The role of black carbon as a catalyst for environmental redox transformation

Black carbon (BC) is an important class of geosorbents that control the fate and transport of organic pollutants in soil and sediment. We previously demonstrated a new role of BC as an electron transfer mediator in the abiotic reduction of nitroaromatic and nitramine compounds by Oh and Chiu (Environ Sci Technol 43:6983-6988, 2009). We proposed that BC can catalyze the reduction of nitro compounds because it contains microscopic graphitic (graphene) domains, which facilitate both sorption and electron transfer. In this study, we assessed the ability of different types of BC--graphite, activated carbon, and diesel soot--to mediate the reduction of 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT) and 2,4-dibromophenol (DBP) by H(2)S. All three types of BC enhanced DNT and DBP reduction. H(2)S supported BC-mediated reduction, as was observed previously with a thiol reductant. The results suggest that BC may influence the fate of organic pollutants in reducing subsurface environments through redox transformation in addition to sorption.

Comparative vibrational analysis of 1,2-Dinitro benzene and 1-Fluoro-3-nitro benzene: a combined experimental (FT-IR and FT-Raman) and theoretical study (DFT/B3LYP/B3PW91)

In this work, the comparative analysis is made on the structure and vibrational spectra of 1,2-Dinitro benzene (1,2-DNB) and 1-Fluoro-3-nitro benzene (1-F-3-NB) molecules. The FT-IR and FT-Raman experimental spectra of the molecules have been recorded using Bruker IFS 66 V spectrometer in the range of 4000-100 cm(-1). Making use of the recorded data, the complete vibrational assignments are made and analyses of the observed fundamental bands of molecules are carried out. The experimental determinations of vibrational frequencies are compared with those obtained theoretically from ab-initio Hartree-fock (HF) and DFT (B3LYP and B3PW91) methods with 6-31++G (d, p) and 6-311++G (d, p) basis sets. The differences between the observed and scaled wave number values of most of the fundamentals of the molecules are very small in B3LYP than HF. The geometries and normal modes of vibrations obtained from ab-initio HF and B3LYP/B3PW91 calculations are compared with the experimentally observed data. Comparison of the simulated spectra of the molecules provides important information regarding the difference and similarity of the vibrational characteristics between the molecules. The impact of substitutions on the structures between the molecules is also investigated.

Electrochemical characterization of riboflavin-enhanced reduction of trinitrotoluene

There is great interest in understanding trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene (DNT) contamination, detection and remediation in the environment due to TNT’s negative health effects and security implications. Numerous publications have focused on detecting TNT in groundwater using multiple techniques, including electrochemistry. The main degradation pathway of nitrotoluenes in the environment is reduction, frequently with biological and/or photolytic assistance. Riboflavin has also been noted to aid in TNT remediation in soils and groundwater when exposed to light. This report indicates that adding riboflavin to a TNT or DNT solution enhances redox currents in electrochemical experiments. Here AC voltammetry was performed and peak currents compared with and without riboflavin present. Results indicated that TNT, DNT and riboflavin could be detected using AC voltammetry on modified gold electrodes and the addition of riboflavin affected redox peaks of TNT and DNT. Poised potential experiments indicated that it is possible to enhance reduction of TNT in the presence of riboflavin and light. These results were dramatic enough to explain long term enhancement of bioremediation in environments containing high levels of riboflavin and enhance the limit of detection in electrochemically-based nitrotoluene sensing.

[Degradation effect and mechanism of 2,4-DNT by reduction-ZPF catalytic oxidation]

ZPF(zeoliteartificial pillared by alpha-FeOOH) which prepared in the laboratory and characterized by FTIR and XRD was used as catalyst, and was tested for its activity in catalytic H2O2, of 2,4-DNT, which is persistent and difficult to be degraded in groundwater. The degradation of 2,4-DNT was examined at different pHs in the reduction, catalytic oxidation and combination technology of reduction-catalytic oxidation reaction systems. Moreover, the removal effect of 2,4-DNT was compared by these three approaches and the catalytic oxidation mechanism was analyzed. The results demonstrated that the removal effect of 2,4-DNT reduced to 2,4-DAT was up to 96.6% in 120 min at pH = 5, which was 1.2, 2.0 times of the rate at pH 7, pH 9 respectively. The catalytic effect was various at different pHs and more significant when the pH close to the zero point of charge of alpha-FeOOH. The order of removal effect of 2,4-DNT at different pHs was pH = 7 > pH = 9 > pH = 5. Compared to single reduction or catalytic oxidation, the removal effect of combination technology was 57.4%, which was evidently improved on the base of 2,4-DNT reduced to 2,4-DAT. The degradation of 2,4-DNT in the presence of ZPF/H2O2 follows a first-order kinetic model and the k(obs) was 0.002 7 min(-1). Due to the concentration of dissolved Fe ion was far less than 0.07 mmol/L, the mechanism was heterogeneous Fenton reaction acting on the surface of the catalyst. Therefore the combination technology was superior to the single treatment of reduction or catalytic oxidation.

Spectrophotometric studies on the thermodynamic properties of charge-transfer complexes between m-DNB (1,3-dinitrobenzene) with aliphatic amines in DMSO and determination of the vertical electron affinity of m-DNB

1,3-Dinitrobenzene formed colored 1:1 complexes with aliphatic amines (chromogenic agents) like isopropylamine,ethylenediamine, tetraethylenepentamine and bis(3-aminopropyl)amine in DMSO having absorption maxima at 563 nm, 584 nm, 580.5 nm and 555 nm respectively. The complexes were stable for more than 24 h. The accurate association constants KAD and other thermodynamic parameters were determined with D and A usually in stoichiometric ratios. But in case of m-DNB and bis(3-aminopropyl)amine, the association constants KAD and the thermodynamic parameters were also determined using Benesi-Hildebrand equation to show the variations of KAD under different conditions. ΔG° values were found to be negative in all cases resulting from exothermic enthalpy changes and favourable entropy changes. The energies of transition for the CT complexes hνCT found experimentally were considerably different from the energies of transition (from HOMO of donor to LUMO of acceptor) calculated using AM1 but the differences were considerably reduced using DFT calculations. The vertical electron affinity of m-DNB was calculated using the method suggested by Mulliken. However, no FTIR measurements of the complexes could be made due to experimental limitations.

Cellular responses to patterned poly(acrylic acid) brushes

We use patterned poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) polymer brushes to explore the effects of surface chemistry and topography on cell-surface interactions. Most past studies of surface topography effects on cell adhesion have focused on patterned feature sizes that are larger than the dimensions of a cell, and PAA brushes have been characterized as cell repellent. Here we report cell adhesion studies for RBL mast cells incubated on PAA brush surfaces patterned with a variety of different feature sizes. We find that when patterned at subcellular dimensions on silicon surfaces, PAA brushes that are 30 or 15 nm thick facilitate cell adhesion. This appears to be mediated by fibronectin, which is secreted by the cells, adsorbing to the brushes and then engaging cell-surface integrins. The result is detectable accumulation of plasma membrane within the brushes, and this involves cytoskeletal remodeling at the cell-surface interface. By decreasing brush thickness, we find that PAA can be 'tuned' to promote cell adhesion with down-modulated membrane accumulation. We exemplify the utility of patterned PAA brush arrays for spatially controlling the activation of cells by modifying brushes with ligands that specifically engage IgE bound to high-affinity receptors on mast cells.

Impact of coal structural heterogeneity on the nonideal sorption of organic contaminants

Carbonaceous geosorbents (black carbon, coal, and humin/kerogen) play a primary role in the nonideal sorption (isotherm nonlinearity, hysteresis, and multiphasic kinetics) of hydrophobic organic chemicals by soils and sediments. The present study investigated the impact of coal structural heterogeneity on sorption/desorption of two model monoaromatic compounds (1,3-dichlorobenzene and 1,3-dinitrobenzene). Due to the higher degree of aromaticity and condensation, anthracite showed stronger sorption affinity and nonlinearity and slower sorption kinetics than lignite. Removal of humic substances by alkali extraction and/or mineral fraction by acidification did not much affect organic carbon-normalized sorption coefficient to the coal, suggesting nearly complete accessibility of adsorption sites on the condensed organic carbon. However, the treatments greatly increased sorption kinetics and meanwhile alleviated hysteresis of 1,3-dinitrobenzene, as compared with the original lignite. These observations were attributed to the enhanced exposure of high-energy adsorption sites on the condensed organic carbon after exfoliating the surface coverage by humic substances and minerals. An empirical biphasic pseudo-second-order model consisting of a fast sorption phase and a slow sorption phase adequately quantified the overall sorption kinetics for the coal sorbents. The results indicated that the condensed organic carbon, in combination with other structural components, controls the nonideal sorption of unburned coal.

Thermal hazard assessment of nitrobenzene/dinitrobenzene mixtures

During the production of nitrobenzene by an adiabatic nitration process, the main byproducts are mono and dinitrophenols as well as 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (picric acid) and 1,3-dinitrobenzene. The byproducts can become concentrated if a distillation step to remove high boiling point impurities is used. In the present work, representative samples of nitrobenzene containing 20-30% dinitrobenzene and less than 1% dinitrophenol, 1% picric acid, and 1% sodium hydroxide were tested by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Accelerating Rate Calorimetry (ARC) to investigate their thermal stability relative to the pure substances. The DSC thermal curves for pure nitrobenzene and the various nitrobenzene-dinitrobenzene mixtures exhibited exothermic activity from about 300 °C to 500 °C and enthalpy changes of about -2.5 × 10(3)Jg(-1), which is very energetic. The impurities (dinitrophenol, picric acid, and sodium hydroxide) had no significant effect on the DSC results. During the ARC experiments, the various nitrobenzene-dinitrobenzene mixtures were found to be less thermally stable than pure nitrobenzene and pure dinitrobenzene, with exotherms beginning in the 263-280 °C temperature range. Analysis of ARC data indicates that short-term exposure of nitrobenzene mixtures containing up to 20 mass% dinitrobenzene to temperatures up to 208 °C should not pose a serious runaway reaction hazard.

Sorption of apolar and polar organic contaminants by waste tire rubber and its chars in single- and bi-solute systems

Single- and bi-solute sorption of organic compounds [1,3-dichlorbenzene (DCB), 1,3-dinitrobenzene (DNB) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP)] on ground tire rubber and its chars was studied. The chars were prepared by pyrolyzing tire rubber at different temperatures (200-800 °C). Their surface area, aromaticity and hydrophobicity increase greatly with pyrolytic temperature, and the polymeric phase is partly converted into a condensed phase. The sorption of DNB and DCP increases with pyrolytic temperature and is characterized by a transition from a partition dominant to an adsorption dominant process. However, the sorption of DCB linearly decreases with the pyrolytic temperature. The enhanced adsorption of DNB and DCP on carbonized phase is primarily attributed to nonhydrophobic interactions such as π-π electron-donor-acceptor interactions and/or H bonding. The higher partition of DCB to polymeric phase is attributed to its high hydrophobicity. Competitive sorption between DCB and DCP on the tire chars is highly dependent on dissociation of the latter.

Evaluation of the dependence of aqueous solubility of nitro compounds on temperature and salinity: a COSMO-RS simulation

The solubility in pure and saline water at various temperatures was calculated for selected nitro compounds (nitrobenzene, 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, 2-nitrotoluene, 3-nitrotoluene, 4-nitrotoluene, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,6-dinitrotoluene, 2,3-dinitrotoluene, 3,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) using the Conductor-like Screening model for Real Solvents (COSMO-RS). The results obtained were compared with experimental values. The COSMO-RS predictions have shown high accuracy in reproducing the trends of aqueous solubilities for both temperature and salinity. The proposed methodology was then applied to predict the aqueous solubilities of 19 nitro compounds in the temperature range of 5-50°C in saline solutions. The salting-out parameters of the Setschenow equation were also calculated. The predicted salting-out parameters were overestimated when compared to the measured values, but these parameters can still be used for qualitative estimation of the trends.

Probing the specific sorption sites on montmorillonite using nitroaromatic compounds and hexafluorobenzene

The objective of this work was to test two possible sorption mechanisms of organic chemicals to montmorillonite: n-π electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) interaction with lone electron pairs of siloxane oxygens (n-donors) and complexation with exchangeable cations. Batch sorption experiments were performed for 1,3-dinitrobenzene, 1,4-dinitrobenzene (π-electron acceptors and cation binders), and hexafluorobenzene (π-electron acceptor only) to homoionic montmorillonites in water or hexane. For all three sorbates, the aqueous sorption affinity showed large cation dependency (Cs(+) > K(+) > Na(+)), wherein sorption of hexafluorobenzene to Cs(+)-montmorillonite was the strongest (K(d) in the order of 10(4) L/kg). Change of the solvent media from water to hexane generally favored sorption, indicating suppressive effect by cation hydration. Cosorption of 1,4-dinitrobenzene prominently decreased sorption of 1,3-dinitrobenzene to all cation-exchanged montmorillonites; however, hexafluorobenzene caused strong competition only to Cs(+)-montmorillonite. Furthermore, complexation of exchangeable cations by 18-crown-6 ether dramatically suppressed sorption of 1,3-dinitrobenzene to K(+)-montmorillonite in water and all cation-exchanged montmorillonites in hexane, but not to the rest. The contrast patterns of binary competitive sorption between nitroaromatics and hexafluorobenzene indicated they sorbed to different sites on montmorillonite. It was proposed that sorption of hexafluorobenzene was dominated by n-π EDA interaction, while sorption of nitroaromatics was dominated by cation-polar interaction.

Application of Box-Wilson experimental design method for 2,4-dinitrotoluene treatment in a sequential anaerobic migrating blanket reactor (AMBR)/aerobic completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) system

A sequential aerobic completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) following the anaerobic migrating blanket reactor (AMBR) was used to treat a synthetic wastewater containing 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT). A Box-Wilson statistical experiment design was used to determine the effects of 2,4-DNT and the hydraulic retention times (HRTs) on 2,4-DNT and COD removal efficiencies in the AMBR reactor. The 2,4-DNT concentrations in the feed (0-280 mg/L) and the HRT (0.5-10 days) were considered as the independent variables while the 2,4-DNT and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiencies, total and methane gas productions, methane gas percentage, pH, total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) and total volatile fatty acid/bicarbonate alkalinity (TVFA/Bic.Alk.) ratio were considered as the objective functions in the Box-Wilson statistical experiment design in the AMBR. The predicted data for the parameters given above were determined from the response functions by regression analysis of the experimental data and exhibited excellent agreement with the experimental results. The optimum HRT which gave the maximum COD (97.00%) and 2,4-DNT removal (99.90%) efficiencies was between 5 and 10 days at influent 2,4-DNT concentrations 1-280 mg/L in the AMBR. The aerobic CSTR was used for removals of residual COD remaining from the AMBR, and for metabolites of 2,4-DNT. The maximum COD removal efficiency was 99% at an HRT of 1.89 days at a 2,4-DNT concentration of 239 mg/L in the aerobic CSTR. It was found that 280 mg/L 2,4-DNT transformed to 2,4-diaminotoluene (2,4-DAT) via 2-amino-4-nitrotoluene (2-A-4-NT) and 4-amino-2-nitrotoluene (4-A-2-NT) in the AMBR. The maximum 2,4-DAT removal was 82% at an HRT of 8.61 days in the aerobic CSTR. The maximum total COD and 2,4-DNT removal efficiencies were 99.00% and 99.99%, respectively, at an influent 2,4-DNT concentration of 239 mg/L and at 1.89 days of HRT in the sequential AMBR/CSTR.

Laser chemosensor with rapid responsivity and inherent memory based on a polymer of intrinsic microporosity

This work explores the use of a polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM-1) as the active layer within a laser sensor to detect nitroaromatic-based explosive vapors. We show successful detection of dinitrobenzene (DNB) by monitoring the real-time photoluminescence. We also show that PIM-1 has an inherent memory, so that it accumulates the analyte during exposure. In addition, the optical gain and refractive index of the polymer were studied by amplified spontaneous emission and variable-angle ellipsometry, respectively. A second-order distributed feedback PIM-1 laser sensor was fabricated and found to show an increase in laser threshold of 2.5 times and a reduction of the laser slope efficiency by 4.4 times after a 5-min exposure to the DNB vapor. For pumping at 2 times threshold, the lasing action was stopped within 30 s indicating that PIM-1 has a very fast responsivity and as such has a potential sensing ability for ultra-low-concentration explosives.

Reactivity of lactate-modified nanoscale iron particles with 2,4-dinitrotoluene in soils

This paper investigates the reactivity of nanoscale iron particles (NIP) and lactate-modified NIP (LM-NIP) with 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), a representative munitions contaminant, in kaolin and field sand as representative low and high permeability soils, respectively. Aluminum lactate, a green compound, was selected as the modifier based on earlier studies which showed it to be an effective dispersant for enhanced transport of NIP in soils. Kaolin and sand were spiked at concentration of 920 and 740 mg/kg of DNT. Batch experiments were conducted with NIP and LM-NIP dosages of 1, 4, 10, 20, 50, 75 and 100 g/L for 24 h. The effect of reaction time was then evaluated using NIP and LM-NIP dosages of 4 g/L for 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 days. Higher NIP and LM-NIP dosages resulted in greater degradation of DNT in both soils. The DNT degradation ranged from 68% to 99% and 67% to 98% in kaolin and sand, respectively, with bare NIP, and it ranged from 65% to 99% and 59% to 98% in kaolin and sand, respectively with LM-NIP. The highest degradation was attained after 14 days in both soils. The reactivity of LM-NIP improved with time to levels as high as the reactivity of bare NIP.

Nitration of nitrobenzene in Fenton's processes

Previous studies of nitrobenzene (NB) degradation by Fenton and photo-Fenton technologies have demonstrated the formation and accumulation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB) as a highly toxic reaction intermediate. In the present study, we analyze the conditions that favor 1,3-DNB formation during NB degradation by Fe(2+)/H(2)O(2), Fe(3+)/H(2)O(2), UV/Fe(3+)/H(2)O(2) or UV/H(2)O(2) processes. Nitration yields in Fenton, Fenton-like and photo-Fenton techniques were much higher than those observed in UV/H(2)O(2) systems. Besides, several tests showed that 1,3-DNB formation increases with the initial iron concentration and decreases as the initial H(2)O(2) concentration increases. In order to asses the key species involved in NB nitration mechanism, additional experiments were performed in the presence of NO(2)(-)or NO(3)(-). In dark systems, 1,3-DNB yield significantly increased with increasing [NO(2)(-)]_(0), while it was not affected by the presence of NO(3)(-). In contrast, 1,3-DNB yields were higher and more strongly affected by the additive concentration in UV/NO(3)(-) systems than in UV/HNO(2)/NO(2)(-) systems. Dark experiments performed at pH 1.5 in excess of HNO(2) along with UV/NO(3)(-) tests conducted in the presence of 2-propanol show that hydroxyl radicals play an important role in NB nitration since NB molecule does not react with the nitrating agents ONOOH, .NO or .NO(2). The results indicate that, in the experimental domain tested, the prevailing NB nitration pathway involves the reaction between the .OH-NB adduct and .NO(2) radicals.

Effect of soil organic matter chemistry on sorption of trinitrotoluene and 2,4-dinitrotoluene

The sorption of organic contaminants in soil is mainly attributed to the soil organic matter (SOM) content. However, recent studies have highlighted the fact that it is not the total carbon content of the organic matter, but its chemical structure which have a profound effect on the sorption of organic contaminants. In the present study sorption of two nitroaromatic contaminants viz. trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) was studied in different SOM fractions viz. a commercial humic acid, commercial lignin and humic acid and humin extracted from a compost. (13)C-DP/MAS NMR studies indicated that the structural composition of the organic carbon in different SOM fractions was different. The order of sorption of the nitroaromatics in the different sorbents was: humic acid-commercial>humic acid-compost>humin approximately lignin. Among the aliphatic and aromatic carbon fractions (representing bulk of SOM matrix), adsorption parameter K(f)(1/n) for nitroaromatics sorption correlated well with the aliphatic carbon (r=0.791 for TNT and 0.829 for 2,4-DNT) than the aromatic carbon (r=0.634 for TNT and r=0.616 for 2,4-DNT). However, among carbon containing functional groups, carbonyl carbon showed strong positive correlation with sorption of TNT (r=0.991) and 2,4-DNT (r=0.967) while O-alkyl carbon showed negative correlation (r=0.832 for TNT and r=0.828 for 2,4-DNT). The study indicates that aliphatic domains in the SOM significantly affect the non-specific sorption of both the nitroaromatic contaminants.

Assessing TNT and DNT groundwater contamination by compound-specific isotope analysis and 3H-3He groundwater dating: a case study in Portugal

Trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene (DNT) originating from 50 years of explosives production have heavily contaminated two stacked aquifers in the vicinity of Lisboa, Portugal. To assess if these poly-nitroaromatic compounds (P-NACs) are being degraded in the subsurface, tracer-based groundwater dating techniques combined with compound-specific isotope analyses (CSIA) were applied. The groundwater residence times were distinctly different in the two aerobic aquifers, as determined by the tritium ((3)H)-(3)He method. In the contaminated zones, the upper aquifer exhibited groundwater ages of 25 years, whereas the lower (presumably confined) aquifer contained hardly any tritium which indicates water ages >55 years. P-NACs-containing waste waters are known to have leaked into the upper, unconfined aquifer. However, P-NACs were present in both aquifers in high concentrations (up to 33000 microg L(-1) TNT), which implies a hydraulic connection, although tritium concentrations and chemical data suggest two separated aquifers. Based on the (3)H-(3)He groundwater dating and the presence of very high P-NAC concentrations, the contamination of the lower aquifer must have happened during the early stage of the explosive production, i.e. >50 years ago. Despite this 'old' contamination, TNT and DNT have not been transformed until to date as is demonstrated by the negligible changes in their carbon isotopic signatures (delta(13)C). Thus, P-NACs are very recalcitrant to degradation at the investigated site. If the aquifers remain aerobic, TNT and DNT are expected to persist in the subsurface for many decades to centuries. The presented approach of assessing time scales of natural attenuation at the field scale by the combination of CSIA and (3)H-(3)He water dating has the potential to be applied to any other groundwater contaminants, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, gasoline components, heterocyclic carbenes, or polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

Dissolution and transport of 2,4-DNT and 2,6-DNT from M1 propellant in soil

Live-fire training exercises can result in particulate propellant contamination on military training ranges and can potentially contaminate ground water. This study was conducted to evaluate dissolution of the 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) and 2,6-dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT) from the propellant formulation, M1 (87.6% nitrocellulose, 7.3% 2,4-DNT, 0.57% 2,6-DNT, 1.06% diphenylamine, 3.48% dibutyl phthalate) and their subsequent transport in soil. Batch dissolution studies were followed by saturated column transport experiments. Neat, dissolved 2,4-DNT, and M1 in solid and dissolved forms were used as influent to columns filled with Plymouth loamy sand (mesic, coated Typic Quartzipsamments) from Camp Edwards, MA. Dissolution rates and other fate and transport parameters were determined using the HYDRUS-1D code. M1 dissolution was limited by DNT diffusion from the interior of the pellet, resulting in an exponential decrease in dissolution rate with time. The HYDRUS-1D model accurately described release and transport of 2,4- and 2,6-DNT from M1 propellant. Dissolution rates for M1 in the stirred reactor and column studies were similar, indicating that batch dissolution rates are potentially useful to represent field conditions.

Graphite- and soot-mediated reduction of 2,4-dinitrotoluene and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine

Black carbon (BC) is an important class of geosorbents that influence the fate and transport of organic pollutants. It is commonly assumed that molecules sorbed to BC are chemically inert. Here we show that this is not true for redox-sensitive sorbates such as nitro-aromatic compounds. In the presence of graphite or n-hexane soot as a BC material, the reduction of 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT) to 2,4-diaminotoluene by dithiothreitol was greatly accelerated. The para and ortho nitro groups of graphite or soot-sorbed DNT had an approximately equal probability of being reduced. This (1:1) regio-selectivity is different from that when DNT is reduced in homogeneous solution. That is, sorption to BC altered both the kinetics and pathway of DNT reduction. Transformation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine, a nonaromatic nitro compound, by dithiothreitol was also enhanced by graphite, with concurrent formation of formaldehyde. We propose that BC can catalyze the reduction of nitro compounds because it contains microscopic graphitic (graphene) domains, which are both sorption sites and electron conductors. The environmental significance and potential applications of these findings are discussed.

Spectrophotometric and spectroscopic studies of complexation of 8-hydroxyquinoline with pi acceptor metadinitrobenzene in different polar solvents

The complexation of electron donor-acceptor complexes of 8-hydroxyquinoline (8HQ) and metadinitrobenzene (MNB) have been studied spectrophotometrically and thermodynamically in different polar solvent at room temperature. A new absorption band due to charge transfer (CT) transition is observed in the visible region. A new theoretical model has been developed which take into account the interaction between electronic subsystem of 8HQ and MNB. The results indicate the extent of charge transfer complexes (CTCs) formation to be more in less polar solvents. Stoichiometry of the complex was found to be 1:1 by straight line method and (1)H NMR between donor and acceptor at the maximum absorption bands. Ionization potential (I(D)) and resonance energy (R(N)) were determined from the CT transition energy in different solvents. The formation constants of the complexes were determined in different polar solvents from which Delta G degrees formation of the complexes was estimated and also extinction coefficient of the charge transfer complex (CTC) was calculated. Oscillator strength, transition dipole strengths and maximum wavelength of the CTC (lambda(CT)) in various solvents and IR spectra of the CTC have also been discussed. It has been observed that all parameters described above changed with change in polarity and concentration of donor.

Electrochemical destruction of dinitrotoluene isomers and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene in spent acid from toluene nitration process

Mineralization of dinitrotoluene (DNT) isomers and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in spent acid was conducted by in situ electrogenerated hydrogen peroxide. The electrolytic experiments were carried out to elucidate the influence of various operating parameters on the performance of mineralization of total organic compounds (TOC) in spent acid, including electrode potential, reaction temperature, oxygen dosage and concentration of sulfuric acid. It is worth noting that organic compounds could be completely mineralized by hydrogen peroxide obtained from cathodic reduction of oxygen, which was mainly supplied by anodic oxidation of water. Based on the spectra identified by gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC/MS), it is proposed that oxidative degradation of 2,4-DNT and/or 2,6-DNT, 2,4,6-TNT results in o-mononitrotoluene (MNT) and 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, respectively. Due to the removal of TOC and some amount of water, the electrolytic method established is promising for industrial application to regeneration of spent acid from toluene nitration process.

Effect of background electrolytes on the adsorption of nitroaromatic compounds onto bentonite

To further elucidate interaction of nitroaromatic compounds with mineral surface, the sorption of m-dinitrobenzene (m-DNB) and nitrobenzene to original bentonite in aqueous solution containing different electrolytes (i.e., KCl, NH4Cl, CaCl2 and Tetramethylammonium bromide (TMAB)) was studied. The sorption of m-DNB was greatly enhanced with the presence of KCl and NH4Cl, while little influence was observed with CaCl2 and TMAB, following the order of KC1 > NH4Cl >> TMAB, CaCl2, or DI water. For nitrobenzene, sorption enhancement only occurred at high nitrobenzene concentrations in the presence of KCl, and the solute equilibrium concentration at inflexion point was lowered with increasing KCl concentration. These sorption enhancements were significantly promoted with the increase of electrolyte concentration. The salting-out effect is insufficient to account for the sorption enhancement by original bentonite with increasing KCl or NH4Cl concentration. X-ray diffraction patterns of bentonite suspensions indicated that the sorption enhancement of m-DNB was attributed to the intercalation of K+ or NH4+ into bentonite interlayer and then dehydration with m-DNB to form inner-sphere complexes, which caused previously expanded bentonite interlayers to collapse in aqueous suspension, thus further enhanced the interaction of phenyl with siloxane surface. In comparison, the sorption enhancement of NB is attributed to the formation of outer-sphere complexes with K+ at high solute-loadings (> 200-400 mg/kg). The sorption of m-DNB to initially modified TMA(+)-bentonite and K(+)-bentonite was almost the same as respective sorption to original bentonite in solution containing TMA+ and K+.

Interactions among K+-Ca2+ exchange, sorption of m-dinitrobenzene, and smectite quasicrystal dynamics

The fate of organic contaminants in soils and sediments is influenced by sorption of the compounds to surfaces of soil materials. We investigated the interaction among sorption of an organic compound, cation exchange reactions, and both the size and swelling of smectite quasicrystals. Two reference smectites that vary in location and amount of layer charge, SPV (a Wyoming bentonite) and SAz-1 were initially Ca- and K-saturated and then equilibrated with mixed 0.01 M KCl and 0.005 M CaCl2 salt solutions both with and without the presence of 200 mg L(-1) m-dinitrobenzene (m-DNB). In general, sorption of m-DNB increased with the amount of K+ in the system for both clays, and the SPV sorbed more m-DNB than the SAz-1. Sorption of m-DNB increased the preference of Ca-SPV for K+ relative to Ca2+ but had little effect on K+-Ca2+ selectivity for K-SPV. Selectivity for K+ relative to Ca2+ was slightly higher for both K-SAz-1 and Ca-SAz-1 in the presence of m-DNB than in its absence. Distinct hysteresis loops were observed for the K+-Ca2+ cation exchange reactions for both clays, and the legacy of having been initially Ca- or K-saturated influenced sorption of m-DNB by SPV but had little effect for SAz-1. Suspension X-ray diffraction was used to measure changes in d-spacing and the relative thickness of smectite quasicrystals during the cation exchange and m-DNB sorption reactions. The results suggest that interactions among cation exchange and organic sorption reactions are controlled byan inherently hysteretic complex feedback process that is regulated by changes in the size and extent of swelling of smectite quasicrystals.

13C and 15N NMR chemical shifts of 1-(2',4'-dinitrophenyl) and 1-(2',4',6'-trinitrophenyl) pyrazoles in the solid state and in solution

The (13)C and (15)N CPMAS NMR spectra of 18 pyrazoles substituted at position 1 by dinitrophenyl and trinitrophenyl (picryl) groups have been recorded. To help in the assignments, some of these compounds were studied in DMSO-d(6) solution. Phenomena such as the conformation of the N-aryl groups and broadening of splittings due to quadrupolar nuclei are discussed.