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von Gall C, Garabette ML, Kell CA, Frenzel S, Dehghani F, Schumm-Draeger PM, Weaver DR, Korf HW, Hastings MH, Stehle JH. Rhythmic gene expression in pituitary depends on heterologous sensitization by the neurohormone melatonin. Nat Neurosci 2002; 5:234-8. [PMID: 11836530 DOI: 10.1038/nn806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, many daily cycles are driven by a central circadian clock, which is based on the cell-autonomous rhythmic expression of clock genes. It is not clear, however, how peripheral cells are able to interpret the rhythmic signals disseminated from this central oscillator. Here we show that cycling expression of the clock gene Period1 in rodent pituitary cells depends on the heterologous sensitization of the adenosine A2b receptor, which occurs through the nocturnal activation of melatonin mt1 receptors. Eliminating the impact of the neurohormone melatonin simultaneously suppresses the expression of Period1 and evokes an increase in the release of pituitary prolactin. Our findings expose a mechanism by which two convergent signals interact within a temporal dimension to establish high-amplitude, precise and robust cycles of gene expression.
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52
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Liang SL, Pan JT. Pretreatment with antisense oligodeoxynucleotide against D(2) or D(3) receptor mRNA diminished dopamine's inhibitory effect on dorsomedial arcuate neurons in brain slices of estrogen-treated ovariectomized rats. Brain Res 2002; 926:156-64. [PMID: 11814418 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)03314-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A high percentage of dopamine (DA)-responsive neurons has been repeatedly shown in hypothalamic dorsomedial arcuate nucleus (dmARN) using single-unit recording in brain slices. Both D(2) and D(3) receptors may be involved in the inhibitory action of DA as indicated by results obtained from using specific DA agonists and antagonists. To further delineate the DA receptor types involved, ovariectomized, estrogen-primed Sprague-Dawley rats pretreated with antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN, 10 microg/3 microl, i.c.v.) against either D(2) or D(3) receptor mRNA for 2 days were used in this study for brain slice preparation. Rats pretreated with aCSF, random antisense or sense ODNs were used as controls. DA (5-50 nmol) inhibited a majority of dmARN neurons in brain slices prepared from rats pretreated with aCSF (71.4% of 35 U), random antisense/sense ODN for D(2) (67.6%, n=34), D(3) (59.5%, n=42), or D(2) plus D(3) (60.5%, n=38) mRNAs. In contrast, DA inhibited 43.6% (n=39) of dmARN neurons in slices prepared from D(2), and 38.5% (n=39) from D(3) antisense ODN-pretreated rats. Furthermore, in brain slices prepared from rats pretreated with combined D(2) and D(3) antisense ODNs, DA only inhibited 18.4% (n=38) of dmARN neurons. We conclude that both D(2) and D(3) receptors are involved in the action of DA on dmARN neurons in ovariectomized, estrogen-treated rats.
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53
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Acher R, Chauvet J. Organismal handling of water balance in vertebrates. SYMPOSIA OF THE SOCIETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY 2002:169-82. [PMID: 14992151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
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54
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Walker CD, Toufexis DJ, Burlet A. Hypothalamic and limbic expression of CRF and vasopressin during lactation: implications for the control of ACTH secretion and stress hyporesponsiveness. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 133:99-110. [PMID: 11589148 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(01)33008-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lactation is associated with physiological and behavioral changes that optimize conditions for development of the offspring. Although neuroendocrine and emotional stress responses are blunted, the central mechanisms involved are unclear. In addition to a reduction in stimulatory noradrenergic inputs to paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons, we demonstrate that lactation induces: (1) unique phenotypic changes in neuropeptide expression by hypothalamic PVN neurons (reduced expression of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA and increased expression of vasopressin mRNA in parvocellular PVN neurons); and (2) changes in pituitary sensitivity to CRF (reduced) and vasopressin (increased) as a consequence of differential CRF/vasopressin secretion into the hypophysial portal blood. Neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the central amygdala (CeA) that are implicated in the control of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis also display changes in lactation: expression of CRF mRNA in the CeA is reduced, consistent with the diminished responsiveness to acoustic startle observed in nursing mothers. In contrast, expression of CRF mRNA is increased in the dorsolateral portion of the BNST, probably because of the tonic increases in endogenous glucocorticoid production during this period. Using immuno-targeted lesions of CRF or vasopressin in the PVN of virgin females, we have shown that CRF neurons of the PVN send inhibitory projections to the dorsolateral portion of the BNST and stimulatory inputs to CRF neurons in the CeA. Thus, it is possible that lactation-induced changes in the activity of parvocellular PVN neurons might also modulate the expression of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters in the BNST and the amygdala.
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55
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Chaturvedi CM, Chowdhury A, Cornet LE. Water deprivation and circadian changes in plasma arginine vasotocin and mesotocin in the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus). Chronobiol Int 2001; 18:947-56. [PMID: 11777082 DOI: 10.1081/cbi-100107970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Possible circadian variations in plasma levels of arginine vasotocin (AVT) and mesotocin (MT) were assessed in domestic hens (Gallus domesticus) under a 12h:12h light-dark (LD) schedule. Blood samples were taken at 4h intervals, and neurohypophyseal hormone levels were determined by radioimmunoassay. Marked circadian changes in both AVT and MT were observed in hens provided free access to water. Minimal and maximal AVT levels occurred at 08:00 and 20:00, respectively. Minimal MT levels occurred at 20:00, whereas maximal MT levels occurred over a broad time period of 04:00 to 12:00. In water-deprived hens, plasma AVT levels were elevated at each time point, and the circadian variations in plasma AVT and MT levels were attenuated. These results demonstrate that rhythmicity in neurohypophyseal function in a lower vertebrate species, like that in mammals, is disrupted by osmotic stress.
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56
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Grinevich V, Ma XM, Verbalis J, Aguilera G. Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal responsiveness in water-deprived rats. Exp Neurol 2001; 171:329-41. [PMID: 11573986 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2001.7784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The differential effects of osmotic stimulation on magnocellular and parvocellular hypothalamic neurons were studied by analysis of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin (VP) expression in controls and 48-h water-deprived rats subjected to either restraint for 1 h or a single lipopolysaccharide injection (250 microg/100 g). Water deprivation reduced basal CRH mRNA levels but the increments following 4 h of restraint or 6 h lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection were similar to those in controls. In contrast, water deprivation had no effect on basal VP heteronuclear RNA (hnRNA) and mRNA levels in parvocellular neurons, but responses to restraint or LPS injection were reduced. VP expression in magnocellular paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei, and plasma sodium and vasopressin were higher in water-deprived rats, changes which were unaffected by restraint. LPS injection reduced VP mRNA but not hnRNA levels in magnocellular neurons and increased plasma vasopressin levels only in water-deprived rats independently of changes in plasma sodium. This was accompanied by an increase in vasopressin mRNA content in the posterior pituitary. The data show that the blunted ACTH responses to acute stress during chronic osmotic stimulation are correlated with the inability of parvocellular neurons to increase VP rather than CRH expression. In addition, LPS-induced endotoxemia causes disturbances of the magnocellular vasopressinergic system with an unexpected potentiation of osmotic simulated VP secretion. The lack of increase in VP transcription after LPS and changes in VP mRNA distribution suggest that endotoxemia affect the secretory process at the levels of the neurohypophyseal axon terminal.
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57
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Klyachko VA, Ahern GP, Jackson MB. cGMP-mediated facilitation in nerve terminals by enhancement of the spike afterhyperpolarization. Neuron 2001; 31:1015-25. [PMID: 11580900 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00449-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
cGMP has long been suspected to play a role in synaptic plasticity, but the inaccessibility of nerve terminals to electrical recording has impeded tests of this hypothesis. In posterior pituitary nerve terminals, nitric oxide enhanced Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel activity by activating guanylate cyclase and PKG. This enhancement occurred only at depolarized potentials, so the spike threshold remained unaltered but the afterhyperpolarization became larger. During spike trains, the enhanced afterhyperpolarization promoted Na+ channel recovery from inactivation, thus reducing action potential failures and allowing more Ca(2+) to enter. Activating guanylate cyclase, either with applied nitric oxide, or with physiological stimulation to activate nitric oxide synthase, increased action potential firing. Thus, the cGMP/nitric oxide cascade generates a short-term, use-dependent enhancement of release.
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58
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Hazlerigg DG, Morgan PJ, Messager S. Decoding photoperiodic time and melatonin in mammals: what can we learn from the pars tuberalis? J Biol Rhythms 2001; 16:326-35. [PMID: 11506378 DOI: 10.1177/074873001129002042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cellular and molecular mechanisms through which the melatonin signal is decoded to drive/synchronize photoperiodic responses remain unclear. Much of our current understanding of the processes involved in this readout derives from studies of melatonin action in the pars tuberalis of the anterior pituitary. Here, the authors review current knowledge and highlight critical gaps in our present understanding.
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59
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Juszczak M. The hypothalamo-neurohypophysial response to melatonin. NEURO ENDOCRINOLOGY LETTERS 2001; 22:169-74. [PMID: 11449194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2001] [Accepted: 05/15/2001] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
The present paper reviews the findings accumulated on the role of pineal gland and its hormone - melatonin - in regulation of the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system activity. Effects of modified photoperiod, pinealectomy or treatment with melatonin on the vasopressin and oxytocin biosynthesis and/or secretion have been described. Taken together, the in vivo and in vitro data suggest that the effect of melatonin on the vasopressin and oxytocin secretion depends on this pineal hormone concentration and experimental conditions.
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60
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Young WS, Shepard E, DeVries AC, Zimmer A, LaMarca ME, Ginns EI, Amico J, Nelson RJ, Hennighausen L, Wagner KU. Targeted reduction of oxytocin expression provides insights into its physiological roles. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2001; 449:231-40. [PMID: 10026810 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-4871-3_30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Oxytocin is a nonapeptide hormone that participates in the regulation of parturition and lactation. It has also been implicated in various behaviors, such as mating and maternal, and memory. To investigate whether or not oxytocin (OT) is essential for any of these functions, we eliminated, by homologous recombination, most of the first intron and the last two exons of the OT gene in mice. Those exons encode the neurophysin portion of the oxytocin preprohormone which is hypothesized to help in the packaging and transport of OT. The homozygous mutant mice have no detectable neurophysin or processed oxytocin in the paraventricular nucleus, supraoptic nucleus or posterior pituitary. Interestingly, homozygous mutant males and females are fertile and the homozygous mutant females are able to deliver their litters. However, the pups do not successfully suckle and die within 24 hours without milk in their stomachs. OT injection into the dams or rescue with the rat OT gene restores the milk ejection in response to suckling. OT is also needed for post-partum alveolar proliferation. These results indicate an absolute requirement for oxytocin for successful milk ejection, but not for mating, parturition and milk production, in mice. Furthermore, homozygous mutant mice show reduced aggression in some tests.
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61
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Shen J, Larm JA, Gundlach AL. Galanin-like peptide mRNA in neural lobe of rat pituitary. Increased expression after osmotic stimulation suggests a role for galanin-like peptide in neuron-glial interactions and/or neurosecretion. Neuroendocrinology 2001; 73:2-11. [PMID: 11174012 DOI: 10.1159/000054615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Galanin-like peptide (GALP) was recently identified in the porcine hypothalamus, pituitary gland and gut, and has reported selectivity for the GalR2, c.f. the GalR1 receptor. GALP cDNAs have been cloned from pig, rat and human, and GALP mRNA expression is restricted to the arcuate nucleus in normal rat brain. This study examined the regional and cellular distribution of GALP mRNA in the rat pituitary gland, and subsequently determined the effect of osmotic stimulation on GALP transcript levels. GALP mRNA was not detected in the anterior or intermediate lobes, but moderate levels of GALP mRNA were present in the neural (posterior) lobe, in presumed pituicytes, of normal male and female rats. Osmotic stimulation by dehydration or salt loading produced a time-dependent increase in GALP mRNA levels in the neural lobe. Thus, dehydration for 4 days increased GALP mRNA 40-fold, while salt loading for 4, 7 or 10 days increased GALP levels 14-, 21- and 25-fold, respectively (p < or = 0.001). Levels of vasopressin (VP) mRNA in the neural lobe were also increased by these treatments, consistent with previous reports. Galanin (GAL) and GalR2 receptor mRNAs were not detected in the neural lobe, under normal or osmotic stimulation conditions. In addition, GALP mRNA levels in the arcuate nucleus were not altered in dehydrated or salt-loaded rats; and GALP mRNA was not detected in magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic or paraventricular nucleus, despite the characteristic up-regulation of VP and GAL mRNA in these cells. In view of the established anatomy and function of VP/oxytocin neurons in the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system and the role played by pituicytes in their regulation, the likely synthesis/release of GALP by these specialized astrocytes strongly suggests a role for this novel peptide in regulation of pituicyte morphology/function and/or neurohormone release.
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62
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Neumann ID. Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide effects on the hypothalamic-neurohypophysial system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Methods 2000; 22:227-37. [PMID: 11071818 DOI: 10.1006/meth.2000.1074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The possibility of sequence-dependent, transient, and local inhibition of neuropeptide or neuropeptide receptor expression within the brain makes antisense targeting an attractive approach for those interested in the involvement of brain neuropeptide systems in behavioral and neuroendocrine regulation. Here, I describe our attempts to manipulate the synthetic activity of peptidergic systems of the hypothalamic-neurohypophysial system, i.e. , oxytocin and vasopressin, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. Detailed experimental protocols including different approaches for intracerebral antisense application in anesthetized or conscious rats are provided. As a consequence of local oxytocin or vasopressin antisense treatment within the hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus, various aspects of the neuronal activity are already altered after a few hours. Thus, we monitored electrophysiological parameters of oxytocinergic and vasopressinergic neurons, stimulus-induced expression of the Fos protein in oxytocin neurons, and stimulated release of oxytocin or vasopressin into blood as well as within the hypothalamus by dendrites and cell bodies as measured by simultaneous microdialysis in blood and brain, shortly after a single acute antisense infusion. We also employed chronic antisense infusion via osmotic minipumps or by repeated local infusion into the targeted brain region; for example, septal vasopressin receptor downregulation impairs the ability of male rats to discriminate between juvenile rats. Further, reduction of the amount of available CRH, vasopressin, and oxytocin within the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei alters the neuroendocrine stress response of the HPA axis.
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63
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Abramova MA, Calas A, Mailly P, Thibault J, Ugryumov MV. The responses of vasopressin- and tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing neurons of the supraoptic nucleus in rats to chronic osmotic stimulation. NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIORAL PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 30:617-24. [PMID: 11127788 DOI: 10.1023/a:1026666730182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The dynamics of intracellular contents of vasopressin and tyrosine hydroxylase in neuron bodies were studied in the supraoptic nucleus and the distant segments of their axons in the posterior lobe of the hypophysis in rats in conditions of salt loading lasting one, two, and three weeks. The number of vasopressin-immununoreactive neurons increased by the end of the second week of osmotic stimulation, due to the onset of vasopressin synthesis in neurons not synthesizing this hormone in normal physiological conditions. The vasopressin concentration decreased in cell bodies and axons during the first two weeks of salt loading, apparently because vasopressin release occurred at a greater level than vasopressin synthesis. During the third week, the intracellular vasopressin content remained essentially constant, demonstrating the establishment of dynamic equilibrium between the synthesis and release of the hormone. The number of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons and the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase in neuron bodies and axons, at least in the largest swellings (Herring bodies), gradually increased, demonstrating that the rate of tyrosine hydroxylase was greater than its rate of enzymatic degradation. Thus, chronic stimulation of vasopressin neurons was accompanied by a series of adaptive reactions, the most important of which appears to be the expression of vasopressin and tyrosine hydroxylase synthesis by neurons which do not normally synthesize these compounds.
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64
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Montero SA, Yarkov A, Alvarez-Buylla R. Carotid chemoreceptors participation in brain glucose regulation. Role of arginine-vasopressin. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2000; 475:749-60. [PMID: 10849717 DOI: 10.1007/0-306-46825-5_75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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65
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Huang W, Sved AF, Stricker EM. Water ingestion provides an early signal inhibiting osmotically stimulated vasopressin secretion in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 279:R756-60. [PMID: 10956231 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.3.r756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Dehydrated dogs are known to inhibit secretion of vasopressin (VP) within minutes after drinking water, before plasma osmolality (P(osmol)) diminishes. The present studies determined whether water ingestion causes a similar rapid inhibition of neurohypophyseal hormone secretion in rats. Adult rats were infused with 1 M NaCl (2 ml/h iv) for 240 min to stimulate VP and oxytocin (OT) secretion. After 220 min of infusion, rats were given water to drink for 5 min, and blood samples were taken 5 and 15 min later for RIA. Plasma VP (pVP) was much lower when rats ingested water than when they drank nothing even though P(osmol) was not significantly altered. Plasma OT (pOT) was affected similarly. In contrast, no effects on pVP or pOT occurred when rats drank isotonic NaCl solution for 5 min in amounts comparable to the water intakes (approximately 5.5 ml). These results suggest that neurohypophyseal secretion of VP and OT in rats is inhibited rapidly by water drinking, and that this inhibition is mediated by a visceral signal of osmotic dilution rather than by the act of drinking per se.
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66
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MULLER W, SCHMALBACH K. [Experimental cerebral hernia and its effects on the diencephalic-posterior pituitary system]. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2000; 7:190-205. [PMID: 13649259 DOI: 10.1007/bf01405710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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67
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HOLLAND RC, CROSS BA, SAWYER CH. EEG correlates of osmotic activation of the neurohypophyseal milk-ejection mechanism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000; 196:796-802. [PMID: 13637215 DOI: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1959.196.4.796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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68
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Havass J, Bakos K, Tóth G, Fülöp F, Falkay G. [Synthesis and in vitro receptor analysis of new potential oxytocin antagonists]. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA HUNGARICA 2000; 70:168-74. [PMID: 11379023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Oxytocin (OT) itself and the sensitivity of the uterus to OT play a crucial role in the initiation of both normal and pathologically early delivery. It recognition of the complex mechanism of action suggests that specific OT antagonists are of therapeutic value in postponing early contractions. In this study neurohypophyseal hormone analogues containing Sar in position 7, Arg in position 8, and various conformationally restricted or bulky derivatives of phenilalanine and tryptophan amino acids in position 2 were prepared to design more potent and selective OT antagonists. We determined the ligand-receptor binding characteristics of these newly synthetized peptides in the presence of [3H]oxytocin and [3H]vasopressin on isolated guinea-pig uterus, rat liver and kidney inner medulla plasma membranes. In the case of each peptides we calculated the Ki values and the selectivity ratio. The binding to the OT receptor was dramatically decreased for the Trp-derivatives containing analogues, while the Phe-derivatives containing analogues displayed a relatively high receptor affinity and have a relatively high OT/VP1 receptor selectivity.
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69
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HOLLAND RC, CROSS BA, SAWYER CH. Effects of intracarotid injections of hypertonic solutions on the neurohypophyseal milk-ejection mechanism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000; 196:791-5. [PMID: 13637214 DOI: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1959.196.4.791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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70
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Abstract
Lactation may be divided into two main phases. First,
milk secretion
which consists of the synthesis of milk by the cells of the alveolar epithelium and the passage of the milk from the cytoplasm of these cells into the alveolar lumen. And secondly,
milk removal
from the mammary gland. A small part of the milk may be withdrawn from the mammary gland by suckling young in the absence of any active process on the part of the maternal animal,
passive withdrawal
; but the greater part of the contained milk requires for its removal the participation of a neurohumoral reflex resulting in contraction of mammary tissue and thereby expulsion of contained milk. This active process is called
milk ejection
.
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72
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SCHALLY AV, SAFFRAN M, ZIMMERMANN B. A corticotrophin-releasing factor: partial purification and amino acid composition. Biochem J 2000; 70:97-103. [PMID: 13584307 PMCID: PMC1196631 DOI: 10.1042/bj0700097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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73
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Ganong WF. Circumventricular organs: definition and role in the regulation of endocrine and autonomic function. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2000; 27:422-7. [PMID: 10831247 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1681.2000.03259.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
1. The circumventricular organs (CVO) are structures that permit polypeptide hypothalamic hormones to leave the brain without disrupting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and permit substances that do not cross the BBB to trigger changes in brain function. 2. In mammals, CVO include only the median eminence and adjacent neurohypophysis, organum vasculosum lamina terminalis, subfornical organ and the area postrema. 3. The CVO are characterized by their small size, high permeability and fenestrated capillaries. The subcommissural organ is not highly permeable and does not have fenestrated capillaries, but new evidence indicates that it may be involved in the hypertension produced by aldosterone acting on the brain. 4. Feedback control of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) secretion is exerted by free steroids diffusing into the brain, but substances such as cytokines and angiotensin II act on CVO to produce increases in CRH secretion. Gonadal steroids also diffuse into the brain to regulate gonadotrophin-releasing hormone secretion. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone secretion is regulated by thyroid hormones transported across cerebral capillaries. However, CVO may be involved in the negative feedback control of growth hormone and prolactin secretion.
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74
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Acher R. [Neurohypophyseal regulation of osmoregulator systems]. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2000; 61:136. [PMID: 10960325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
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75
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Ferguson AV, Latchford KJ. Local circuitry regulates the excitability of rat neurohypophysial neurones. Exp Physiol 2000; 85 Spec No:153S-161S. [PMID: 10795918 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-445x.2000.tb00019.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The importance of angiotensin II (AII) and glutamate has long since been recognized in neuroendocrine regulation. However, the mechanisms by which AII and glutamate modulate the excitability of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) have largely remained a mystery until recently. It is now apparent that AII and glutamate are potent stimulators of both magnocellular and parvocellular neurones in the rat PVN. While glutamate, the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, ubiquitously excites PVN neurones, AII appears to mediate excitability of the PVN by both direct and indirect mechanisms. Interestingly, both of these neurotransmitters, upon exciting the PVN, activate an inhibitory feedback system, which is capable of diminishing the initial stimulus. Physiologically, this moderates the output signals from the PVN, and probably also regulates neuropeptide release from the neurohypophysis. The importance of this negative-feedback loop is evident in the pathophysiological implications of a disruption in the system. Evidence suggests that a breakdown in this system may be responsible in part for the onset and maintenance of both congestive heart failure and hypertension. Future studies will continue to characterize both the actions of glutamate and AII in the PVN, and to further elucidate the mechanisms which control the excitability of the PVN.
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