Cantharidin toxicosis in 2 alpacas

Two adult alpacas were presented for recumbency and reluctance to rise. Cantharidin toxicosis was suspected based on clinical and ancillary diagnostic findings. The diagnosis was confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of gastric contents and urine. Despite medical treatment, neither alpaca survived. Blister beetle toxicosis has not been previously described in camelids. Challenges in treatment of affected ruminants or pseudoruminants are noted.

The occurrence of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides in non-target raptor species in Norway

Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are commonly used for rodent pest control in Norway resulting in the potential exposure of non-target raptor species. In this study the occurrence of flocoumafen, difethialone, difenacoum, bromadiolone and brodifacoum was determined in the livers of five species of raptors found dead in Norway between 2009 and 2011. The SGARs brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum and flocoumafen were detected in golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and eagle owl (Bubo bubo) livers at a total SGAR concentration of between 11 and 255 ng/g in approximately 70% of the golden eagles and 50% of the eagle owls examined in this study. In the absence of specific golden eagle and eagle owl toxicity thresholds for SGARs, a level of >100 ng/g was used as a potential lethal range, accepting that poisoning may occur below this level. Thirty percent (7/24) of the golden eagle and eagle owl livers contained total SGAR residue levels above this threshold. Further estimation of the potential mortality impact on the sampled raptor populations was not possible.

Dog poisonings associated with a Microcystis aeruginosa bloom in the Netherlands

In early autumn 2011, three dogs died after they had been exposed to a Microcystis aeruginosa bloom on Lake Amstelmeer, The Netherlands. The cyanobacterial scum from the lake contained up to 5.27 × 10³μg g⁻¹ dry-weight microcystin, the vomit of one of the dogs contained on average 94 µg microcystin g⁻¹ dry-weight. In both cases, microcystin-LR was the most abundant variant. This is the first report of dog deaths associated with a Microcystis bloom and microcystin poisoning in The Netherlands.

Behandlung einer chronischen Kupfervergiftung mit oralem Ammoniummolybdat und Natriumsulfat bei Milchschafen

Four weeks after the introduction of a new ration, a herd of sheep in the Swiss midland area was affected by depression, anorexia, decreased milk production, anemia, hemoglobinuria and frequent recumbency. Seventeen ewes died within a few days. A diagnosis of chronic copper poisoning was based on the results of feed analysis, histopathological findings and the toxicological examination of liver tissue. The remaining sheep were treated with oral ammonium molybdate and sodium sulfate, which together provide an inexpensive alternative to the chelator D-penicillamine.This combination not only prevents further copper intake, but also supports its elimination from the hepatocellular storage compartments. Serum copper levels have been determined to monitor the mobilization of copper following this antidote therapy.

Enhancement of Hsp70 synthesis protects common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., against lethal ammonia toxicity

Exposure to TEX-OE®, a patented extract of the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) containing chaperone-stimulating factor, was shown to protect common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., fingerlings against acute ammonia stress. Survival was enhanced twofold from 50% to 95% after exposure to 5.92 mg L(-1) NH(3) , a level determined in the ammonia challenge bioassay as the 1-h LD50 concentration for this species. Survival of TEX-OE®-pre-exposed fish was enhanced by 20% over non-exposed controls during lethal ammonia challenge (14.21 mg L(-1)  NH(3) ). Increase in the levels of gill and muscle Hsp70 was evident in TEX-OE®-pre-exposed fish but not in the unexposed controls, indicating that application of TEX-OE® accelerated carp endogenous Hsp70 synthesis during ammonia perturbation. Protection against ammonia was correlated with Hsp70 accretion.

Primary and secondary poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides of non-target animals in Spain

Anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) levels were studied in liver of 401 wild and domestic animals found dead in Spain with evidences of AR poisoning, including 2 species of reptiles (n=2), 42 species of birds (n=271) and 18 species of mammals (n=128). Baits (n=32) were also analyzed to detect the potential use of ARs in their intentional preparation to kill predators. AR residues were detected in 155 (38.7%) of the studied animals and 140 (34.9%) may have died by AR poisoning according to the clinical information, necropsy findings, residue levels and results of other toxicological analysis. Animals considered with sublethal AR exposure had total AR residues (geometric mean with 95% CI) in liver of 0.005 (0.003-0.007)μg/g wet weight (w.w.) and animals diagnosed as dead by AR poisoning had 0.706 (0.473-1.054)μg/g w.w. ARs were detected in 19% of baits illegally prepared to kill predators. In terms of the total incidents studied in our laboratory between 2005 and 2010 (n=1792 animals), confirmed poisonings represented 40.9% of the cases, and 21.1% of these were due to ARs (8.6% of the total sample). Nocturnal raptors (62%) and carnivorous mammals (38%) were amongst the secondary consumers with highest prevalence of AR exposure, especially to second generation ARs (SGARs). On the other hand, granivorous birds showed the highest prevalence of AR exposure (51%), especially to chlorophacinone in a region treated against a vole population peak in 2007. The presence of hemorrhages was significantly associated with AR levels in liver, but some animals (7.2%) with elevated residue levels (>0.2μg/g w.w.) showed no evidence of macroscopic bleeding. The use of accumulative SGARs and the application of baits on surface (i.e. treated grain by spreader machines) should be discontinued in future EU regulations on the use of rodenticides to prevent the poisoning of non-target wildlife species.

Common reversal agents/antidotes in small animal poisoning

Different antidotes counteract the effect of a toxicant in several different ways. Antidotes can reverse, decrease, or prevent action of a toxicant. They can also help in achieving stabilization of vital signs, directly or indirectly, and promote excretion of a toxicant. However, overreliance on an antidote can be unrealistic and dangerous. While expectations of rapid recovery from antidotes are usually high, in a real life situation, there are many impediments in achieving this goal. The timing of its use, availability, cost, and sometimes adverse effects from the antidote itself can influence the results and outcome of a case. The majority of toxicants do not have a specific antidote therapy indicated and patients in these cases equally benefit from supportive care. In this chapter, commonly used antidotes and reversal agents in small animals are listed in a table form. The table lists generic name along with brand name of an antidote/reversal agent whenever available, main indications for their use, and provides comments or cautions in their use as needed. After stabilizing the patient and establishing the etiology, the clinicians must review more detailed management of that particular toxicant discussed here or in other references.

Organophosphate ester flame retardant-induced acute intoxications in dogs

INTRODUCTION

Flame retardants have wide industrial applications and are incorporated into articles found in automobiles and home environments, including seat cushions. These compounds differ widely chemically and in their toxic potential. We report here two cases involving dogs following ingestion of car seat cushions impregnated with organophosphate ester fire retardants.

CASE REPORTS

Two case reports are presented. Two adult American Pit Bull dogs were presented at an emergency clinic with acute signs of central nervous system excitation including seizures. The most severely affected dog died 15 min after presentation, while the less affected dog fully recovered following treatment. In the second case, both a German Shepherd and a Rottweiler were found dead in the morning after they were left in a car overnight. A comprehensive toxicological analysis of samples from both cases revealed the presence of significant amounts (>2 ppm) of tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP) in stomach contents. This compound is a known inducer of epileptic seizures. Some other structurally related organophosphate ester compounds were found, and their role in the acute intoxications reported here is not known and remains to be determined.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report linking acute deaths in dogs to the ingestion of car seat cushions found to contain large amounts of TCEP, an organophosphate ester compound. It is highly likely that this compound caused death through its known seizure-inducing activity.

Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 3: Wildlife

This review article is the third in a series on animal poisoning in Europe and represents a collation of published and non-published wildlife poisoning data from Belgium, France, Greece, Italy and Spain over the last 10 years. Birds, particularly waterfowl and raptors, were more commonly reported as victims of poisoning than wild mammals. In addition to specific but important toxicological disasters, deliberate primary or secondary poisonings are of concern to all countries. Metals (particularly lead arising from sporting/hunting activities) and pesticides (mainly anticholinesterases and anticoagulants) are frequent causes of poisoning, and often have fatal consequences. A more unified and consistent approach throughout European countries to improve the reporting and the analytical confirmation of wildlife poisoning would help to reduce the number of cases of malicious or negligent animal poisoning.

Dibucaine toxicosis in a dog

INTRODUCTION

Dibucaine is a potent, long-lasting local anesthetic (LA). Topical dibucaine ointments are marketed directly to consumers in the USA without prescription. Dibucaine ointment is intended to treat discomfort associated with sunburn, eczema, minor rashes, minor scratches, insect bites, and poison ivy and is used alone or in combination with other active ingredients to treat pain associated with hemorrhoids or other anorectal disorders. Oral dibucaine toxicosis has been reported in children and includes gastrointestinal upset and neurologic and cardiovascular dysfunction.

CASE REPORT

An 18-month-old, female, Parson Russell terrier ingested approximately 23 g of 1% dibucaine ointment (approximately 38 mg/kg dibucaine) recommended to the owner for the treatment of hemorrhoids. Onset and resolution of clinical signs were relatively rapid, 5 min and 60 min, respectively. Clinical signs included vomiting, ptyalism, whole-body muscle fasciculations, disorientation, and severe ataxia.

DISCUSSION

Oral dibucaine toxicosis in dogs is similar to oral dibucaine toxicosis in children. Dibucaine ointment poses a real and potentially serious toxicological risk to pets and thus should be stored in a safe location.

The association of bait formulation of strychnine with poisonings in nontarget species in Saskatchewan from 1975 to 2007

This study investigated the association of pre-mixed and freshly mixed strychnine baits with poisoning of nontarget animals in Saskatchewan. During years where the formulations were derived from a 2% concentrate, there was a greater than 2-fold increase in case numbers. There were approximately 3-fold fewer cases when the baits were prepared by pest control officers rather than by producers.

Pharm profile: activated charcoal

Activated charcoal is used to treat many kinds of toxicoses. This article presents basic information about activated charcoal's properties and use.

Growth and hepaticin vitrometabolism of ergotamine in mice divergently selected for response to endophyte toxicity

This study investigated if genetic differences exhibited in endophyte-resistant and -susceptible mouse lines had persisted after 13 generations in which the integrity of lines was maintained yet selection ceased. Experimental groups were mouse lines fed an endophyte-free (E-) or -infected (E+) diet. The in vitro metabolism of the ergot alkaloid ergotamine in mouse liver microsomes was characterized by LC-MS/MS and compared between both lines before and after exposure to E+ feed. No difference in the average daily weight gain of pups between resistant and susceptible mice was observed on the E+ diet. Thus, for the weight gain selection criterion under study, the difference established between the two lines appears not to have persisted over the extended period of relaxed selection. Microsomal incubations produced nine predominate peaks in the HPLC assay. The peaks were confirmed by LC-MS/MS to be ergotamine, ergotamine epimer, monohydroxylated metabolites (M1, M2, M1e, M2e) and dihydroxylated metabolites (M3--5). A gender difference for metabolite formation was observed on the E- diet, in that females produced a greater amount of M1, M1e and M3--5 than males. When challenged with the E+ diet, mice showed differences in concentration of M3 for line (resistant > susceptible) and gender (female > male) and of M4 and M5 for gender (female > male). Gender differences in the metabolism of ergotamine have not been shown before in these lines of mice or other species used to study ergot alkaloid metabolism. This adds a potential source of variation in the susceptibility to fescue toxicity not explored previously and would be of value to investigate further.

Modest copper supplementation blocks molybdenosis in cattle

It is widely accepted that ratios of dietary copper (Cu) to molybdenum (Mo) lower than 10:1 may produce molybdenosis in cattle, especially if sulfur concentrations are more than 3,000 ppm. Some authorities suggest that dietary Mo concentrations greater than 10 ppm are hazardous to cattle regardless of Cu concentration, but anecdotal reports suggest that this may not be the case. The original purpose of the experiment described in this report was to investigate whether supranutritional supplemental Cu could protect cattle against relatively high dietary Mo. Pregnant cows were grazed on 1 of 3 pastures: 1 with only background Mo, 1 with an average of 13 ppm Mo, and 1 that averaged 230 ppm Mo. Half the cows on the Mo pastures were supplemented with 17 ppm dietary Cu, the other half with the dietary supplement plus Cu boluses. Molybdenum effects were anticipated in the groups supplemented with 17 ppm Cu; however, despite increased tissue concentrations of Mo, only the 230 ppm Mo/17 ppm Cu group exhibited any effects. Moderate Cu supplementation permitted cows to graze a site heavily contaminated with Mo with no adverse effects on general health or reproduction.

Poisonings in reptiles

Reptiles are increasingly being kept as pets in American households. The basic principles of emergency medicine are the same for all species, but reptilian species present special diagnostic challenges to veterinary clinicians when they become ill. Reptiles in captivity can become accidentally poisoned in a variety of ways. Veterinarians treating small animal emergencies must make an effort to familiarize themselves with the large body of literature and resources that are developing regarding both nontraditional exotic companion species and advances in toxicology.

Diagnostic sampling and establishing a minimum database in exotic animal toxicology

A toxicologic diagnosis is based on knowledge of the circumstances surrounding a particular case, knowledge of the clinical symptomatology, receipt and evaluation of proper specimens by a qualified laboratory, and judicious interpretation of the laboratory results. Failure to have all necessary ingredients can result in a wrong or missed diagnosis. Many veterinary toxicology laboratories can detect suspected toxicants in feed, tissue, and environmental samples at extremely low concentrations. The ability to detect toxicants at such low levels has often outpaced the ability of the diagnostician to interpret the analytic findings. This article provides guidelines for acquiring a good history, collecting appropriate samples for analysis, and selecting a veterinary analytic laboratory to maximize the probability of making a correct toxicologic diagnosis.

Toxicology of ferrets

Because of their curious nature and small size, ferrets are at risk for various toxicoses. At present, there is not a great deal of information on specific toxicants in ferrets. This article initially reviews general consideration in treating poisoning in ferrets, such as obtaining history and decontamination. It then discusses some specific agents that appear to be common causes of poisoning in ferrets based on the experience of the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center.

Clinical toxicoses of domestic rabbits

Toxicoses are an uncommon presentation to rabbit practitioners; however, veterinarians who accept rabbits as patients should be familiar with the basic concepts of toxicosis management and the specific syndromes associated with clinical toxicoses. The objective of this article is to present clinically relevant information for veterinarians presented with rabbits exhibiting characteristic signs of toxicosis. In addition, specific mention is made to the most common clinical toxicoses, including lead, chemicals, rodenticides, aflatoxins, and poisonous plants.

Waterfowl toxicology: a review

Waterfowl populations may serve as sentinel species for natural and anthropogenic toxicologic problems in the environment. Unfortunately, many toxins cause nonspecific clinical signs, acute mortality, and subtle or no pathologic changes, making toxicologic investigations extremely difficult. The purpose of this article is to review important waterfowl toxins, including heavy metals, pesticides, botulism, mycotoxins, algal toxins, and petroleum oil. When applicable, clinical signs, diagnosis, pathologic findings, and treatment are discussed. Although most of the information in the literature is based on wild waterfowl populations or experimental toxicologic investigations, the information is also applicable to captive waterfowl populations.

Raptor toxicology

Birds of prey have demonstrated the negative impact that toxic agents can cause on animal populations and ecosystem dynamics. Lead, cholinesterase inhibitors (eg, organophosphates, carbamates), and anticoagulant rodenticides (eg, brodifacoum) are the most common toxic agents that currently affect the health of wild birds of prey in the United States. For raptors held in captivity, the list of toxic agents expands and includes toxic inhalants such as carbon monoxide and polytetrafluoroethylene. This article provides diagnostic and treatment guidelines for the toxic agents discussed.

Relationship of the toxicity of pesticide formulations and their commercial restrictions with the frequency of animal poisonings

Deliberate poisoning of domestic animals and wildlife with commercial formulations of pesticides has been documented worldwide. We have compiled the analytical results obtained by four Spanish Laboratories of Veterinary Toxicology since 1990. The frequency of poisonings and the intentional use of pesticides were compared between formulations with restricted and unrestricted use, including the toxicity of the commercial formulations as a covariant in the model. The frequency of poisoning was inversely related with the lethal dose of specific formulations, but not with the amounts consumed in agriculture in Spain. The intentional illegal use of some pesticides as poisons was not affected by the commercial restriction of their formulations, but was inversely correlated with their LD(50). The examination of the data permits us to detect three highly toxic compounds (aldicarb, carbofuran, and strychnine), more widely implicated in animal poisonings than other compounds of similar toxicity.

[Poisonings with anticoagulant rodenticides]

Anticoagulant rodenticides are commonly used in extermination of rodents. Failure to adhere to safety principles and sometimes a deliberate use of these compounds may be a reason of severe poisonings in human. Diagnosis is based on a characteristic clinical course of the disease and postmortem examinations.

Copper toxicosis in a dairy goat herd

CASE DESCRIPTION

A closed herd of 400 mixed-breed dairy goats was examined because of a decrease in milk production and increase in mortality rate. Nine animals had died within a 1-month period.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

Clinical signs were evident only in lactating goats and included anorexia and recumbency. In the most severely affected goats, signs progressed to neurologic abnormalities and death. Serum aspartate aminotransferase activity, gamma-glutamyltransferase activity, and total bilirubin concentration were high in clinically affected does, but no evidence of hemolysis was found. A diagnosis of copper toxicosis was made on the basis of high liver and kidney copper concentrations and histologic evidence of hepatic necrosis. Goats were found to have been fed a mineral mix containing 3,050 ppm copper for 9 months prior to the onset of copper toxicosis. Overall, there was no consistent relationship between serum hepatic enzyme activities, serum copper concentration, and liver copper concentration.

TREATMENT AND OUTCOME

Clinically affected goats were treated with penicillamine, ammonium molybdate, sodium thiosulfate, and vitamin E. Penicillamine increased urine copper excretion in treated does versus untreated control animals. An increased incidence of infectious disease was identified in the herd 9 months later. Liver vitamin E concentration was low in 10 of the 12 goats that underwent necropsy.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Findings suggested that penicillamine may be an effective treatment for goats with copper toxicosis. Production losses months after the diagnosis was made suggested that the intoxication had a prolonged animal welfare and economic impacts.

Clinical effects and outcome of feline permethrin spot-on poisonings reported to the Veterinary Poisons Information Service (VPIS), London

Permethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide used in dermally applied spot-on flea treatments for dogs. Permethrin-based spot-on preparations are contraindicated in cats because of the high risk of toxicosis. The Veterinary Poisons Information Service (VPIS) is a 24-h access telephone service that provides veterinary professionals in the United Kingdom with information on the management of poisoned animals. In a review of 286 cases reported to the VPIS regarding inappropriate feline exposure to permethrin spot-on (PSO) preparations, 96.9% were symptomatic. Increased muscular activity (as evidenced by twitching, tremor, muscle fasciculations or convulsions) was common and occurred in 87.8% of cases. The duration of increased muscle activity was long, with convulsions lasting on average 38.9 h and tremors 32 h. Recovery typically occurred within 2 to 3 days but in some cases took 5 to 7 days. Death occurred in 10.5% of cases.

Clinical, neurological and clinicopathological signs, treatment and outcome of metaldehyde intoxication in 18 dogs

OBJECTIVES

To describe the clinical signs, clinicopathological abnormalities and outcome of metaldehyde intoxication in dogs.

METHODS

Medical records of dogs presenting between 1989 and 2005 with a diagnosis of metaldehyde toxicity were reviewed retrospectively. Data obtained from the medical record included signalment, history, clinical signs, laboratory tests results, hospitalisation period length, treatments and outcome.

RESULTS

Eighteen dogs fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The most prevalent clinical signs were seizures, hyperthermia, tachycardia and muscle tremors. Serum biochemistry abnormalities included increased serum muscle enzymes activities, acidaemia (six dogs) and decreased blood bicarbonate (eight dogs). Treatment was symptomatic and supportive. Hyperbilirubinaemia was observed in two dogs. Diazepam was the most commonly used anticonvulsant followed by phenobarbitone and pentobarbital. General inhalant anaesthesia was required in nine of 18 dogs with seizures unresponsive to anticonvulsants. The survival was 83 per cent (15 of 18 dogs).

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This clinical study recorded, for the first time in the veterinary literature, several clinicopathological abnormalities from severely intoxicated dogs. Metabolic acidosis was common, while acute or delayed hepatotoxicity was an uncommon complication.

Taxus sp. intoxication in three Francois' langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi)

Three Francois' langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) were found dead, without previous clinical signs, over a 48-hour period at a zoological institution after transfer to a new exhibit. A hybrid yew shrub (Taxus baccata X T. cuspidata) was found in close proximity to the exhibit perimeter fence. Despite clinical suspicion of yew intoxication, thin-layer chromatography performed on gastric contents was negative. However, microscopic examination of gastric contents revealed multiple yew fragments, and taxine alkaloids were detected by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry of the gastric contents to confirm yew intoxication. Acute death of the animals prevented treatment. The fourth langur in the collection survived, most likely because of its low rank in the troop's hierarchy, with a suspected small amount or none of the plant ingested. To the authors' knowledge, this case report is the first yew intoxication documented in a nonhuman primate species. Taxus spp. intoxication is an often fatal condition reported in domestic animals and humans. In comparison with these species, mortality appeared delayed in the Francois' langurs, most likely because of their unique gastrointestinal anatomy, with both foregut and colonic fermentation. Plant intoxication should be a differential diagnosis when multiple acute deaths are observed after recent introduction to a new enclosure.

Zinc intoxication in dogs: 19 cases (1991–2003)

OBJECTIVE

To determine physical examination findings, clinicopathologic changes, and prognosis in dogs with zinc toxicosis.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

ANIMALS

19 dogs with zinc toxicosis.

PROCEDURES

Medical records from 1991 through 2003 were searched for animals with a diagnosis of zinc toxicosis. Information concerning signalment, body weight, historical findings, initial owner complaints, physical examination findings, clinicopathologic findings, blood zinc concentrations, source of zinc, treatments given, duration of hospital stay, and outcome was collected.

RESULTS

Records of 19 dogs with zinc toxicosis were reviewed. The most common historical findings were vomiting (n = 14) and pigmenturia (12). The most common clinicopathologic findings were anemia (n = 19) and hyperbilirubinemia (12). Median age was 1.3 years, and median weight was 5.6 kg (12.3 lb). The prognosis was favorable, with 17 dogs surviving after a median hospital stay of 2 days.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Hemolytic anemia as a result of zinc toxicosis appeared to affect young small-breed dogs more frequently than older large-breed dogs. The prognosis with treatment is good, and most affected dogs had a short hospital stay.

Pesticides and the intoxication of wild animals

Pesticides are widely used to control agricultural pests. Unfortunately, because of their biological activity, they may have detrimental effects on nontarget species. Acute toxicity, resulting in death, is reported worldwide. Although chronic and indirect effects may be even more hazardous for animal populations on a long-term basis, they are usually evaluated as parts of research programs. The purpose of this paper was to review the wildlife-poisoning surveillance systems and their results regarding the circumstances of exposure of wild animals, the pesticides involved and the species exposed. Most data are retrieved from the British and French pesticide poisoning surveillance systems in wildlife, with some data from other European structures.

Determination of colchicine residues in sheep serum and milk using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with electrospray ionization ion trap tandem mass spectrometry

Colchicine is a naturally occurring alkaloid used in human and veterinary medicine. It shows genotoxicity in in vitro and in vivo systems even at low concentrations. Therefore, no ADI has been established, and colchicine has been included in Annex IV of Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2377/90. No abuse of this drug in intensive livestock farming has yet been reported. However, there may be a natural route of entry for this compound into the food chain when Colchicum autumnale is consumed by animals kept outdoors. To address this concern, we developed and validated a highly sensitive and selective quantitative LC-ESI-MS-MS method for the detection of colchicine in sheep serum and milk. For sample pretreatment, all samples were liquid-liquid extracted with phosphate buffer (pH 8.0) and dichloromethane. LC separation was carried out on an RP C18 column employing a 0.5% formic acid/acetonitrile gradient system. The recoveries in both matrixes at a concentration range from 0.0005 to 1 mg/L were >80% with RSDs of <10%. The applicability of the method was demonstrated in serum and the corresponding milk samples from Albanian sheep. After exposure to C. autumnale, the animals showed clinical signs of intoxication. Significant concentrations (up to 1 mg/L) of the drug were found in serum as well as in milk samples.

Cyanide poisoning deaths in dogs

In 2005, the deaths of three dogs were reported in Erdek, Turkey. Examining appropriate historical and clinical signs, postmortem findings and the discovery of cyanide in their stomachs and intestinal contents and livers supported a diagnosis of cyanide poisoning.