily identified in MS patients and healthy volunteers. The magnitude and quality of responses to JCV and cytomegalovirus (CMV) did not change from baseline through several months of natalizumab therapy. However, the frequency of T cells producing IL-10 upon mitogenic stimulation transiently increased after the first dose. In addition, MS patients with natalizumab-associated PML were distinguished from all other subjects in that they either had no detectable JCV-specific T cell response or had JCV-specific CD4 T cell responses uniquely dominated by IL-10 production. Additionally, IL-10 levels were higher in the CSF of individuals with recently diagnosed PML. Thus, natalizumab-treated MS patients with PML have absent or aberrant JCV-specific T cell responses compared with non-PML patients, and changes in T cell-mediated control of JCV replication may be a risk factor for developing PML. Our data suggest further approaches to improved monitoring, treatment and prevention of PML in natalizumab-treated patients.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a complication of treatment with natalizumab in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and Crohn's disease. PML results from a failure of the immune system to control replication of JC virus (JCV) in the brain. We studied the T cell responses of 8 patients with MS who were starting treatment with natalizumab, 10 healthy volunteers, and 4 patients with natalizumab-associated PML. The magnitude and quality of JCV-specific immune responses remained unchanged after starting natalizumab. However, applying the same methods and antigens, we found that immune responses in the individuals who developed PML differed from those in the MS patients and healthy volunteers. In the four patients with PML from whom the laboratory had identified JCV DNA in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), two had no measurable T cell response to JCV and two had T cells that produced IL-10, an anti-inflammatory mediator. Furthermore, we studied the CSF of 10 patients with natalizumab-associated PML and 10 patients on natalizumab who had similar symptoms but did not have PML. We found that IL-10 was detectable in the CSF of half of the individuals with PML but none of the control group. These findings shed light on the mechanisms that lead to PML in a subset of patients treated with natalizumab and have implications for therapeutic and preventative measures.

Risk of natalizumab-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

BACKGROUND

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is associated with natalizumab treatment. We quantified the risk of PML in patients with multiple sclerosis, according to the presence or absence of three risk factors: positive status with respect to anti-JC virus antibodies, prior use of immunosuppressants, and increasing duration of natalizumab treatment.

METHODS

We used data from postmarketing sources, clinical studies, and an independent Swedish registry to estimate the incidence of PML among natalizumab-treated patients with multiple sclerosis, according to positive or negative status with respect to anti-JC virus antibodies, prior or no prior use of immunosuppressants, and duration of treatment (1 to 24 months vs. 25 to 48 months). Blood samples were available for anti-JC virus antibody testing from 5896 patients with multiple sclerosis and from 54 patients with multiple sclerosis who were treated with natalizumab and in whom PML later developed.

RESULTS

As of February 29, 2012, there were 212 confirmed cases of PML among 99,571 patients treated with natalizumab (2.1 cases per 1000 patients). All 54 patients with PML for whom samples were available before the diagnosis were positive for anti-JC virus antibodies. When the risk of PML was stratified according to three risk factors, the risk of PML was lowest among the patients who were negative for anti-JC virus antibodies, with the incidence estimated to be 0.09 cases or less per 1000 patients (95% confidence interval [CI], 0 to 0.48). Patients who were positive for anti-JC virus antibodies, had taken immunosuppressants before the initiation of natalizumab therapy, and had received 25 to 48 months of natalizumab treatment had the highest estimated risk (incidence, 11.1 cases per 1000 patients [95% CI, 8.3 to 14.5]).

CONCLUSIONS

Positive status with respect to anti-JC virus antibodies, prior use of immunosuppressants, and increased duration of natalizumab treatment, alone or in combination, were associated with distinct levels of PML risk in natalizumab-treated patients with multiple sclerosis. (Funded by Biogen Idec and Elan Pharmaceuticals.).

Review on the relationship between human polyomaviruses-associated tumors and host immune system

The polyomaviruses are small DNA viruses that can establish latency in the human host. The name polyomavirus is derived from the Greek roots poly-, which means "many," and -oma, which means "tumours." These viruses were originally isolated in mouse (mPyV) and in monkey (SV40). In 1971, the first human polyomaviruses BK and JC were isolated and subsequently demonstrated to be ubiquitous in the human population. To date, at least nine members of the Polyomaviridae family have been identified, some of them playing an etiological role in malignancies in immunosuppressed patients. Here, we describe the biology of human polyomaviruses, their nonmalignant and malignant potentials ability, and their relationship with the host immune response.

Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in a patient with idiopathic CD4+ lymphocytopenia

Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy (PML) is an opportunistic, demyelinating neurological disease caused by reactivation of the JC polyomavirus. PML occurs almost exclusively in immunosuppressed individuals, with only isolated case reports of PML occurring in patients without apparent immunosuppression. Idiopathic CD4+ lymohocytopenia (ICL) is a syndrome defined by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention as a CD4+ count <300 cells/uL or <20% of total T cell count on >1 occasion, with no evidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and the absence of other known immunodeficiency or therapy associated with lymphocytopenia. We describe a case of PML occurring in a patient with idiopathic CD4+ lymphocytopenia.

Serological evidence of vertical transmission of JC and BK polyomaviruses in humans

Vertical transmission of JC virus and BK virus has been investigated by few authors, with conflicting results. We performed a combined serological and genomic study of 19 unselected pregnant women and their newborns. Blood and urine samples were collected during each gestational trimester from the pregnant women. Umbilical cord blood, peripheral blood, urine and nasopharyngeal secretion samples were taken from newborns at delivery and after 1 week and 1 month of life. Polyomavirus DNA was detected by nested PCR. Polyomavirus IgG-, IgM- and IgA-specific antibodies were measured in maternal and newborn serum samples using a virus-like-particle-based ELISA method. BKV and JCV DNA were detected in urine from 4 (21 %) and 5 (26 %) women, respectively. BKV and JCV seroprevalences in the pregnant women were 84 % and 42 %, respectively. Using a rise in the IgG level or the transient appearance of an IgA or IgM response as evidence of infection in the newborn, we detected BKV and JCV infections in four (21 %) and three (16 %) newborns, respectively. Three infants had serological evidence of infection with both BKV and JCV. In two of the four possible BKV-infected newborns, the mothers seroconverted during pregnancy, while another mother was viruric and IgA seropositive. The mother of one of the three possible JCV-infected newborns was viruric and IgA seropositive; another mother was viruric. These results suggest JC virus and BK virus can be transmitted from mother to newborn during pregnancy or soon after birth.

Role for tumor necrosis factor-α in JC virus reactivation and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

JCV causes the CNS demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). After primary infection, JCV persists in a latent state, where viral protein expression and replication are not detectable. NF-κB and C/EBPβ regulate the JCV promoter via a control element, κB, suggesting proinflammatory cytokines may reactivate JCV to cause PML, e.g., in HIV-1/AIDS. Since HIV-1 induces cytokines in brain, including TNF-α, we examined a role for TNF-α in JCV regulation. TNF-α stimulated both early and late JCV transcription. Further, the κB element conferred TNF-α response to a heterologous promoter. Immunohistochemistry of HIV+/PML revealed robust labeling for TNF-α and TNFR-1. These data suggest TNF-α stimulation of κB may contribute to JCV reactivation in HIV+/PML.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after natalizumab monotherapy

We describe progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) caused by infection with human polyomavirus JC virus in a patient with multiple sclerosis who was treated with natalizumab. The first PML symptoms appeared after 14 monthly infusions of the drug. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a presumed multiple sclerosis lesion, and JC virus DNA was not detected on polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR) assay of cerebrospinal fluid. The patient's symptoms worsened, and the diagnosis of PML was established with a more sensitive quantitative PCR assay after 16 infusions of natalizumab. Plasma exchange was used to accelerate clearance of natalizumab. Approximately 3 weeks after plasma exchange, an immune-reconstitution inflammatory syndrome appeared. JC virus DNA was no longer detectable on quantitative PCR assay, and the patient's symptoms improved.

Asymptomatic reactivation of JC virus in patients treated with natalizumab

BACKGROUND

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) occurs in a fraction of patients with multiple sclerosis who were treated with natalizumab. Most adults who are infected with the JC virus, the etiologic agent in PML, do not have symptoms. We sought to determine whether exposure to natalizumab causes subclinical reactivation and neurotropic transformation of JC virus.

METHODS

We followed 19 consecutive patients with multiple sclerosis who were treated with natalizumab over an 18-month period, performing quantitative polymerase-chain-reaction assays in blood and urine for JC virus reactivation; BK virus, a JC virus-related polyomavirus, was used as a control. We determined JC virus-specific T-cell responses by means of an enzyme-linked immunospot assay and antibody responses by means of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and analyzed JC virus regulatory-region sequences.

RESULTS

After 12 months of natalizumab therapy, the prevalence of JC virus in the urine of the 19 patients increased from a baseline value of 19% to 63% (P=0.02). After 18 months of treatment, JC virus was detectable in 3 of 15 available plasma samples (20%) and in 9 of 15 available samples of peripheral-blood mononuclear cells (60%) (P=0.02). JC virus regulatory-region sequences in blood samples and in most of the urine samples were similar to those usually found in PML. Conversely, BK virus remained stable in urine and was undetectable in blood. The JC virus-specific cellular immune response dropped significantly between 6 and 12 months of treatment, and variations in the cellular immune response over time tended to be greater in patients in whom JC viremia developed. None of the patients had clinical or radiologic signs of PML.

CONCLUSIONS

Subclinical reactivation of JC virus occurs frequently in natalizumab-treated patients with multiple sclerosis. Viral shedding is associated with a transient drop in the JC virus-specific cellular immune response.