Associations between schizotypal features and indicators of neurological and morphological abnormalities

OBJECTIVE

Limited research suggests that subtle neurological and morphological abnormalities that have been documented in patients with schizophrenia also may be associated with schizotypal traits in non-psychiatric samples. Based on the notion that neurological soft signs (NSS) may mark a genetic diathesis, this study hypothesized that NSS scores would be related to the level of schizotypy in relatives of schizophrenia patients and in controls. Additionally, associations between MPA scores and schizotypy were explored in these two groups.

METHOD

Twenty-six first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients and 38 controls with no personal or family history of psychosis were assessed for schizotypy using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Disorders schizotypal personality disorder module, as well as the self-administered Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. The Neurological Evaluation Scale and a structured examination for MPAs also were administered.

RESULTS

Mean schizotypy scores did not differ between relatives and controls. Both NSS and MPAs were associated with the level of interviewer-assessed schizotypal features in controls but not in relatives of patients with schizophrenia. NSS and MPAs were not associated with self-reported schizotypy in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that both NSS and MPAs are associated with interview-based schizotypal traits, at least in non-psychiatric participants. Future research should seek to replicate these results in other samples of relatives and controls.

Declining transition rate in ultra high risk (prodromal) services: dilution or reduction of risk?

There is growing interest in the prodromal stage of psychotic disorders, with many services now providing care for these "ultra high risk" (UHR) individuals. However, a reduction in the rate of transition to psychosis has been suspected over the last few years. This has implications for the use of interventions in this population and for the validity of research findings. This study examined the transition rate in one UHR service, the Personal Assessment and Crisis Evaluation Clinic, over the years 1995-2000 and investigated possible causes for the transition rate reduction. There was evidence for a declining transition rate, with each successive year showing a rate 0.80 times that of the preceding year. Functioning and symptom level were not responsible for the change. The decreased transition rate was partly explained by a reduction in the duration of symptoms of patients prior to receiving help. That is, UHR individuals are being detected and provided with care earlier than in the past. Thus, the decline in transition rate may be due to treatment being more effective at this very early stage of illness or it may be due to finding more false positives who were never at risk of psychosis, ie, a "dilution" effect. Given that it is not possible to distinguish between these alternatives at least phenotypically at present, perhaps it is time to rethink the role and practice of UHR clinics. Patients presenting to them need help. It may be that we need to aim to prevent a range of target syndromes.

Avoidant personality disorder is a separable schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorder even when controlling for the presence of paranoid and schizotypal personality disorders The UCLA family study

It is unresolved whether avoidant personality disorder (APD) is an independent schizophrenia (Sz)-spectrum personality disorder (PD). Some studies find APD and social anxiety symptoms (Sxs) to be separable dimensions of psychopathology in relatives (Rels) of schizophrenics while other studies find avoidant Sxs to be correlated with schizotypal and paranoid Sxs. Rates of APD among first-degree Rels of Sz probands, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) probands, and community control (CC) probands were examined. Further analyses examined rates when controlling for the presence of schizotypal (SPD) and paranoid (PPD) personality disorders, differences in APD Sxs between relative groups, and whether APD in Rels of Szs reflects a near miss for another Sz-spectrum PD. Three hundred sixty-two first-degree Rels of Sz probands, 201 relatives of ADHD probands, and 245 Rels of CC probands were interviewed for the presence of DSM-III-R Axis I and II disorders. Diagnoses, integrating family history, interview information, and medical records, were determined. APD occurred more frequently in Rels of Sz probands compared to CC probands (p<0.001) and also when controlling for SPD and PPD (p<0.005). Two Sxs of APD were most characteristic of the Rels of Sz probands: "avoids social or occupational activities..." and "exaggerates the potential difficulties..." 65% of the Rels of Sz probands who had diagnoses of APD were more than one criterion short of a DSM-III-R diagnosis of either SPD or PPD. This indicates that APD is a separate Sz-spectrum disorder, and not merely a sub-clinical form of SPD or PPD.

Psychometric properties of the Brief Version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire in relatives of patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and non-psychiatric controls

The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire-Brief Version (SPQ-B), which includes cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized domains, was developed as a concise, self-report measure of schizotypy. This analysis was conducted to: (1) determine the internal consistency reliability of SPQ-B total and subscale scores, (2) use confirmatory factor analysis to assess the three-factor model as well as a single-factor solution, and (3) examine a measure of concurrent criterion validity of SPQ-B scores. The study was conducted at a large, urban, university-affiliated, public-sector health system in the southeastern United States. Data were obtained from 118 participants, including 61 biological relatives of patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophreniform disorder, and 57 non-psychiatric controls. Relatives and controls did not differ significantly on SPQ-B total or subscale scores (or on the full 74-item SPQ total or subscale scores). Internal consistency reliability was adequate for the total SPQ-B score and the interpersonal subscale but was less than ideal for the cognitive-perceptual and disorganized subscales. Regarding the confirmatory factor analysis, though the three-factor solution yielded reasonably good fit to the data, the single-factor solution provided equal fit. Correlations between the three subscales ranged from .63 to .74. With regard to criterion validity, correlations between the SPQ-B total and subscale scores and schizotypy scores derived from a semi-structured, interview-based assessment revealed correlations generally ranging from .40 to .60. The SPQ-B may be a useful brief screening measure of schizotypy, though some limitations in its psychometric properties were evident in this sample. It may be advisable to use total SPQ-B scores rather than subscale scores in some situations, or to use factor analytic techniques to study the instrument's latent structure in specific samples.

Handedness and schizotypy in non-clinical populations: Influence of handedness measures and age on the relationship

This study aimed to evaluate the relation of handedness to schizotypal personality, with the influence of different handedness measures and age on the relationship investigated as well among representative samples of school students and community adults in Taiwan, where social pressure against certain left-handed actions was strong. In a total of 175 primary school students, 1020 junior high-school students, and 342 adult participants aged 20 to 65 years, all the participants completed the 12-item Annett handedness questionnaire, and the latter two groups further completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) and the Perceptual Aberration Scale (PAS). There was a trend of increasing non-right handedness with younger age groups. Two classification methods in handedness, Annett's or Briggs-Nebes' three-category classification, led to very different frequency distribution and relation to schizotypy. For the adolescents, either Annett's classification or quantitative measures (Hand Preference Index and either-hand use scores) in handedness exhibited an association with schizotypy, whereas for the adults the either-hand use score was the only measure that did so. In contrast, no such difference was found using the Briggs-Nebes' classification method. The association of the non-right or mixed handedness was more consistent and of greater magnitude with the positive aspect of schizotypy, especially the PAS and the Cognitive-perceptual Dysfunction of the SPQ. The results highlight the potential of adolescents for future investigation on certain common causes underlying atypical cerebral lateralisation and positive schizotypy.

Community screening for psychotic-like experiences and other putative antecedents of schizophrenia in children aged 9-12 years

Prospective longitudinal investigations are needed to identify causal processes leading to schizophrenia. However, there is presently no cost-effective way to identify children who are at risk of developing schizophrenia spectrum disorders: Although having a family history of schizophrenia is associated with elevated risk for developing spectrum disorders, the majority of individuals with schizophrenia do not have an afflicted relative. The present study aimed to test the feasibility of screening a community sample of children, aged 9 to 12 years, to identify children who experienced a triad of putative antecedents of schizophrenia that had been identified from previous research, including: (1) speech and/or motor development lags or problems; (2) social, emotional, or behavioural problems; and (3) psychotic-like-experiences (PLEs). 548 children and 264 caregivers completed questionnaires. 9.2% of boys and 4.1% of girls displayed the triad of antecedents. 58.9% of the children reported "certain experience" of one or more PLEs. The results suggest that questionnaire screening of community samples of children for the putative antecedents of schizophrenia spectrum disorders is feasible. Accuracy of identification will only be established by follow-up studies.

Social anhedonia and schizotypy: the contribution of individual differences in affective traits, stress, and coping

While social anhedonia is a promising indicator of vulnerability to schizophrenia, it remains uncertain whether anhedonia is a core feature of schizotypy or merely a secondary associated characteristic. This issue was examined by comparing dimensional scores on schizophrenia spectrum personality disorder symptoms derived from clinical interviews among three groups: a) "pure" social anhedonics with high scores on the Revised Social Anhedonia Scale (SAS; [Eckblad, M.L., Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., Mishlove, M., 1982. The Revised Social Anhedonia Scale. Unpublished test, University of Wisconsin, Madison.]) and low scores on the Magical Ideation Scale (MIS, [Eckblad, M.L., Chapman, L.J., 1983. Magical ideation as an indicator of schizotypy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 215-225.]), b) subjects with high MIS and low SAS scores, and c) controls with low scores on both scales. This study also sought to identify individual differences in stress reactivity, personality, coping style, and social support that might be related to severity of clinical symptoms among at-risk subjects. Compared to controls, the SAS group had higher levels of schizotypal, schizoid, and paranoid symptoms and the MIS group had higher schizotypal symptoms. Among social anhedonics, individual differences in perceived stress, trait negative affectivity, and coping style accounted for over 40% of the variance in schizotypal and paranoid symptoms. This cross-sectional study bolsters support for the validity of social anhedonia as a primary feature of schizotypy. Longitudinal studies are required to determine whether these individual differences potentiate clinical outcomes among social anhedonics.

[Psychopathology in female carriers of the fragile X mutation]

Fragile X syndrome is, after Down's syndrome, the most common form of mental retardation. Women are potential carriers and can have the defective gene on one of their two X chromosomes without developing the complete syndrome. In this paper we examine which psychiatric disturbances may appear or develop in women because they are carriers of the fragile X mutation. Carriers have been found to have a higher frequency of anxiety disorders, affective disorders and schizotypal features.

Abnormal typicality of responses on a category fluency task in schizotypy

Existing hypotheses about semantic processing in schizophrenia and schizotypy suggest that both conditions are associated with a less than normal difference in the degree to which some concept activates the mental representation of other concepts that are strongly versus weakly related to it in meaning. To seek further evidence for this, we examined response typicality on the Category Fluency Test (CFT) as a function of schizotypy. Individuals from a non-clinical population verbally generated as many exemplars as they could in 1 min for each of four categories (fruits, four-footed animals, articles of clothing, vehicles). Participants subsequently completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ). SPQ score was not significantly correlated with the total number of responses generated for any of the categories. Individuals with higher (as opposed to lower) SPQ scores, however, generated more atypical members of the fruit category both in their initial responses and overall (as indexed by the average ratio of each response's ordinal position to its position in population typicality norms). These results support the hypothesis that semantic memory organization in non-clinical individuals with higher schizotypy is functionally altered.

The relationship of Asperger's characteristics and schizotypal personality traits in a non-clinical adult sample

The study examines the relationship between Asperger's Disorder (AD) and Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD), mutually exclusive but similar diagnoses [DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: Author]. The literature and comparison of diagnostic criteria suggest that the two disorders may overlap: AD social impairment with SPD interpersonal problems and AD communication deficits with SPD disorganized features. Questionnaire measures of AD and SPD were administered to a large non-clinical adult sample. Consistent with expectations, the Asperger's and Schizotypal questionnaires were positively correlated. Further, the social-interpersonal and communication-disorganized areas were positively correlated, though the relationship between social-interpersonal areas is particularly strong. Future research should continue to explore the relationship between AD and schizotypy to confirm current findings and improve understanding of distinctions between the disorders.

Self-face recognition and theory of mind in patients with schizophrenia and first-degree relatives

OBJECTIVE

The hypothesized relationship between theory of mind (ToM) and self-face recognition as well as its potential genetic associations has not been previously explored in patients with schizophrenia and in first-degree relatives with schizotypal personality traits.

METHOD

Ten patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, 10 of their first-degree relatives and 10 healthy controls were included. To assess self-face recognition (SFR), participants were presented images of faces of themselves and others and asked to make rapid 'unfamiliar', 'familiar' and 'self' judgments. As a measure of ToM, subjects were administered the Revised Mind in the Eyes Test (MET [Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., and Plumb, I., 2001. The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42(2), 241-251.]). Schizotypal characteristics in relatives and controls were assessed using a modified version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ [Raine, A., 1991. The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17(4), 555-564.]).

RESULTS

Patients took longer and were less accurate on the SFR task than their relatives who in turn performed worse than healthy controls. Specific ToM deficits in schizophrenia were replicated. There was a relationship between accuracy rates on the MET and SFR tasks. High levels of schizotypal traits such as social anxiety, constricted affect and no close friends were important for both tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Face recognition deficits and ToM deficits in schizophrenia are apparent. The critical influence of high levels of select schizotypal traits is also highlighted. A deficit in relatives of schizophrenia patients raises the possibility that ToM and face recognition deficits may be candidate endophenotypes for schizophrenia. Support for the hypothesized link between ToM and face recognition is provided.

Abnormalities of auditory event-related potentials in students with high scores on the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire

Some auditory event-related potential (ERP) abnormalities characterize both patients with schizophrenia and subjects with schizotypal personality disorder. It was therefore hypothesized that subjects from the community with schizotypal traits might also present ERP abnormalities. In this study, we compared auditory ERP latencies and amplitudes in 13 subjects with high (H-SPQ) and 12 subjects with low (L-SPQ) scores on the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ), selected from 198 Tunisian students. Auditory ERPs were recorded at Fz, Cz, and Pz, with a standard oddball paradigm. Smaller P300 amplitudes and delayed P300 latencies were found in H-SPQ compared with L-SPQ participants. Confirming previous reports, our results suggest that reduced P300 amplitudes and delayed P300 latencies may be considered as vulnerability markers of the schizophrenia spectrum in nonclinical subjects from the community.

Dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster A personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: a multivariate study

BACKGROUND

The 'odd' or 'Cluster A' personality disorders (PDs) - paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal PDs - were created in DSM-III with little empirical foundation. We have examined the relationship between the genetic and environmental risk factors for dimensional representations of these three personality disorders.

METHOD

These personality disorders were assessed using the Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality (SIDP-IV) in 1386 young adult twin pairs from the Norwegian Institute of Public Health Twin Panel. Using Mx, a single-factor independent pathway twin model was fitted to the number of endorsed criteria for the three disorders.

RESULTS

The best-fit model included genetic and unique environmental common factors and genetic and unique environmental effects specific to each personality disorder. Total heritability was modest for these personality disorders and ranged from 21% to 28%. Loadings on the common genetic and unique environmental factors were substantially higher for schizotypal than for paranoid or schizoid PD. The proportion of genetic liability shared with all Cluster A disorders was estimated at 100, 43 and 26% respectively for schizotypal, paranoid and schizoid PDs.

CONCLUSION

In support of the validity of the Cluster A construct, dimensional representations of schizotypal, paranoid and schizoid PD are all modestly heritable and share a portion of their genetic and environmental risk factors. No evidence was found for shared environmental or sex effects for these PDs. Schizotypal PD most closely reflects the genetic and environmental liability common to all three Cluster A disorders. These results should be interpreted in the context of the limited power of this sample.

Precursors and prodromata of schizophrenia: findings from the Edinburgh High Risk Study and their literature context

BACKGROUND

In schizophrenia research, 'high risk' traditionally referred to studies of the offspring of schizophrenic parents at genetically enhanced risk of illness development. Sixteen major high-risk studies have been undertaken although only six followed through to formal illness so data on prediction remain weak. Recently, 'high risk' has widened to encompass individuals considered 'at risk' by having 'high risk mental states', regardless of family history, in whom initiation of early treatment is postulated to improve outcome.

METHOD

The major familial high-risk studies are reviewed from the perspective of the Edinburgh High Risk Study of Schizophrenia (EHRS), with emphasis on prediction.

RESULTS

Familial high-risk studies have established multiple biological markers, the most reproducible of which relate to neuromotor development and cognition, especially aspects of memory/learning. Although most are probably not specific, they support a neurodevelopmental hypothesis. Family and environmental variables point largely to secondary or indirect associations. Pre-illness, non-specific affective symptomatology may be of greater predictive power than most psychotic phenomena.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional high-risk designs embody many problems but are able to distinguish non-specific markers from illness predictors, and are ideally suited to exploring the evolution of schizophrenia both clinically and biologically (especially with imaging techniques). The EHRS supports the view that greater specificity may accrue to cognitive domains as precursors of predictive utility.

Psychological factors in people at ultra-high risk of psychosis: comparisons with non-patients and associations with symptoms

BACKGROUND

There have been recent advances in the ability to identify people at high risk of developing psychosis. This has led to interest in the possibility of preventing the development of psychosis and provides the opportunity to investigate psychological mechanisms that may confer vulnerability to psychosis.

METHOD

Fifty-eight patients at ultra-high risk of developing a first episode of psychosis were compared with 56 non-patients matched for age and occupational status on measures of meta-cognition, schizotypal traits, dysfunctional attitudes and distress.

RESULTS

Analyses of covariance revealed that people at high risk of developing psychosis scored higher on measures of cognitive vulnerability, including negative meta-cognitive beliefs, beliefs about rejection and criticism from others, and discrepancies in self-perception, schizotypal traits and general mental distress. Correlational analyses revealed that negative meta-cognitive beliefs, dysfunctional attitudes and beliefs about rejection and criticism from others were positively associated with several dimensions of symptomatology in at-risk mental states (ARMS) patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive and personality factors appear to characterize people at high-risk of developing psychosis and are associated with their distressing experiences. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Mixed handedness is associated with the Disorganization dimension of schizotypy in a young male population

Within the ASPIS (Athens Study of Psychosis Proneness and Incidence of Schizophrenia) we sought out to examine in accordance with previous reports if a deviation from dextrality is associated with an augmented endorsement of self rated schizotypal personality traits in a large population of 1129 young male army recruits. Schizotypal traits were assessed using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire and hand preference membership was determined by applying stringent criteria derived from the Annett Handedness Questionnaire and the Porac-Coren questionnaire of lateral preferences. By adopting three different definitions of hand preference membership, we confirmed an association between mixed handedness and increased schizotypal personality traits, and in particular with Disorganization schizotypy that encompasses aspects of self perceived difficulties in verbal communication. Non-verbal cognitive ability, as indexed by measurement of non-verbal IQ, sustained attention and working memory was not associated with hand preference. We argue that a deviation from normal cerebral lateralization, as indexed by mixed handedness, is associated with mild sub clinical language dysfunction, rather than non-verbal cognitive ability, and this might be relevant to the expression of psychosis phenotype.

Psychophysiological evidence of altered neural synchronization in cannabis use: relationship to schizotypy

OBJECTIVE

Cannabis use may produce neurophysiological disturbances similar to those observed in schizophrenia, particularly in relation to altered neural synchronization. Therefore, the current experiment examined the effect of cannabis use on EEG neural synchronization using the auditory steady-state evoked potential.

METHOD

Auditory steady-state evoked potentials were assessed using varying rates of stimulation (auditory click-trains of 20, 30, 40 Hz) in current cannabis users (N=17) and drug-naive comparison subjects (N=16). EEG spectral power and signal-to-noise ratio at each stimulation frequency were compared between groups.

RESULTS

Cannabis users showed decreased EEG power and signal-to-noise ratio at the stimulation frequency of 20 Hz. In addition, current cannabis users demonstrated increased schizotypal personality characteristics as assessed with the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, which positively correlated with total years of cannabis use. Finally, within the cannabis group, 20-Hz power values were negatively correlated with Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire scores.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide evidence for neural synchronization and early-stage sensory processing deficits in cannabis use. This finding, along with the observed increased rates of schizotypy in cannabis users, adds support for a cannabinoid link to schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

Dysmorphic concern symptoms and personality disorders: a clinical investigation in patients seeking cosmetic surgery

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a somatoform disorder characterized by an excessive concern with an imagined or slight defect in appearance. BDD has been particularly studied in cosmetic surgery settings. The object of the present study is to investigate the relationship between personality disorders and dysmorphic symptoms in a group of 66 patients seeking cosmetic surgery. Assessment instruments included the following: a semistructured interview for demographic and clinical characteristics; the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, the Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Rating Scales, and the Body Dysmorphic Disorder Yale - Brown Obsessive--Compulsive Scale (BDD - YBOCS). A multiple regression analysis was performed using the BDD - YBOCS score as a continuous dependent variable. The severity of dysmorphic symptoms (BDD - YBOCS score) was significantly related to two factors: the number of diagnostic criteria for schizotypal and paranoid personality disorders. The results suggest that the presence of a psychopathological reaction to imagined defects in appearance in subjects pursuing a surgical correction is associated with the severity of schizotypal and paranoid personality disorders. Preoperative assessment could help to define the clinical profile of patients in cosmetic surgery settings.

Association between aggressiveness, schizotypal personality traits and cannabis use in Swiss psychology students

Associations between aggressiveness, schizotypal traits, and self-declared cannabis consumption were explored in Swiss psychology students (n = 205). Higher hostility levels were strongly associated with more pronounced schizotypal traits, whereas frequency of cannabis use was not. Therefore, earlier reported correlations might be due to a subgroup of hostile consumers.

[Schizotypy in relatives of patients with schizophrenia]

Previous studies indicate that relatives of patients with schizophrenia are more likely to present characteristics of schizotypal personality than the general population. Few transcultural studies of schizotypy have been carried out. Most instruments constructed to measure schizotypy have been applied in specific cultures; conceivably, in other populations its components may be distributed in different ways. These cultural differences may affect the relations between schizotypy and schizophrenia. The objective of this study is to obtain data on schizotypy in relatives of patients with schizophrenia and relatives of patients with other disorders in a Latin American rural population. The results suggest that cultural factors must be taken into account in order to establish the relationship between schizotypy and schizophrenia.

[Schizotypy and verbal memory in the adolescent general population]

The following study examines the relationship between verbal memory deficits and schizotypal traits measured psychometrically from a non- clinical adolescent population. In this transversal analytical study participated 139 subjects. They were secondary school students, with ages ranging from 13 to 16 years old (mean= 14, 35; Sta.Dev.= 0, 548). After administrating the scales O-LIFE (psychometrical schizotypy), CVLT (verbal memory), and Letters and Numbers subtest of WAIS-III (working memory), data was analyzed utilizing Pearson correlations and mean comparison test. Results showed lack of relations between schizotypy measures and working memory. Nonetheless, some of the O-LIFE dimensions correlated with verbal memory. These findings support partly the literature reviewed. Yet, more work focused on schizotypy and cognitive deficits as risk factors are suggested.

Schizotypy facets, cognitive control, and emotion

This research examined whether facets of schizotypy were differentially related to cognitive control and emotion-processing traits. In a confirmatory factor analysis (N = 261), a 3-factor model of schizotypy exhibited good fit and fit significantly better than a 2-factor model. In addition, only disorganized schizotypy was associated with poor cognitive control (specifically, prepotent inhibition). Moreover, disorganized but not positive schizotypy was associated with increased emotional confusion and increased emotionality. In contrast, negative schizotypy was associated with increased emotional confusion but decreased emotionality. These results suggest that disorganized schizotypy is related to dysregulation of both cognition and emotion and that negative schizotypy might reflect deficits in the experience and processing of emotion and not just in emotional expression.

Emotional correlates of the different dimensions of schizotypal personality disorder

Two studies explored which different dimensions of schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) were associated with negative affect, attention to emotions, clarity of emotions, and emotional intensity/instability. Study 1 included 247 college students, and questionnaires were used to measure SPD. Study 2 included 225 community residents, oversampling for individuals with elevated levels of SPD, and semistructured diagnostic interviews were used to measure SPD. In both studies (a) higher levels of negative affect were associated with higher levels of both cognitive-perceptual and interpersonal symptoms, (b) cognitive-perceptual disturbances were associated with greater attention to emotion, whereas interpersonal disturbances were associated with less attention to emotion, and (c) lower levels of emotional clarity were associated with higher levels of suspiciousness.

Schizotypy and creativity in visual artists

'Every work of art is an uncommitted crime' Adorno (1951). Cited in Julius (2002). Given the putative relationship between creativity and schizotypy/psychoticism, the current study set out to investigate differences in scores on a range of personality and creativity measures between visual artists and non-artists. Results found that the visual artists group scored higher on measures of positive-schizotypy, disorganized-schizotypy, asocial-schizotypy, neuroticism, openness and divergent thinking (uniqueness) than did the non-artist group and lower on agreeableness. These findings lend support to other studies reporting higher schizotypy scores in artistic and creative cohorts, although provide some of the first evidence of higher unusual experiences and impulsive nonconformity scores on the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE) in visual artists. The relationship between creativity and schizotypy is discussed in terms of unusual ideas and a propensity to endorse socially undesirable responses.

Cognitive function and symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder

Cognitive deficits have been documented in schizophrenia and spectrum disorders. This study examines cognitive functioning and its relation to symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder (SPD). Participants are 89 adolescents recruited for a study of youth at risk for Axis I disorders, especially psychosis. At intake, 34 met criteria for SPD, 38 for another Axis II disorder and/or conduct disorder (Other disorder-OD), and 17 did not currently meet criteria for any DSM-IV disorder (normal control-NC). At initial assessment, cognitive functioning was measured using subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Wechsler Memory Scales (WMS), and symptoms were measured using the Structured Interview for Prodromal Symptoms (SIPS). At the time of this report, 50 were readministered the SIPS at 1-year follow-up (T2). The SPD group scored significantly below the NC group on the Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, but there was only limited evidence of group differences on the WMS. Poorer performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scales was associated with greater severity of negative and disorganized symptoms. Deficits on the WMS were linked with more severe disorganized symptoms. The findings reported here are consistent with previous reports of limited cognitive deficits in adolescents with SPD, with the most marked deficits in mental arithmetic. The associations between symptoms and cognitive scores parallel those observed in adults with schizophrenia and spectrum disorder, and they are consistent with the notion that negative symptoms are more stable and partially reflect premorbid cognitive functions.