The M3 muscarinic receptor is required for optimal adaptive immunity to helminth and bacterial infection

Innate immunity is regulated by cholinergic signalling through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We show here that signalling through the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3R) plays an important role in adaptive immunity to both Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, as M3R-/- mice were impaired in their ability to resolve infection with either pathogen. CD4 T cell activation and cytokine production were reduced in M3R-/- mice. Immunity to secondary infection with N. brasiliensis was severely impaired, with reduced cytokine responses in M3R-/- mice accompanied by lower numbers of mucus-producing goblet cells and alternatively activated macrophages in the lungs. Ex vivo lymphocyte stimulation of cells from intact BALB/c mice infected with N. brasiliensis and S. typhimurium with muscarinic agonists resulted in enhanced production of IL-13 and IFN-γ respectively, which was blocked by an M3R-selective antagonist. Our data therefore indicate that cholinergic signalling via the M3R is essential for optimal Th1 and Th2 adaptive immunity to infection.

Virus-Mediated Expression of DREADDs for In Vivo Metabolic Studies

During the past few years, CNO-sensitive designer G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) known as DREADDs (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs) have emerged as powerful new tools for the study of GPCR physiology. In this chapter, we present protocols employing adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) to express a Gq-coupled DREADD (Dq) in two metabolically important cell types, AgRP neurons of the hypothalamus and hepatocytes of the liver. We also provide examples dealing with the metabolic analysis of the Dq mutant mice after administration of CNO in vivo. The approaches described in this chapter can be applied to other members of the DREADD family and, of course, different cell types. It is likely that the use of DREADD technology will identify physiologically important signaling pathways that can be targeted for therapeutic purposes.

Muscarinic M3 receptors on structural cells regulate cigarette smoke-induced neutrophilic airway inflammation in mice

Anticholinergics, blocking the muscarinic M3 receptor, are effective bronchodilators for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Recent evidence from M(3) receptor-deficient mice (M(3)R(-/-)) indicates that M3 receptors also regulate neutrophilic inflammation in response to cigarette smoke (CS). M(3) receptors are present on almost all cell types, and in this study we investigated the relative contribution of M(3) receptors on structural cells vs. inflammatory cells to CS-induced inflammation using bone marrow chimeric mice. Bone marrow chimeras (C56Bl/6 mice) were generated, and engraftment was confirmed after 10 wk. Thereafter, irradiated and nonirradiated control animals were exposed to CS or fresh air for four consecutive days. CS induced a significant increase in neutrophil numbers in nonirradiated and irradiated control animals (4- to 35-fold). Interestingly, wild-type animals receiving M(3)R(-/-) bone marrow showed a similar increase in neutrophil number (15-fold). In contrast, no increase in the number of neutrophils was observed in M3R(-/-) animals receiving wild-type bone marrow. The increase in keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC) levels was similar in all smoke-exposed groups (2.5- to 5.0-fold). Microarray analysis revealed that fibrinogen-α and CD177, both involved in neutrophil migration, were downregulated in CS-exposed M(3)R(-/-) animals receiving wild-type bone marrow compared with CS-exposed wild-type animals, which was confirmed by RT-qPCR (1.6-2.5 fold). These findings indicate that the M(3) receptor on structural cells plays a proinflammatory role in CS-induced neutrophilic inflammation, whereas the M(3) receptor on inflammatory cells does not. This effect is probably not mediated via KC release, but may involve altered adhesion and transmigration of neutrophils via fibrinogen-α and CD177.

Selective activation of M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors reverses MK-801-induced behavioral impairments and enhances associative learning in rodents

Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) represent a novel approach for the treatment of psychotic symptoms associated with schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders. We recently reported that the selective M4 PAM VU0152100 produced an antipsychotic drug-like profile in rodents after amphetamine challenge. Previous studies suggest that enhanced cholinergic activity may also improve cognitive function and reverse deficits observed with reduced signaling through the N-methyl-d-aspartate subtype of the glutamate receptor (NMDAR) in the central nervous system. Prior to this study, the M1 mAChR subtype was viewed as the primary candidate for these actions relative to the other mAChR subtypes. Here we describe the discovery of a novel M4 PAM, VU0467154, with enhanced in vitro potency and improved pharmacokinetic properties relative to other M4 PAMs, enabling a more extensive characterization of M4 actions in rodent models. We used VU0467154 to test the hypothesis that selective potentiation of M4 receptor signaling could ameliorate the behavioral, cognitive, and neurochemical impairments induced by the noncompetitive NMDAR antagonist MK-801. VU0467154 produced a robust dose-dependent reversal of MK-801-induced hyperlocomotion and deficits in preclinical models of associative learning and memory functions, including the touchscreen pairwise visual discrimination task in wild-type mice, but failed to reverse these stimulant-induced deficits in M4 KO mice. VU0467154 also enhanced the acquisition of both contextual and cue-mediated fear conditioning when administered alone in wild-type mice. These novel findings suggest that M4 PAMs may provide a strategy for addressing the more complex affective and cognitive disruptions associated with schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders.

Muscarinic M₃ receptors contribute to allergen-induced airway remodeling in mice

Asthma is a chronic obstructive airway disease, characterized by inflammation and remodeling. Acetylcholine contributes to symptoms by inducing bronchoconstriction via the muscarinic M3 receptor. Recent evidence suggests that bronchoconstriction can regulate airway remodeling, and therefore implies a role for the muscarinic M3 receptor. The objective of this work was to study the contribution of the muscarinic M3 receptor to allergen-induced remodeling using muscarinic M3 receptor subtype-deficient (M3R(-/-)) mice. Wild-type (WT), M1R(-/-), and M2R(-/-) mice were used as controls. C57Bl/6 mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (twice weekly for 4 wk). Control animals were challenged with saline. Allergen exposure induced goblet cell metaplasia, airway smooth muscle thickening (1.7-fold), pulmonary vascular smooth muscle remodeling (1.5-fold), and deposition of collagen I (1.7-fold) and fibronectin (1.6-fold) in the airway wall of WT mice. These effects were absent or markedly lower in M3R(-/-) mice (30-100%), whereas M1R(-/-) and M2R(-/-) mice responded similarly to WT mice. In addition, airway smooth muscle and pulmonary vascular smooth muscle mass were 35-40% lower in saline-challenged M3R(-/-) mice compared with WT mice. Interestingly, allergen-induced airway inflammation, assessed as infiltrated eosinophils and T helper type 2 cytokine expression, was similar or even enhanced in M3R(-/-) mice. Our data indicate that acetylcholine contributes to allergen-induced remodeling and smooth muscle mass via the muscarinic M3 receptor, and not via M1 or M2 receptors. No stimulatory role for muscarinic M3 receptors in allergic inflammation was observed, suggesting that the role of acetylcholine in remodeling is independent of the allergic inflammatory response, and may involve bronchoconstriction.

Antipsychotic drug-like effects of the selective M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator VU0152100

Accumulating evidence suggests that selective M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) activators may offer a novel strategy for the treatment of psychosis. However, previous efforts to develop selective M4 activators were unsuccessful because of the lack of M4 mAChR subtype specificity and off-target muscarinic adverse effects. We recently developed VU0152100, a highly selective M4 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) that exerts central effects after systemic administration. We now report that VU0152100 dose-dependently reverses amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion in rats and wild-type mice, but not in M4 KO mice. VU0152100 also blocks amphetamine-induced disruption of the acquisition of contextual fear conditioning and prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex. These effects were observed at doses that do not produce catalepsy or peripheral adverse effects associated with non-selective mAChR agonists. To further understand the effects of selective potentiation of M4 on region-specific brain activation, VU0152100 alone and in combination with amphetamine were evaluated using pharmacologic magnetic resonance imaging (phMRI). Key neural substrates of M4-mediated modulation of the amphetamine response included the nucleus accumbens (NAS), caudate-putamen (CP), hippocampus, and medial thalamus. Functional connectivity analysis of phMRI data, specifically assessing correlations in activation between regions, revealed several brain networks involved in the M4 modulation of amphetamine-induced brain activation, including the NAS and retrosplenial cortex with motor cortex, hippocampus, and medial thalamus. Using in vivo microdialysis, we found that VU0152100 reversed amphetamine-induced increases in extracellular dopamine levels in NAS and CP. The present data are consistent with an antipsychotic drug-like profile of activity for VU0152100. Taken together, these data support the development of selective M4 PAMs as a new approach to the treatment of psychosis and cognitive impairments associated with psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia.

Differential regulation of primary afferent input to spinal cord by muscarinic receptor subtypes delineated using knockout mice

Stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) inhibits nociceptive transmission at the spinal level. However, it is unclear how each mAChR subtype regulates excitatory synaptic input from primary afferents. Here we examined excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) of dorsal horn neurons evoked by dorsal root stimulation in spinal cord slices from wild-type and mAChR subtype knock-out (KO) mice. In wild-type mice, mAChR activation with oxotremorine-M decreased the amplitude of monosynaptic EPSCs in ∼67% of neurons but increased it in ∼10% of neurons. The inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M was attenuated by the M2/M4 antagonist himbacine in the majority of neurons, and the remaining inhibition was abolished by group II/III metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) antagonists in wild-type mice. In M2/M4 double-KO mice, oxotremorine-M inhibited monosynaptic EPSCs in significantly fewer neurons (∼26%) and increased EPSCs in significantly more neurons (33%) compared with wild-type mice. Blocking group II/III mGluRs eliminated the inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M in M2/M4 double-KO mice. In M2 single-KO and M4 single-KO mice, himbacine still significantly reduced the inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M. However, the inhibitory and potentiating effects of oxotremorine-M on EPSCs in M3 single-KO and M1/M3 double-KO mice were similar to those in wild-type mice. In M5 single-KO mice, oxotremorine-M failed to potentiate evoked EPSCs, and its inhibitory effect was abolished by himbacine. These findings indicate that activation of presynaptic M2 and M4 subtypes reduces glutamate release from primary afferents. Activation of the M5 subtype either directly increases primary afferent input or inhibits it through indirectly stimulating group II/III mGluRs.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor X-ray structures: potential implications for drug development

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists are widely used as bronchodilating drugs in pulmonary medicine. The therapeutic efficacy of these agents depends on the blockade of M3 muscarinic receptors expressed on airway smooth muscle cells. All muscarinic antagonists currently used as bronchodilating agents show high affinity for all five muscarinic receptor subtypes, thus increasing the likelihood of unwanted side effects. Recent X-ray crystallographic studies have provided detailed structural information about the nature of the orthosteric muscarinic binding site (the conventional acetylcholine binding site) and an 'outer' receptor cavity that can bind allosteric (non-orthosteric) drugs. These new findings should guide the development of selective M3 receptor blockers that have little or no effect on other muscarinic receptor subtypes.

Genome-wide association mapping of acute lung injury in neonatal inbred mice

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to the pathogenesis of many acute and chronic pulmonary disorders, including bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a respiratory condition that affects preterm infants. However, the mechanisms of susceptibility to oxidant stress in neonatal lungs are not completely understood. We evaluated the role of genetic background in response to oxidant stress in the neonatal lung by exposing mice from 36 inbred strains to hyperoxia (95% O2) for 72 h after birth. Hyperoxia-induced lung injury was evaluated by using bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) analysis and pathology. Statistically significant interstrain variation was found for BALF inflammatory cells and protein (heritability estimates range: 33.6-55.7%). Genome-wide association mapping using injury phenotypes identified quantitative trait loci (QTLs) on chromosomes 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7. Comparative mapping of the chromosome 6 QTLs identified Chrm2 (cholinergic receptor, muscarinic 2, cardiac) as a candidate susceptibility gene, and mouse strains with a nonsynonymous coding single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in Chrm2 that causes an amino acid substitution (P265L) had significantly reduced hyperoxia-induced inflammation compared to strains without the SNP. Further, hyperoxia-induced lung injury was significantly reduced in neonatal mice with targeted deletion of Chrm2, relative to wild-type controls. This study has important implications for understanding the mechanisms of oxidative lung injury in neonates.

Role of the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype in murine ophthalmic arteries after endothelial removal

PURPOSE

We tested the hypothesis that the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype mediates cholinergic responses in murine ophthalmic arteries after endothelial removal.

METHODS

Muscarinic receptor gene expression was determined in ophthalmic arteries with intact and with removed endothelium using real-time PCR. To examine the role of the M3 receptor in mediating vascular responses, ophthalmic arteries from M3 receptor-deficient mice (M3R(-/-)) and respective wild-type controls were studied in vitro. Functional studies were performed in nonpreconstricted arteries with either intact or removed endothelium using video microscopy.

RESULTS

In endothelium-intact ophthalmic arteries, mRNA for all five muscarinic receptor subtypes was detected, but M3 receptor mRNA was most abundant. In endothelium-removed ophthalmic arteries, M1, M2, and M3 receptors displayed similar mRNA expression levels, which were higher than those for M4 and M5 receptors. In functional studies, acetylcholine evoked vasoconstriction in endothelium-removed arteries from wild-type mice that was virtually abolished after incubation with the muscarinic receptor blocker atropine, indicative of the involvement of muscarinic receptors. In concentration-response experiments, acetylcholine and carbachol concentration-dependently constricted endothelium-removed ophthalmic arteries from wild-type mice, but produced only negligible responses in arteries from M3R(-/-) mice. In contrast, acetylcholine concentration-dependently dilated ophthalmic arteries with intact endothelium from wild-type mice, but not from M3R(-/-) mice. Responses to the nitric oxide donor nitroprusside and to KCl did not differ between ophthalmic arteries from wild-type and M3R(-/-) mice, neither in endothelium-intact nor in endothelium-removed arteries.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide evidence that in murine ophthalmic arteries the muscarinic M3 receptor subtype mediates cholinergic endothelium-dependent vasodilation and endothelium-independent vasoconstriction.

Novel structural and functional insights into M3 muscarinic receptor dimer/oligomer formation

Class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are able to form homodimers and/or oligomeric arrays. We recently proposed, based on bioluminescence resonance energy transfer studies with the M3 muscarinic receptor (M3R), a prototypic class A GPCR, that the M3R is able to form multiple, structurally distinct dimers that are probably transient in nature (McMillin, S. M., Heusel, M., Liu, T., Costanzi, S., and Wess, J. (2011) J. Biol. Chem. 286, 28584-28598). To provide more direct experimental support for this concept, we employed a disulfide cross-linking strategy to trap various M3R dimeric species present in a native lipid environment (transfected COS-7 cells). Disulfide cross-linking studies were carried out with many mutant M3Rs containing single cysteine (Cys) substitutions within two distinct cytoplasmic M3R regions, the C-terminal portion of the second intracellular loop (i2) and helix H8 (H8). The pattern of cross-links that we obtained, in combination with molecular modeling studies, was consistent with the existence of two structurally distinct M3R dimer interfaces, one involving i2/i2 contacts (TM4-TM5-i2 interface) and the other one characterized by H8-H8 interactions (TM1-TM2-H8 interface). Specific H8-H8 disulfide cross-links led to significant impairments in M3R-mediated G protein activation, suggesting that changes in the structural orientation or mobility of H8 are critical for efficient receptor-G protein coupling. Our findings provide novel structural and functional insights into the mechanisms involved in M3R dimerization (oligomerization). Because the M3R shows a high degree of sequence similarity with many other class A GPCRs, our findings should be of considerable general interest.

A novel experimental strategy to assess the metabolic effects of selective activation of a G(q)-coupled receptor in hepatocytes in vivo

Increased hepatic glucose production is a key pathophysiological feature of type 2 diabetes. Like all other cell types, hepatocytes express many G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are linked to different functional classes of heterotrimeric G proteins. The important physiological functions mediated by G(s)-coupled hepatic glucagon receptors are well-documented. In contrast, little is known about the in vivo physiological roles of hepatocyte GPCRs that are linked to G proteins of the G(q) family. To address this issue, we established a transgenic mouse line (Hep-Rq mice) that expressed a G(q)-linked designer receptor (Rq) in a hepatocyte-selective fashion. Importantly, Rq could no longer bind endogenous ligands but could be selectively activated by a synthetic drug, clozapine-N-oxide. Clozapine-N-oxide treatment of Hep-Rq mice enabled us to determine the metabolic consequences caused by selective activation of a G(q)-coupled GPCR in hepatocytes in vivo. We found that acute Rq activation in vivo led to pronounced increases in blood glucose levels, resulting from increased rates of glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis. We also demonstrated that the expression of the V(1b) vasopressin receptor, a G(q)-coupled receptor expressed by hepatocytes, was drastically increased in livers of ob/ob mice, a mouse model of diabetes. Strikingly, treatment of ob/ob mice with a selective V(1b) receptor antagonist led to reduced glucose excursions in a pyruvate challenge test. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of G(q)-coupled receptors in regulating hepatic glucose fluxes and suggest novel receptor targets for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Novel insights into M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor physiology and structure

Recent studies with M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3R) mutant mice suggest that drugs selectively targeting this receptor subtype may prove useful for the treatment of various pathophysiological conditions. Moreover, the use of M3R-based designer G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has provided novel insights into how Gq-coupled GPCRs can modulate whole-body glucose homeostasis by acting on specific peripheral cell types. More recently, we succeeded in using X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of the M3R bound to the bronchodilating drug tiotropium, a muscarinic antagonist (inverse agonist). This new structural information should facilitate the development of orthosteric or allosteric M3R-selective drugs that are predicted to have considerable therapeutic potential.

Muscarinic receptors as model targets and antitargets for structure-based ligand discovery

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate virtually all aspects of human physiology and represent an important class of therapeutic drug targets. Many GPCR-targeted drugs resemble endogenous agonists, often resulting in poor selectivity among receptor subtypes and restricted pharmacologic profiles. The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor family exemplifies these problems; thousands of ligands are known, but few are receptor subtype-selective and nearly all are cationic in nature. Using structure-based docking against the M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors, we screened 3.1 million molecules for ligands with new physical properties, chemotypes, and receptor subtype selectivities. Of 19 docking-prioritized molecules tested against the M2 subtype, 11 had substantial activity and 8 represented new chemotypes. Intriguingly, two were uncharged ligands with low micromolar to high nanomolar Ki values, an observation with few precedents among aminergic GPCRs. To exploit a single amino-acid substitution among the binding pockets between the M2 and M3 receptors, we selected molecules predicted by docking to bind to the M3 and but not the M2 receptor. Of 16 molecules tested, 8 bound to the M3 receptor. Whereas selectivity remained modest for most of these, one was a partial agonist at the M3 receptor without measurable M2 agonism. Consistent with this activity, this compound stimulated insulin release from a mouse β-cell line. These results support the ability of structure-based discovery to identify new ligands with unexplored chemotypes and physical properties, leading to new biologic functions, even in an area as heavily explored as muscarinic pharmacology.

Direct-pathway striatal neurons regulate the retention of decision-making strategies

The dorsal striatum has been implicated in reward-based decision making, but the role played by specific striatal circuits in these processes is essentially unknown. Using cell phenotype-specific viral vectors to express engineered G-protein-coupled DREADD (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs) receptors, we enhanced Gi/o- or Gs-protein-mediated signaling selectively in direct-pathway (striatonigral) neurons of the dorsomedial striatum in Long-Evans rats during discrete periods of training of a high versus low reward-discrimination task. Surprisingly, these perturbations had no impact on reward preference, task performance, or improvement of performance during training. However, we found that transiently increasing Gi/o signaling during training significantly impaired the retention of task strategies used to maximize reward obtainment during subsequent preference testing, whereas increasing Gs signaling produced the opposite effect and significantly enhanced the encoding of a high-reward preference in this decision-making task. Thus, the fact that the endurance of this improved performance was significantly altered over time-long after these neurons were manipulated-indicates that it is under bidirectional control of canonical G-protein-mediated signaling in striatonigral neurons during training. These data demonstrate that cAMP-dependent signaling in direct-pathway neurons play a well-defined role in reward-related behavior; that is, they modulate the plasticity required for the retention of task-specific information that is used to improve performance on future renditions of the task.

Minireview: Novel aspects of M3 muscarinic receptor signaling in pancreatic β-cells

The release of insulin from pancreatic β-cells is regulated by a considerable number of G protein-coupled receptors. During the past several years, we have focused on the physiological importance of β-cell M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M3Rs). At the molecular level, the M3R selectively activates G proteins of the G(q) family. Phenotypic analysis of several M3R mutant mouse models, including a mouse strain that lacks M3Rs only in pancreatic β-cells, indicated that β-cell M3Rs play a key role in maintaining blood glucose levels within a normal range. Additional studies with transgenic M3R mouse models strongly suggest that strategies aimed to enhance signaling through β-cell M3Rs may prove useful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. More recently, we analyzed transgenic mice that expressed an M3R-based designer receptor in a β-cell-specific fashion, which enabled us to chronically activate a β-cell G(q)-coupled receptor by a drug that is otherwise pharmacologically inert. Drug-dependent activation of this designer receptor stimulated the sequential activation of G(q), phospholipase C, ERK1/2, and insulin receptor substrate 2 signaling, thus triggering a series of events that greatly improved β-cell function. Most importantly, chronic stimulation of this pathway protected mice against experimentally induced diabetes and glucose intolerance, induced either by streptozotocin or by the consumption of an energy-rich, high-fat diet. Because β-cells are endowed with numerous receptors that mediate their cellular effects via activation of G(q)-type G proteins, these findings provide a rational basis for the development of novel antidiabetic drugs targeting this class of receptors.

Novel designer receptors to probe GPCR signaling and physiology

Muscarinic receptor-based designer receptors have emerged as powerful novel tools to study G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling and physiology. These new designer GPCRs, which are most frequently referred to as DREADDs (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drug), are unable to bind acetylcholine, the endogenous muscarinic receptor agonist, but can be activated by clozapine-N-oxide (CNO), an otherwise pharmacologically inert compound, with high potency and efficacy. The various DREADDs differ primarily in their G protein coupling preference. More recently, an arrestin-biased DREADD has also been developed. The expression of DREADDs in distinct tissues or cell types has enabled researchers to study the outcome of selective stimulation of distinct GPCR (or arrestin) signaling pathways in a temporally and spatially controlled fashion in vivo. In this review, we provide an up-to-date snapshot of where this field currently stands and which important novel insights have been gained using this new technology.

A Gαs DREADD mouse for selective modulation of cAMP production in striatopallidal neurons

Here, we describe a newly generated transgenic mouse in which the Gs DREADD (rM3Ds), an engineered G protein-coupled receptor, is selectively expressed in striatopallidal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). We first show that in vitro, rM3Ds can couple to Gαolf and induce cAMP accumulation in cultured neurons and HEK-T cells. The rM3Ds was then selectively and stably expressed in striatopallidal neurons by creating a transgenic mouse in which an adenosine2A (adora2a) receptor-containing bacterial artificial chromosome was employed to drive rM3Ds expression. In the adora2A-rM3Ds mouse, activation of rM3Ds by clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) induces DARPP-32 phosphorylation, consistent with the known consequence of activation of endogenous striatal Gαs-coupled GPCRs. We then tested whether CNO administration would produce behavioral responses associated with striatopallidal Gs signaling and in this regard CNO dose-dependently decreases spontaneous locomotor activity and inhibits novelty induced locomotor activity. Last, we show that CNO prevented behavioral sensitization to amphetamine and increased AMPAR/NMDAR ratios in transgene-expressing neurons of the nucleus accumbens shell. These studies demonstrate the utility of adora2a-rM3Ds transgenic mice for the selective and noninvasive modulation of Gαs signaling in specific neuronal populations in vivo.This unique tool provides a new resource for elucidating the roles of striatopallidal MSN Gαs signaling in other neurobehavioral contexts.

Chronic activation of a designer G(q)-coupled receptor improves β cell function

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) has emerged as a major threat to human health in most parts of the world. Therapeutic strategies aimed at improving pancreatic β cell function are predicted to prove beneficial for the treatment of T2D. In the present study, we demonstrate that drug-mediated, chronic, and selective activation of β cell G(q) signaling greatly improve β cell function and glucose homeostasis in mice. These beneficial metabolic effects were accompanied by the enhanced expression of many genes critical for β cell function, maintenance, and differentiation. By employing a combination of in vivo and in vitro approaches, we identified a novel β cell pathway through which receptor-activated G(q) leads to the sequential activation of ERK1/2 and IRS2 signaling, thus triggering a series of events that greatly improve β cell function. Importantly, we found that chronic stimulation of a designer G(q)-coupled receptor selectively expressed in β cells prevented both streptozotocin-induced diabetes and the metabolic deficits associated with the consumption of a high-fat diet in mice. Since β cells are endowed with numerous receptors that mediate their cellular effects via activation of G(q)-type G proteins, our findings provide a rational basis for the development of novel antidiabetic drugs targeting this class of receptors.

Muscarinic receptor subtype-specific effects on cigarette smoke-induced inflammation in mice

Cholinergic tone contributes to airflow obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Accordingly, anticholinergics are effective bronchodilators by blocking the muscarinic M3 receptor on airway smooth muscle. Recent evidence indicates that acetylcholine also contributes to airway inflammation. However, which muscarinic receptor subtype(s) regulates this process is unknown. In this study, the contribution of the M1, M2 and M3 receptor subtypes to cigarette smoke-induced airway inflammation was investigated by exposing muscarinic receptor subtype deficient mice to cigarette smoke for 4 days. In wild-type mice, cigarette smoke induced an increase in macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Neutrophilic inflammation was higher in M1(-/-) and M2(-/-) mice compared to wild-type mice, but lower in M3(-/-) mice. Accordingly, the release of keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and interleukin-6 was higher in M1(-/-) and M2(-/-) mice, and reduced in M3(-/-) mice. Markers of remodelling were not increased after cigarette smoke exposure. However, M3(-/-) mice had reduced expression of transforming growth factor-β1 and matrix proteins. Cigarette smoke-induced inflammatory cell recruitment and KC release were also prevented by the M3-receptor selective antagonist 1-dimethyl-4-diphenylacetoxypiperidinium iodide (4-DAMP) in wild-type mice. Collectively, our data indicate a pro-inflammatory role for the M3 receptor in cigarette smoke-induced neutrophilia and cytokine release, yet an anti-inflammatory role for M1 and M2 receptors.

Inhibition of leptin regulation of parasympathetic signaling as a cause of extreme body weight-associated asthma

Impaired lung function caused by decreased airway diameter (bronchoconstriction) is frequently observed whether body weight is abnormally high or low. That these opposite conditions affect the airways similarly suggests that the regulation of airway diameter and body weight are intertwined. We show here that, independently of its regulation of appetite, melanocortin pathway, or sympathetic tone, leptin is necessary and sufficient to increase airway diameter by signaling through its cognate receptor in cholinergic neurons. The latter decreases parasympathetic signaling through the M(3) muscarinic receptor in airway smooth muscle cells, thereby increasing airway diameter without affecting local inflammation. Accordingly, decreasing parasympathetic tone genetically or pharmacologically corrects bronchoconstriction and normalizes lung function in obese mice regardless of bronchial inflammation. This study reveals an adipocyte-dependent regulation of bronchial diameter whose disruption contributes to the impaired lung function caused by abnormal body weight. These findings may be of use in the management of obesity-associated asthma.

A heartfelt response: new thyroid hormone-sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus

Thyroid hormone is a well-known regulator of metabolic and cardiovascular functions, and signaling through thyroid receptors has differential effects on cells depending on the receptor isoform that they express. In this issue of the JCI, Mittag et al. provide evidence that thyroid hormone receptors are essential for the formation of a population of parvalbuminergic neurons in the anterior hypothalamus, linking, for the first time, impaired thyroid hormone signaling during development to cellular deficits in the hypothalamus. Since this newly discovered cell group is predicted to play a role in regulating cardiovascular function, these findings suggest that developmental hypothyroidism may be the cause of cardiovascular disorders later in life.