Interphase cytogenetics reveals a high incidence of aneuploidy and intra-tumour heterogeneity in breast cancer

The occurrence of aberrations involving chromosomes 11 and 17 in malignant tissues of breast cancer patients has not yet been studied systematically. Using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) with centromere-specific probes, we determined chromosome 11 and 17 status in interphase nuclei from primary and/or metastatic breast cancer cells. In all cancerous specimens obtained from 30 patients, FISH identified cells with clonal chromosomal abnormalities, with aneuploidy rates ranging from 6% to 92% (median 59%). There was a gain of centromeric signals for chromosome 11, most likely corresponding to hyperploidy; aberrations of chromosome 17 in specimens from 26 patients (87%) were hyperploid as well; however, four cases (13%) showed loss of chromosome 17 centromeres. All specimens contained heterogeneous aneuploid cell populations with excessive gain of signals in some cases. The pattern of aneuploidy did not appear to correlate with tumour grade/stage and was comparable in primary tumours and corresponding metastatic axillary lymph nodes, indicative of genetic instability early in tumour development. Screening with a panel of FISH probes may lead to enhanced sensitivity and specificity in detecting malignant cells, as demonstrated in this study with effusions which could not be conclusively interpreted as being malignant by cytological criteria.

Prognostic impact of DNA content and AUER classification in primary fallopian tube carcinoma

DNA ploidy has been studied in 61 primary fallopian tube carcinomas using image-cytometry. The investigation also included survival analysis, and ploidy classification according to AUER was performed in order to evaluate its prognostic impact for fallopian tube carcinoma. A high number of aneuploid cases were observed (79% aneuploid vs. 21% euploid tumors). The high incidence of aneuploid tumors was consistently observed among all FIGO-stages as well as all groups of histologic grading. There was no correlation between ploidy and FIGO-stage or histologic grading. Patients with euploid DNA content showed a median survival of 34 months compared to 24 months for aneuploid cases (log-rank, P = 0.83). No correlation between the AUER classification and FIGO-stage or histologic grading could be observed. Tumors with an AUER type I and II (75th quantile 41 months) showed a better outcome than tumors with AUER III and IV (75th quantile 19 months). Although these results did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.07), a trend could be observed. Therefore AUER classification may be useful as an objective prognostic parameter. The high incidence of aneuploid tumors could be an expression of the high biologic aggressiveness of primary fallopian tube cancer which has been repeatedly mentioned in the past.

The relationship of choroidal blood flow and accommodation to the control of ocular growth

We have carried out a number of different studies in chicks to examine the relationship between choroidal blood flow and myopic eye growth, and between accommodation and myopic eye growth. Our studies on choroidal blood flow show that myopic eye growth produced by form vision degradation leads to dramatic reductions in choroidal blood flow. These reductions appear directly attributable to the eye enlargement and the reduction in choroidal blood flow does not appear to be permissive for eye growth, since experimentally reduced choroidal blood flow hinders eye growth. Choroidal blood flow that is slightly above normal, however, may slightly enhance eye growth. Our studies on accommodation do not reveal any major necessary role of accommodation in regulating normal growth or in form vision degradation induced myopic eye growth. We found preliminary evidence, however, that chronically stimulating accommodation over a 2 week period, thereby producing excessive time in accommodation, may be sufficient for yielding a small but significant degree of myopic refractive error. Our studies suggest that neither fluctuations in choroidal blood flow nor an intact accommodative apparatus are essential for normal eye growth or myopic eye growth produced by form deprivation. Further studies are needed to confirm that excessive time in accommodation might be sufficient for producing myopia. Finally, our finding that choroidal blood flow is substantially reduced in myopic eyes may have implications for the etiology of the retinal problems suffered by humans with moderate to severe myopia.

Organization of the avian "corticostriatal" projection system: a retrograde and anterograde pathway tracing study in pigeons

Birds have well-developed basal ganglia within the telencephalon, including a striatum consisting of the medially located lobus parolfactorius (LPO) and the laterally located paleostriatum augmentatum (PA). Relatively little is known, however, about the extent and organization of the telencephalic "cortical" input to the avian basal ganglia (i.e., the avian "corticostriatal" projection system). Using retrograde and anterograde neuroanatomical pathway tracers to address this issue, we found that a large continuous expanse of the outer pallium projects to the striatum of the basal ganglia in pigeons. This expanse includes the Wulst and archistriatum as well as the entire outer rind of the pallium intervening between Wulst and archistriatum, termed by us the pallium externum (PE). In addition, the caudolateral neostriatum (NCL), pyriform cortex, and hippocampal complex also give rise to striatal projections in pigeon. A restricted number of these pallial regions (such as the "limbic" NCL, pyriform cortex, and ventral/caudal parts of the archistriatum) project to such ventral striatal structures as the olfactory tubercle (TO), nucleus accumbens (Ac), and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). Such "limbic" pallial areas also project to medialmost LPO and lateralmost PA, while the hyperstriatum accessorium portion of the Wulst, the PE, and the dorsal parts of the archistriatum were found to project primarily to the remainder of LPO (the lateral two-thirds) and PA (the medial four-fifths). The available evidence indicates that the diverse pallial regions projecting to the striatum in birds, as in mammals, are parts of higher order sensory or motor systems. The extensive corticostriatal system in both birds and mammals appears to include two types of pallial neurons: 1) those that project to both striatum and brainstem (i.e., those in the Wulst and the archistriatum) and 2) those that project to striatum but not to brainstem (i.e., those in the PE). The lack of extensive corticostriatal projections from either type of neuron in anamniotes suggests that the anamniote-amniote evolutionary transition was marked by the emergence of the corticostriatal projection system as a prominent source of sensory and motor information for the striatum, possibly facilitating the role of the basal ganglia in movement control.

Brainstem motoneuron pools that are selectively resistant in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are preferentially enriched in parvalbumin: evidence from monkey brainstem for a calcium-mediated mechanism in sporadic ALS

Some brainstem motoneuron groups appear more resistant to the process of neurodegeneration in ALS (for example, oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nuclei) than others (for example, trigeminal, facial, ambiguus, and hypoglossal nuclei). The possibility that the differential presence of the calcium-chelating protein parvalbumin might underlie this difference in vulnerability was examined immunohistochemically as a way to determine whether a calcium-mediated mechanism might be involved in ALS. In normal monkey brainstem, we found that the abundance of parvalbumin-containing neurons in the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nuclei was approximately 90% of the abundance of choline acetyltransferase (CHAT)-containing motoneurons. In contrast, the abundance of parvalbumin-containing neurons in the other brainstem motor nuclei innervating skeletal muscle (trigeminal, facial, ambiguus, and hypoglossal) was only about 30-60% of the abundance of CHAT-containing motoneurons. Since some of these motoneuron pools contain nonmotoneuron internuclear neurons that might be parvalbumin-containing, we also carried out double-label studies to specifically determine the percentage of cholinergic motoneurons that contained parvalbumin in each of these motoneuron pools. We found that 85-100% of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens motoneurons were parvalbumin-containing. In contrast, only 20-30% of the trigeminal, facial, ambiguus, and hypoglossal motoneurons were parvalbumin-containing. These results raise the possibility that motoneuron death in sporadic ALS is related to some defect that promotes cytosolic calcium accumulation in motoneurons. This excess calcium entry may promote cell death via an excitotoxic pathway. Motoneurons rich in parvalbumin may resist the deleterious effects of this putative calcium gating defect because they are better able to sequester the excess calcium.

Pulse cyclophosphamide therapy for refractory autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura

Autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura (AITP) is generally a chronic disorder in affected adults. Twenty-five percent of these patients will become refractory to routine therapy (corticosteroids and splenectomy), as well as most other available agents. Intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide therapy was used to treat 20 patients with severe refractory AITP who had previously failed to achieve a sustained remission with a mean of 4.8 agents (range 2 to 8). Patients received 1 to 4 doses (mean 2.0) of 1.0 to 1.5 g/m2 intravenous cyclophosphamide per course. Of the 20 patients treated with pulse cyclophosphamide therapy, 13 patients (65%) achieved a complete response (CR), four (20%) a partial response (PR), and three patients (15%) failed to respond. Of the 13 complete responders, eight have remained in remission with stable platelet counts during followup intervals of 7 months to 7 years (median 2.5 years). Five patients developed recurrent AITP 4 months to 3 years following a CR. Of these, two patients responded to subsequent courses of pulse cyclophosphamide therapy with current remissions of 1 and 4 years. Of the four patients who obtained a PR, two remain in partial remission after 10 months and 4 years; one relapsed after 18 months and, after retreatment, is still in remission at 6 months. Of the patient characteristics examined, duration of disease was most strongly associated with response to pulse cyclophosphamide. Side-effects of treatment included neutropenia (three patients, one of whom developed staphylococcal sepsis), acute deep venous thrombosis (two patients), and psoas abscess (one patient). Intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide should be strongly considered in the treatment of patients with refractory AITP. There is a relatively low incidence of side-effects, and it can be administered easily on an out-patient basis.

Neurotransmitter organization and connectivity of the basal ganglia in vertebrates: implications for the evolution of basal ganglia

The basal ganglia in modern mammals, birds and reptiles (i.e. modern amniotes) are very similar in connections and neurotransmitters, suggesting that the evolution of the basal ganglia in amniotes has been very conservative. For example, the basal ganglia in all amniotes possess a dorsal striatum containing two main populations of projection neurons, substance P-containing (SP+) and enkephalin-containing (ENK+) neurons, which have major projections to the dorsal pallidum and the tegmentum (ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra, or VTA/SN). The VTA/SN, in turn, has a major dopaminergic (DA+) projection to the striatum in all amniotes. In this paper, we review these data on the basal ganglia in amniotes and note points of similarity and difference in the functional circuitry of the basal ganglia among amniotes. In addition, we review recent findings on the neurotransmitter organization and connectivity of the basal ganglia in amphibians and fishes, with the goal of assessing whether a basal ganglia showing the same basic features as in amniotes is observed in anamniotes. Published data indicate that in at least two groups of fishes (cartilaginous fishes and lungfishes) and apparently in amphibians, the basal ganglia is present and consists of a distinct striatum and pallidum. The striatum of amphibians, cartilaginous fishes, and lungfishes contain SP+ and ENK+ neurons that seem to project to the pallidum as well as to a brainstem cell group that appears comparable to the VTA/SN of amniotes. Data for ray-finned fishes also suggest the presence of a striatum containing SP+ and ENK+ neurons that projects to VTA/SN-like brainstem cell group. In the basal ganglia of ray-finned fishes, however, a distinct pallidum had not been identified. Finally, the brainstem cell group receiving striatal input in all anamniotes contains DA+ neurons that seem to project to the striatum. The present analysis suggests that a rudimentary basal ganglia was already present in the brain of the ancestral jawed vertebrates. This rudimentary basal ganglia likely consisted of a striatum and a pallidum, and the striatum probably already possessed the same basic connections and some of the same basic cell types as the basal ganglia of modern jawed vertebrates.

Coexpression of HER-2/neu and p53 is associated with a shorter disease-free survival in node-positive breast cancer patients

Breast cancer tissue was examined for overexpression of HER-2/neu and p53 oncogene proteins. Samples from 105 breast cancer patients were investigated by Western-blot analysis and their relationship to other established markers and clinical outcome was examined. In 21.0% of the cases HER-2/neu was overexpressed, and in 46.7% the p53 protein level was increased. Expression of these two oncogene products was closely correlated. Overexpression of both oncogenes was associated with larger tumour size and negative hormone receptor. The percentage of HER-2/neu and p53 overexpression was higher in node-positive patients, although statistical evaluation was not significant. While overexpression of HER-2/neu as well as p53 in node-positive patients was associated insignificantly with shorter disease-free survival, a significant difference could be documented when the disease-free survival of patients with overexpression of both oncogene proteins was compared to that of patients with no overexpression.

Relative survival of striatal projection neurons and interneurons after intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid in rats

An excitotoxic process mediated by the NMDA type glutamate receptor may be involved in striatal neuron death in Huntington's disease (HD). To explore this possibility, we have injected an NMDA-receptor-specific excitotoxin, quinolinic acid (QA), into the striatum in adult rats and 2-4 months postlesion explored the relative patterns of survival for the various different types of striatal projection neurons and interneurons and for the striatal efferent fibers in the different striatal projection areas. The perikarya of specific types of striatal neurons were identified by neurotransmitter immunohistochemical labeling or by retrograde labeling from striatal target areas, while the striatal efferent fiber plexuses were identified by neurotransmitter immunohistochemical labeling. The pattern of survival for the perikarya of each neuron type as a function of distance from the center of the injection site was determined, and the relative survival of each type was compared. For the fibers in target areas, computer-assisted image analysis was used to determine the degree of fiber loss for each projection target. In the study of perikaryal vulnerability, we found that the somatostatin-neuropeptide Y (SS/NPY) interneurons were the most vulnerable to QA and the cholinergic neurons were invulnerable to QA. The perikarya of all projection neuron types (striatopallidal, striatonigral, and striato-entopeduncular) were less vulnerable than the SS/NPY interneurons and more vulnerable than the cholinergic interneurons. Among projection neuron perikarya, there was evidence of differential vulnerability, with striatonigral neurons appearing to be the most vulnerable. Examination of immunolabeled striatal fibers in the striatal target areas indicated that striato-entopeduncular fibers better survived intrastriatal QA than did striatopallidal or striatonigral fibers. The apparent order of vulnerability observed in this study among projection neurons and/or their efferent fiber plexuses and the invulnerability observed in this study of cholinergic interneurons is similar to that observed in HD. The vulnerability of the SS/NPY interneurons to QA is, however, in stark contrast to their invulnerability in HD. The results thus suggest that although the excitotoxin hypothesis of striatal neuron death in HD has merit, QA injections into adult rat striatum do not strictly mimic the outcome in HD. This suggests that either adult rats are not a completely suitable subject for mimicking HD or the HD excitotoxic process does not involve a freely circulating excitotoxin such as QA.

The effects of choroidal or ciliary nerve transection on myopic eye growth induced by goggles

PURPOSE

To determine the role of the choroidal and ciliary nerves and the functions they control, choroidal blood flow (CBF) and accommodation-pupil diameter, respectively, in myopia induced by form-vision deprivation.

METHODS

Three groups of chicks were studied: chicks with choroidal nerves cut in the right eye, chicks with ciliary nerves cut in the right eye, and sham control chicks that received the same surgical preparation but no nerve cuts. A plastic, dome-shaped goggle was glued over the right eye of birds in all three groups after orbital surgery, and, 2 weeks later, CBF was measured using laser Doppler flowmetry. Refractive status was then measured using streak retinoscopy, and axial, nasotemporal, and dorsoventral lengths were measured using vernier calipers after enucleation. The eyes were also weighed.

RESULTS

In the sham control birds, considerable ocular enlargement in all dimensions and a high degree of myopia (-14.68 diopters) was observed in the goggled eye, and CBF in the goggled eye was 66% of that in the nongoggled eye. In birds with choroidal nerve cuts, the degree of enlargement of the goggled eye was less in all dimensions, and the myopia in the goggled eye (-4.74 D) was attenuated compared to that observed in the sham controls. CBF in the goggled eye was 21% of that in nongoggled eye. Finally, in the birds with ciliary nerve cuts, nasotemporal and dorsoventral enlargement of the goggled eye were similar to that in the shams, but the axial elongation and the degree of myopia (-9.57 D) were less than observed in sham control eyes. As in the shams, CBF in the goggled eye was reduced to 59% of that in the nongoggled eye.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that although elimination of accommodation and severe reductions in CBF do affect eye growth (the latter more so), they do not prevent form-vision deprivation-induced myopia. Thus, either the mechanism of visual deprivation-induced myopia is different from that in idiopathic human myopia, or CBF levels and accommodation do not play a major role in either.

DNA ploidy in primary fallopian-tube carcinoma using image cytometry

Determination of DNA ploidy in 61 samples of primary Fallopian-tube carcinoma (FTC) by use of image cytometry is presented. Of these samples, 48 showed an aneuploid DNA content. Patients with euploid DNA content showed a median survival time of 33.8 months compared to 24.5 months for aneuploid cases. A high incidence of aneuploid tumors was consistently observed among all FIGO stages and in all groups of histologic grading. However, no correlation between ploidy and FIGO stage or histologic grading could be demonstrated. This observation could be regarded as a marker for the high aggressiveness of FTC which has been repeatedly described in the past.

Distributions of GABAA, GABAB, and benzodiazepine receptors in the forebrain and midbrain of pigeons

Autoradiographic and immunohistochemical methods were used to study the distributions of GABAA, GABAB and benzodiazepine (BDZ) receptors in the pigeon fore- and midbrain. GABAA, GABAB and BDZ binding sites were found to be abundant although heterogeneously distributed in the telencephalon. The primary sensory areas of the pallium of the avian telencephalon (Wulst and dorsal ventricular ridge) tended to be low in all three binding sites, while the surrounding second order belt regions of the pallium were typically high in all three. Finally, the outermost rind of the pallium (termed the pallium externum by us), which surrounds the belt regions and projects to the striatum of the basal ganglia, was intermediate in all three GABAergic receptors types. Although both GABAA and benzodiazepine receptors were abundant within the basal ganglia, GABAA binding sites were densest in the striatum and BDZ binding sites were densest in the pallidum. Among the brainstem regions receiving GABAergic basal ganglia input, the anterior and posterior nuclei of the ansa lenticularis showed very low levels of all three receptors, while the lateral spiriform nucleus and the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra complex contained moderate abundance of the three binding sites. The dorsalmost part of the dorsal thalamus (containing nonspecific nuclei) was rich in all three binding sites, while the more ventral part of the dorsal thalamus (containing specific sensory nuclei), the ventral thalamus and the hypothalamus were poor in all three binding sites. The pretectum was also generally poor in all three, although some nuclei displayed higher levels of one or more binding sites. The optic tectum, inferior colliculus, and central gray were rich in all three sites, while among the isthmic nuclei, the parvicellular isthmic nucleus was conspicuously rich in BDZ sites. The results show a strong correlation of the regional abundance of GABA binding sites with previously described distributions of GABAergic fibers and terminals in the avian forebrain and midbrain. The regional distribution of these binding sites is also remarkably similar to that in mammals, indicating a conservative evolution of forebrain and midbrain GABA systems among amniotes.

Prognostic factors in primary fallopian tube carcinoma. Austrian Cooperative Study Group for Fallopian Tube Carcinoma

A retrospective nationwide evaluation of primary fallopian tube carcinomas for a period of 10 years (1980-1990) was performed to evaluate the prognostic impact of various factors. Sixty-six cases were investigated for the prognostic influence of estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PgR) status, mitotic activity, degree of nuclear anaplasia, and inflammatory reaction. ER and PgR receptors were detected by immunohistochemistry from paraffin sections. Forty-two percent were PgR-positive and 26% were ER-positive. However, no correlation of steroid receptors with survival could be found. Ninety-two percent of all tumors showed a moderate and high degree of nuclear anaplasia and only 8% showed a low degree of nuclear anaplasia. Thirty-four (52%) samples from all patients revealed low mitotic activity compared to 32 (48%) with an intermediate and high mitotic rate. Twenty-four (37%) tissue samples showed a positive inflammatory reaction which correlated with a significantly better outcome compared with tumors without this feature. This finding was also confirmed in multivariate analysis as an independent prognostic factor.

Preoperative and postoperative CA-125 serum levels in primary fallopian tube carcinoma

Levels of CA-125 were determined pre- and postoperatively in 13 patients with fallopian tube cancer. Values before surgery were significantly higher (Median 1220 IU/ml, 90-5000 IU/ml) compared with postoperative levels (Median 194 IU/ml, 67-880 IU/ml) (P = 0.0052). Correlation analysis with FIGO stage and grading failed to show any statistical significance, but a trend for a positive correlation with FIGO stage and preoperative values could be observed. The CA-125 antigen is expressed by fallopian tube carcinoma and should therefore be used in diagnosis and follow-up.

Dopaminergic terminals form synaptic contacts with enkephalinergic striatal neurons in pigeons: an electron microscopic study

Medium spiny projection neurons of the striatum consist of two major neuropeptide-specific types, one type containing substance P and another type containing enkephalin. Both of these types have been shown to receive dopaminergic input onto their perikarya and proximal dendrites. However, whether each of these types receives direct dopaminergic input onto distal dendritic shafts and onto dendritic spines has not been explored in depth. In the present study, we used electron microscopic immunohistochemical double-label techniques to examine the synaptic organization of dopaminergic input onto enkephalin-positive (ENK+) striatal neurons in pigeons, in whom ENK+ striatal perikarya, dendritic shafts and spines can be readily labeled. Antibodies against tyrosine hydroxylase were used to label dopaminergic terminals using a silver-intensified immunogold method. ENK+ neurons were labeled using diaminobenzidine. We found that dopaminergic terminals make appositions and form symmetric synapses with the perikarya, dendritic shafts, and dendritic spine necks of ENK+ striatal neurons. Thus, nigral dopaminergic neurons provide a monosynaptic input onto ENK+ striatal neurons in a manner similar to that described previously by us for substance P-positive striatal medium spiny neurons.

Distribution of choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity in the pigeon brain

We have investigated the distribution of cholinergic perikarya and fibers in the brain of the pigeon (Columba livia). With this aim, pigeon brain sections were processed immunohistochemically by using an antiserum specific for chicken choline acetyltransferase. Our results show cholinergic neurons in the pigeon basal telencephalon, the hypothalamus, the habenula, the pretectum, the midbrain tectum, the dorsal isthmus,the isthmic tegmentum, and the cranial nerve motor nuclei. Cholinergic fibers were prominent in the dorsal telencephalon, the striatum, the thalamus, the tectum, and the interpeduncular nucleus. Comparison of our results with previous studies in birds suggests some major cholinergic pathways in the avian brain and clarifies the possible origin of the cholinergic innervation of some parts of the avian brain. In addition, comparison of our results in birds with those in other vertebrate species shows that the organization of the cholinergic systems in many regions of the avian brain (such as the basal forebrain, the epithalamus, the isthmus, and the hindbrain) is much like that in reptiles and mammals. In contrast, however, birds appear largely to lack intrinsic cholinergic neurons in the dorsal ("neocortex-like") parts of the telencephalon.

A comparative analysis of management and prognosis in stage I and II fallopian tube carcinoma and epithelial ovarian cancer

Staging and surgical as well as post-operative treatment of primary Fallopian tube carcinoma (FTC) followed the lines established for primary ovarian cancer (OC). In a nationwide retrospective analysis we were able to find a distinct difference between these two tumours. A total of 262 patients, 68 with FTC and 194 with OC, in stage I and II were included into this study. A univariate as well as a multivariate analysis for survival was performed, including factors such as age, histological type, grading and surgical and adjuvant treatment. A significantly poorer outcome (P = 0.0002) for FTC patients with a 5-year survival of 50.8% compared with 77.5% for OC patients was observed. This finding was persistent and independent of any investigated factor, in univariate as well as multivariate analyses. Therefore, we feel that a more aggressive therapeutic approach to the treatment of FTC even in early stages can be recommended. On the other hand, the retrospective character of our study has to be taken into account.

The distribution of GABA-containing perikarya, fibers, and terminals in the forebrain and midbrain of pigeons, with particular reference to the basal ganglia and its projection targets

Immunohistochemical techniques were used to study the distributions of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in pigeon forebrain and midbrain to determine the organization of GABAergic systems in these brain areas in birds. In the basal ganglia, numerous medium-sized neurons throughout the striatum were labeled for GABA, while pallidal neurons, as well as a small population of large, aspiny striatal neurons, labeled for GAD and GABA. GAD+ and GABA+ fibers and terminals were abundant throughout the basal ganglia, and GABAergic fibers were found in all extratelencephalic targets of the basal ganglia. Most of these targets also contained numerous GABAergic neurons. In pallial regions, approximately 10-12% of the neurons were GABAergic. The outer rind of the pallium was more intensely labeled for GABAergic fibers than the core. The olfactory tubercle region, the ventral pallidum, and the hypothalamus were extremely densely labeled for GABAergic fibers, while GABAergic neurons were unevenly distributed in the hypothalamus. GABAergic neurons and fibers were abundant in the dorsalmost part of thalamus and the dorsal geniculate region, while GABAergic neurons and fibers were sparse (or lightly labeled) in the thalamic nuclei rotundus, triangularis, and ovoidalis. Further, GABAergic neurons were abundant in the superficial tectal layers, the magnocellular isthmic nucleus, the inferior colliculus, the intercollicular region, the central gray, and the reticular formation. GABAergic fibers were particularly abundant in the superficial tectal layers, the parvocellular isthmic nucleus, the inferior colliculus, the intercollicular region, the central gray, and the interpeduncular nucleus. These results suggest that GABA plays a role as a neurotransmitter in nearly all fore- and midbrain regions of birds, and in many instances the observed distributions of GABAergic neurons and fibers closely resemble the patterns seen in mammals, as well as in other vertebrates.

A pre-embedding triple-label electron microscopic immunohistochemical method as applied to the study of multiple inputs to defined tegmental neurons

For many neural regions it is of interest to know the identity of the target structures of two different types of inputs to that neural region. Such studies require use of a triple-label immunohistochemical method to differentially label the class of target structure and the two types of input so that they can be visualized at the electron microscopic (EM) level. We describe here a procedure for combining three different markers (diaminobenzidine, benzidine dihydrochloride, and silver-intensified immunogold) for triple-label EM immunohistochemical pre-embedding labeling. All three markers are distinct at the LM and EM levels. An example of this approach as applied to studying striatal input to the ventral tegmental area is presented and the advantages of this approach are discussed.

Laminar distribution of the cells of origin of ascending and descending tectofugal pathways in turtles: implications for the evolution of tectal lamination

The major outputs of the tectum appear fundamentally similar in all vertebrate species, suggesting that the major types of tectal output neurons have been evolutionarily conserved across a wide variety of vertebrate species. Nonetheless, tectal lamination patterns vary dramatically among vertebrates. To explore the basis of this variation in lamination at a neuronal level, the laminar distribution of the cells of origin of the major ascending and descending tectofugal pathways was determined in turtles using retrograde HRP labeling and the results compared to those from similar studies in diverse other species. Four major tectal outputs were studied: 1) the ipsilateral ascending projection to nucleus rotundus of thalamus; 2) the ipsilateral ascending projection to the dorsal and ventral lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus; 3) the crossed descending projection to paramedian regions of the pons and medulla; and 4) the ipsilateral descending projection to cell groups of the ventrolateral pons and medulla. The projection to nucleus rotundus was found to arise exclusively from multipolar neurons of the stratum griseum centrale, while the projection to the geniculate nuclei was found to arise from radial cells with long ascending dendrites in the stratum griseum periventriculare. The crossed descending projection to the paramedian hindbrain was found to arise almost exclusively from large multipolar neurons, the majority of which were located in the stratum griseum centrale and some of which were located in the stratum griseum periventriculare. This pathway was also found to give rise to a collateral projection that ascends in the ipsilateral hypothalamus. The ipsilateral descending projection was found to arise from multipolar neurons in the stratum griseum centrale and stratum griseum periventriculare, from radial and pyramidal neurons in the stratum griseum periventriculare, and from radial neurons in stratum griseum et fibrosum superficiale. These results show that the laminar distribution of the cells of origin of tectofugal pathways in turtles does not fit the simple notion that the midbrain roof is organized into superficial layers containing neurons with ascending projections and deep layers containing neurons with descending projections. Rather, individual layers in turtles appear to give rise to both ascending and descending projections, with there being evidence that each projection arises largely from a separate set of neurons. The pattern of distribution of the cells of origin of these various pathways is different in turtles than in either birds, mammals, frogs, salamanders or teleosts. Such results suggest that considerable interspecific variation occurs in the extent to which individual homologous neuronal populations migrate superficially during tectal development.

Thymidine labeling index and Ki-67 growth fraction in breast cancer: comparison and correlation with prognosis

In situ determination of proliferative activity was performed on 184 consecutive primary invasive breast cancers. Methods used were monoclonal antibody Ki-67 in immunohistochemistry and thymidine labeling index. Tumor proliferation correlated between both methods (p = 0.0001). For thymidine labeling index and Ki-67, respectively, significant correlations existed with histologic tumour grade and steroid hormone receptors (Tumor grade: TLI p = 0.0001; Ki-67 p = 0.0001. ER-ICA: TLI = 0.0001; Ki-67 p = 0.014. PgR-ICA: TLI p = 0.0001; Ki-67 p = 0.0008). For thymidine labeling index a significant correlation was demonstrated for overall survival (p = 0.001) and recurrence free survival (p = 0.01). No statistical significance was observed for clinical outcome and Ki-67 (overall survival p = 0.18; recurrence free survival p = 0.1). None of the factors, TLI or Ki-67, was an independent prognostic factor as demonstrated by multivariate analysis.

Co-occurrence of gamma-aminobutyric acid, parvalbumin and the neurotensin-related neuropeptide LANT6 in pallidal, nigral and striatal neurons in pigeons and monkeys

Immunohistochemical double-labeling techniques were used to examine the co-localization of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin and the neurotensin-related hexapeptide LANT6 in neurons of the striatum and its target areas in pigeons and monkeys. The studies revealed the existence of a population of striatal interneurons apparently containing all three of these substances in both monkeys and pigeons. The results also revealed that GABA and LANT6 were co-localized in numerous pallidal and nigral reticulata neurons that also contained parvalbumin in both species. Examination of diverse other cell groups in avian forebrain and midbrain revealed that parvalbumin and LANT6 were typically co-localized to GABAergic neurons. In light of the presence of pallidal, reticulata and striatal neurons containing these three substances in two widely divergent amniote groups such as pigeons and monkeys, it seems likely that: (1) comparable neuronal populations are present in other avian and mammalian species; and (2) these neuronal populations play a fundamental role in basal ganglia functions that requires these three substances.

Aneuploidy fraction but not DNA index is important for the prognosis of patients with stage I and II breast cancer--10-year results

BACKGROUND

Individual assessment of the prognosis of patients with breast cancer is crucial for the selection of risk-adapted adjuvant therapy and in follow-up. Parameters from DNA flow-cytometry have been shown to provide significant prognostic information, but published results are in conflict and there are only a few investigations with long-term follow-up. The aim of this study is to clarify the impact of tumor DNA data on the clinical course of stage I and stage II breast cancer patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Several flow-cytometry DNA analyses were performed on tumor samples derived from 191 breast cancer patients entered in a controlled clinical trial after a median follow-up of more than 10 years. In addition to DNA index (DNI) and the percentage of cells in S phase (SPF), an index, designated aneuploidy fraction (AF), was determined. It ascertains the percentage of aneuploid cells out of all cells in the DNA flow-cytometry histogram, and its reproducibility has been tested by measurements of AF in two different samples of the same tumor. Univariate analyses and, in the 122 patients for whom complete information was available, a Cox model, were performed to investigate the individual prognostic impact of flow-cytometry parameters compared with established clinical factors.

RESULTS

AF proved to be a very valuable prognostic indicator both in univariate and multivariate analyses, whereas DNI and SPF failed to provide independent prognostic information. The combination of AF and lymph node status clearly identifies different prognostic subgroups in operable breast cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Routine evaluation of patients with breast cancer should include tumor DNA flow-cytometry. Aneuploidy fraction is a valuable tool in assessing an individual patient's prognosis and thus can help in the choice of the appropriate adjuvant treatment strategy. Whether it, rather than DNI and SPF should be used, as we found, needs to be validated in a larger prospective investigation.

Effect of choroidal and ciliary nerve transection on choroidal blood flow, retinal health, and ocular enlargement

Our previous studies suggested that reduced choroidal blood flow (CBF) occurs with manipulations that yield myopic eye growth and that these reductions are primarily a consequence of the ocular enlargement. We could not entirely rule out the possibility, however, that reductions in CBF are at least to some extent antecedent and causal to the ocular enlargement. We therefore in the present study examined the effects on eye size of artificially reducing CBF by unilaterally transecting the choroidal nerves of the ciliary ganglion in four-day-old chicks. For comparison, we also transected the ciliary nerves in a second group of chicks or transected both ciliary and choroidal nerves in a third group of chicks. The effects of the nerve transections were evaluated in comparison to the effects of the orbital surgery itself (without nerve transection) in a fourth group termed the sham-operated control group. Two weeks after transection, CBF was measured using laser Doppler velocimetry, the ocular axial, nasotemporal and dorsoventral lengths were measured, and the eyes weighed. The results showed that CBF in birds with either choroidal nerve cuts or choroidal plus ciliary nerve cuts was greatly reduced in the treated eye (20-40% of nontreated eye). The treated eyes of these birds also showed gross depigmentation and histologically evident loss of the outer retina, most typically in the temporal retina. Birds with ciliary nerve cuts showed increased CBF in both eyes (131% right eye and 154% left eye compared to shams). Since ciliary nerve cuts yield fixed dilated pupils, increased CBF with ciliary nerve cuts appears consistent with the previously reported involvement of the choroidal nerves within a neural circuit subserving light-mediated upregulation of CBF. Clear effects on eye size were observed in the treated eyes in each group. The sham surgery alone yielded slight enlargement of the right eye compared to left eye, particularly in the axial dimension. In the choroidal nerve and the both nerve cut groups, nasotemporal and dorsoventral elongation were slightly diminished in the treated eyes compared to the sham-treated eyes. In contrast, enlargement of the right eye was slightly enhanced in the ciliary nerve cut group compared to the sham-treated eyes. The overall results suggest that large decreases in CBF do not enhance myopic eye growth, although large increases in CBF may.

Are neostriatal dopamine receptors co-localized?

The postsynaptic effects of dopamine in the neostriatum are mediated by five G-protein-coupled receptors. The extent to which these receptors are co-localized in neostriatal neurons has become controversial. This debate has far-reaching implications for treatment strategies in disorders of dopaminergic signaling, such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. This review examines the molecular and cellular evidence for and against co-localization, including new information derived from single-cell mRNA amplification and patch-clamping of isolated neurons. It is concluded that this evidence is largely consistent with co-localization of functionally significant receptors of the D1 and D2 families in the majority of neostriatal efferent neurons. This conclusion has important implications for parallel processing models of the neostriatum.

Neurotransmitter organization and connections of turtle cortex: implications for the evolution of mammalian isocortex

Telencephalic cortex in turtles is a simple three layered-structure. The dorsal most part of this structure is thought to resemble the reptilian forerunner of at least parts of mammalian isocortex. This dorsal part of turtle cortex contains several functionally distinct regions that show similarity in their connections and function to specific areas in mammalian isocortex. The types of neurons found in turtle dorsal cortex (as defined by their morphology and neurotransmitter content) also show great similarity to those observed in mammals, with the major exception that turtle cortex appears to lack the types of neurons found in granular and supragranular layers of mammalian isocortex. Similar results have also been observed in other living reptiles. Thus, one major step in the evolution of reptilian cortex into mammalian cortex must have been the addition of the types of neurons found in the granular and supragranular layers of mammalian isocortex. These observations for turtles also suggest that turtle cortex in particular and reptilian telencephalic cortex in general must differ functionally from mammalian isocortex with respect to those features associated with the laminar and columnar organization of isocortex. These issues are discussed in more detail below and in Reiner (1991).

Reduction in choroidal blood flow occurs in chicks wearing goggles that induce eye growth toward myopia

Goggles that degrade the retinal image produce axial enlargement of the ocular globe and large myopic refractive errors. Many authors have assumed that visual image degradation itself leads to myopia. Hodos and co-authors have shown, however, that goggled eyes in chicks are considerably warmer than normal. Such temperature changes may either underlie or be a consequence of alterations in choroidal blood flow (CBF). Since alterations in CBF could affect eye growth, we explored the effect of monocular goggling on CBF in chicks. Plastic goggles were glued over one eye in four-day old chicks and the goggles were left in place for 12 or 14 days. Fourteen days after the goggling, CBF was measured using laser Doppler velocimetry. Three groups of chicks were studied: 1) chicks with goggles for 14 days; 2) chicks with goggles for 12 days followed by no goggles for the two days; 3) age matched non-goggled chicks. A -scan ultrasonography confirmed that the visual deprivation produced vitreous chamber elongation in the goggled eye and that the degree of elongation for the goggled eye was the same for the two goggled groups. The results were: 1) blood flow in non-goggled chicks was similar in both eyes; 2) blood flow was significantly reduced in the goggled eye in chicks wearing goggles for 14 days- 37% of control; and 3) blood flow was still significantly reduced in the goggled eye in chicks whose goggles were removed two days before measurement- 51% of control. These results show that CBF is reduced by goggles that result in myopic eye growth.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Choroidal blood flow is reduced in chicks with ocular enlargement induced by corneal incisions

We have previously reported decreased choroidal blood flow (CBF) associated with goggle-induced ocular enlargement and myopia. It was uncertain, however, if this change in CBF was related to the occurrence of ocular enlargement or the increased ocular temperature produced by the goggle. We therefore used corneal surgery-induced ocular enlargement that eliminated the thermal effects observed with goggles to investigate the effects of ocular enlargement on CBF. Central corneal incisions (2 mm in length) were made in the right eye of 4 day old chicks and the wound sutured. In one group, the incision was oriented along the vertical meridian (with the head in its natural position -beak tip 30-45 degrees below horizontal), while in another group the incision was oriented along the horizontal meridian (with the head in its natural position). Age matched controls received no corneal incision. Two weeks later, CBF was measured using laser Doppler velocimetry. After determining CBF, the eyes were removed and axial length, nasotemporal length and dorsoventral length were measured. Ocular enlargement was induced in 11 out of 12 chicks with vertical cuts. The CBF in the operated eye of these 11 animals was 62% of that in the nonoperated eye. Ocular enlargement was also induced in eight of 14 chicks with horizontal cuts. The CBF in the operated eye in these eight chicks was 60% of that in the nonoperated eye. The extent of eye growth was greater in all dimensions in the vertical cut chicks with ocular enlargement than in the horizontal cut chicks with ocular enlargement.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The distribution of cholinergic neurons in the central nervous system of turtles

The distribution of cholinergic neurons was studied in painted and red-eared turtles using antisera against choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). The results showed that the organization of cholinergic systems in the central nervous system of turtles was remarkably similar to that previously described in diverse other species. For example, the present studies revealed the presence of cholinergic neurons in the striatum, the basal telencephalon, the isthmo-tectal system, and a region of cells near the cerebellar peduncle. The motoneurons of the III, IV, V, VI, VII, X and XII cranial nerves and the spinal ventral horn were also shown to be cholinergic. Additional cholinergic neurons were observed in the hypothalamus and rhombencephalic reticular formation. These results help to clarify the precise extent and location of the major cholinergic cell groups of the turtle brain, thereby adding to our understanding of the organization of the turtle nervous system. The results also reveal that the cholinergic systems of the striatum, basal forebrain, isthmic region, and cerebellar peduncular region are ancestral features of the amniote brain and are common to all living amniotes that have been studied. Thus, the organization and, presumably, the function of the cholinergic systems appear to be conservative.

Osteoarthritis in the human knee: a dynamic process of cartilage matrix degradation, synthesis and reorganization

The matrix of articular cartilage undergoes degenerative changes in osteoarthritis which involve a number of matrix molecules. The structural and mechanical integrity is organized around the composite collagen II, IX, XI fibrillar organization. The small proteoglycan decorin that binds to these fibrils may influence their structure and mechanical properties. Aggrecan interacts indirectly via hyaluronic acid and possibly directly through unknown mechanisms. When collagen is cleaved at the articular surface in early osteoarthritis, decorin and aggrecan are lost. Increases in decorin and aggrecan content occur deeper in the cartilage. This is accompanied by evidence for increased formation of collagen fibrils and increased degradation and synthesis of aggrecan and type II collagen. The net contents of these proteoglycan per tissue do not, however, change until advanced degeneration occurs. These degradative processes are likely catalyzed by metalloproteinases and cysteine proteases. Cartilage exhibits significant capacity for remodelling which may be enhanced by therapeutic management of this process.

Studies of the articular cartilage proteoglycan aggrecan in health and osteoarthritis. Evidence for molecular heterogeneity and extensive molecular changes in disease

Changes in the structure of the proteoglycan aggrecan (PG) of articular cartilage were determined immunochemically by RIA and gel chromatography and related to cartilage degeneration documented histologically by the Mankin grading system. Monoclonal antibodies to glycosaminoglycan epitopes were used. In all cartilages, three chondroitin sulfate (CS)-rich populations of large size were observed in addition to a smaller keratan sulfate (KS)-rich population. In grades 7-13 OA cartilages (phase II), molecules were significantly larger than the equivalent molecules of grades 2-6 (phase I). CS chain lengths remained unchanged. In most OA cartilages, a CS epitope 846 was elevated in content, this being most marked in phase II (mean: fivefold). Loss of uronic acid, KS, and hyaluronic acid were only pronounced in phase II OA because of variations in normal contents. Aggregation of PG was unchanged (50-60%) or reduced in OA cartilages, but molecules bearing epitope 846 exhibited almost complete aggregation in normal cartilages. This study provides evidence for the capacity of OA cartilage to synthesize new aggrecan molecules to replace those damaged and lost by disease-related changes. It also defines two phases of PG change in OA: an early predominantly degenerate phase I followed by a net reparative phase II accompanied by net loss of these molecules.

Expression of p43 in breast cancer tissue, correlation with prognostic parameters

Placental isoferritin (PLF) and its unique superheavy chain p43 have been recently described as being synthesized by breast cancer cell lines but not by normal breast epithelial cells. Since previous reports have demonstrated a correlation between the content of 'normal' ferritin in breast cancer tissue and the degree of differentiation and prognosis, we have determined p43 in the cytosol of 122 breast cancer samples by use of the new monoclonal antibody CM-H-9. The synthesis of p43 showed a significantly negative correlation with tumor size (P = 0.0001), histologic grading (P = 0.0038), nuclear pleomorphism (P = 0.0019), rate of mitosis (P = 0.0002), lymphocytic reaction (P = 0.0001) and a significantly direct correlation with estrogen receptor status (P = 0.0009). Although patients with a higher p43 content showed a trend for a better outcome (median follow-up: 61.4 months), an independent influence of the cytosolic p43 content on survival could not be confirmed by a multiple Cox model. Therefore it seems that p43's prognostic impact is linked to the highly significant correlation with features of differentiation although a statistical bias in the Cox model due to the limited number of patients must also be taken into account. On the other hand, the significant correlation of p43 expression with factors for good prognosis was striking and consistent and warrants further research of this tumor product.

The neurotensin-related hexapeptide LANT6 is found in retinal ganglion cells and in their central projections in pigeons

Previous biochemical and immunohistochemical studies have shown that the neurotensin-related hexapeptide LANT6 is widespread and abundant in the avian nervous system. In the present study, immunohistochemical techniques were used to show that LANT6 is present in numerous cells of the retinal ganglion cell layer in pigeons. Consistent with the possibility that these LANT6+ retinal cells might be retinal ganglion cells, it was found that (1) the distribution of LANT6+ fibers and terminals in the central retinal target areas matched the distribution of central retinal projections; (2) the LANT6+ fibers and terminals are eliminated from retinal target areas by transection of the contralateral optic nerve; and (3) LANT6+ retinal cells in the ganglion cell layer can be retrogradely labeled by injections of fluorogold in the tectum. These results suggest that LANT6 may be utilized as a neuroactive substance by the central terminals of numerous retinal ganglion cells in birds. Similar anatomical findings have been previously reported for members of several other vertebrate groups, giving rise to the possibility that LANT6 (or its homologues in nonavians) may be a phylogenetically ubiquitous neuroactive substance used by retinal ganglion cells.

Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-containing nerve fibers are increased in abundance in the choroid of dystrophic RCS rats

As photoreceptor degeneration progresses in Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats, a variety of morphological and physiological alterations occur in the outer retina. Since the choriocapillaris responds to changes in the outer retina in other retinopathies, we examined the possibility that changes in the choroidal vasculature also occur in RCS rats. The choroidal and choriocapillary vessels in RCS and control (RCS-rdy+) rats were examined during the period after which photoreceptor loss and retinal vascular changes had occurred (7-mos to 28-mos). Light microscopic (LM) morphometry and electron microscopic (EM) examination showed no significant differences between these groups in the number, size or morphology of these vessels. However, EM image analysis revealed that nerve fibers and bundles were twice as abundant in the RCS choroid than in the control. Using immunohistochemical techniques at the LM level combined with image analysis we found that vasoactive intestinal polypeptide positive (VIP+) fibers were significantly increased in the RCS choroid compared with control choroid. In contrast, the abundance of immunoreactive fibers labelled for substance P and dopamine beta hydroxylase appeared similar in both the control and RCS choroid. Since VIP is a potent vasodilator, the increased abundance of nerve fibers in the RCS choroid in conjunction with the unaltered number and size of these vessels suggests that choroidal blood flow may be increased. It is uncertain whether this increase is a response to the outer retinal pathology or contributes to it.

[Epidermal growth factor receptor in human breast cancer: correlation with steroid receptors, tumor stage, grading and menopausal status]

In this study, correlations between the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R), steroid receptors, and other prognostic parameters (grading, pTNM-status, menopausal status) were analysed in 326 primary breast carcinomas. 19% of the tumour samples were EGF-R positive, 63% were estrogen receptor (ER) and 54% progesteron receptor (PR) positive. Both steroid receptors were positive in 46% of all samples. We found a highly significant inverse correlation between EGF-R and steroid receptors. 88% of the ER positive tumours were EGF-R negative (p less than 5 x 10(-5)), 90% of the PR positive tumours were EGF-R negative (p less than 5 x 10(-5)) and 91% of the ER plus PR positive tumours were ERF-R negative (p less than 1 x 10(-6)). Grading was available in 170 cases. Six (4%) of the carcinomas were highly differentiated (G1), 82 (48%) were classified as G2, and another 82 (48%) were poorly differentiated (G3). A combination of negative ER and positive EGF-R was found more often in the population of G3 tumours. EGF-R was also positively correlated to tumour size. With regard to receptor status, we did not find a correlation with lymph node involvement. The ER correlated negatively (p less than 1.3 x 10(-5) and the EGF-R positively (p less than 0.042) with menopausal status. Thus, EGF-R overexpression seems to be a marker of morphological and functional dedifferentiation which is associated with a loss of steroid dependency and an increase of an autostimulatory-paracrine growth control. These changes seem to be related to poor prognosis.

An immunohistochemical study of the telencephalon of the senegal bichir (Polypterus senegalus)

The telencephalon in ray-finned fish (actinopterygians) is everted, in contrast to the evaginated telencephalic hemispheres in all other vertebrates. In the more derived ray-finned fish, the teleosts, proliferation of neurons and their migration from the ependymal zone of the pallium renders comparisons between telencephalic cell groups of the teleosts and members of other vertebrate groups extremely difficult. The telencephalon of Polypterus (a primitive living ray-finned fish), although everted, is cytoarchitecturally much simpler than that of teleosts. We have thus applied immunohistochemical techniques to the study of the telencephalon of Polypterus to help clarify the evolution of the telencephalon in teleosts and facilitate comparisons between the telencephalon in ray-finned fish and other vertebrates. Antisera against the following neuroactive substances were used: 1) serotonin (5HT), 2) tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), 3) substance P (SP), 4) leucine-enkephalin (ENK), 5) neuropeptide Y (NPY), and 6) the neurotensin-related hexapeptide LANT6. Several features of the labeling patterns obtained suggested that the dorsal and ventral subdivisions of the area ventralis are homologous as a field to the basal ganglia and septum plus other basal telencephalic regions of land vertebrates, sharks and lungfish: 1) an abundance of SP+, NPY+, and ENK+ fibers; 2) an abundance of TH+ fibers, possibly of posterior tubercle/tegmental origin; 3) the presence of an SP+ fiber bundle that appeared to descend from basal telencephalic levels and terminate in the posterior tubercle/tegmentum, which contain TH+ (possibly dopaminergic) neurons; and 4) an abundance of 5HT+ fibers, presumably of posterior tubercle/tegmental origin. It was not possible, however, to recognize distinct pallidal and striatal subdivisions within the area ventralis of Polypterus. The olfactory pallium (P1) was generally poor in most of the substances examined, except for the presence of LANT6+ fibers. The P3 pallial field was conspicuously rich in SP+ and ENK+ fibers throughout its extent, and the caudal and lateral parts of the P2 field were rich in SP+ fibers and ENK+ fibers. Since this is characteristic of the medial pallial and/or dorsomedial pallial walls of the telencephalon in lungfish, sharks, frogs, and reptiles, the P3 field and caudolateral part of the P2 field may be homologous to these portions of the telencephalon in other vertebrates. More rostromedial parts of P2 may correspond to those parts of the pallium in land vertebrates that are in receipt of specific sensory input from the thalamus, since low neuropeptide levels are characteristic of these regions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Preferential loss of striato-external pallidal projection neurons in presymptomatic Huntington's disease

We have reported previously that striatal projection neurons are differentially affected in the course of Huntington's disease, and in a prior patient report we noted that differential loss of striatal projection neurons occurs also in patients with presymptomatic Huntington's disease. Striatal neurons projecting to the external segment of the globus pallidus or the substantia nigra show evident loss, whereas those projecting to the internal segment of the globus pallidus appear relatively spared at presymptomatic and early stages of symptomatic Huntington's disease. We now report similar findings in a second apparently presymptomatic Huntington's disease allele carrier.

Biotinylated dextran amine as an anterograde tracer for single- and double-labeling studies

Fluorescent dextran amines have recently been reported to be useful for anterograde pathway tracing. However, fluorescent markers are not always ideal for detailed mapping studies. We therefore evaluated the efficacy of a biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) for anterograde labeling in several different preparations. BDA was visualized with an avidin-biotinylated HRP (ABC) procedure followed by a standard or metal-enhanced diaminobenzidine (DAB) reaction. After iontophoretic injections of BDA into neocortex-like telencephalic regions in pigeons or into visual or somatosensory cortex in rats, there was excellent and abundant labeling of axons and terminals in forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain target areas with 1-week survival times. Large pressure injections of BDA into the avian telencephalon were also found to result in extensive anterograde labeling. We then carried out a series of studies using 2-color DAB double-labeling to determine effective approaches for combining BDA labeling with other labeling methods. Using an isolated embryonic chick spinal cord-hindlimb preparation, we combined BDA labeling with another anterograde labeling method to differentially label two sets of projections. In these studies, sensory neuron and motoneuron projections into the limb from the same segmental level, or motoneuron projections into the limb from two separate segments were differentially labeled by using HRP (visualized first with a blue/black metal-DAB reaction) and BDA (visualized second with a brown DAB reaction). In other double-labeling studies, we combined BDA labeling of axons and terminals with immunohistochemical labeling of neurons. In these experiments, telencephalic neurons in pigeons or rats were labeled immunohistochemically for parvalbumin or substance P (using a brown DAB reaction) and BDA-labeled axons were labeled blue/black (using a metal-intensified DAB reaction). Double-labeling was successful regardless of whether the entire immunohistochemical labeling procedure preceded or followed the BDA labeling procedure. Together, these studies show that BDA is effective for anterograde pathway tracing and can be used in double-label studies with other labeling methods.

Ultrastructural double-labeling demonstrates synaptic contacts between dopaminergic terminals and substance P-containing striatal neurons in pigeons

Immunohistochemical studies in rats have demonstrated dopaminergic input onto medium spiny neurons of the striatum. Medium spiny neurons, however, are known to consist of two major neuropeptide-specific types, those containing substance P (SP) and those containing enkephalin. Although both of these types have been shown to receive dopaminergic input onto their perikarya and proximal dendrites, the extent to which both types also receive direct dopaminergic input onto distal dendritic shafts or onto dendritic spines is uncertain. In the present study, we used EM immunohistochemical double-label techniques to examine the synaptic organization of dopaminergic input onto SP+ striatal neurons. We examined the striatum of pigeons, in whom SP+ striatal neurons, including their dendritic shafts and spines, can be readily labeled. Antibodies against tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) were used to identify dopaminergic terminals, which were labeled using silver-intensified immunogold. The SP+ neurons were labeled immunohistochemically using diaminobenzidine. We found that dopaminergic terminals make appositions and form symmetric synapses with the perikarya, dendritic shafts and dendritic spines of SP+ neurons. Thus, nigral dopaminergic neurons provide a monosynaptic input onto SP+ striatal neurons in a manner similar to that described for dopaminergic input onto striatal medium spiny neurons in general.

Placental isoferritin associated p43 antigen correlates with features of high differentiation in breast cancer

Placental isoferritin (PLF), an acidic isoform of ferritin, and its unique superheavy chain p43 have been recently described to be synthesized by breast cancer cell lines but not by normal breast epithelial cells. Since previous reports have demonstrated a correlation between the content of 'normal' ferritin in breast cancer tissue, degree of differentiation, and prognosis, we have tried to evaluate the correlation of p43 in the cytosol of 122 breast cancer samples with commonly applied prognostic factors and features of proliferation and differentiation. In parallel, we investigated the correlation of p43 expression in MCF-7 and T47-D breast cancer cell lines during proliferation induced by estradiol plus fetal calf serum (assessed by 3H-thymidine incorporation), compared to p43 expression in stationary non-stimulated cell cultures. The levels of p43 in breast cancer cytosols correlated significantly negatively with tumor size (p = 0.0001), histologic grading (p = 0.0038), nuclear pleomorphism (p = 0.0019), rate of mitosis (p = 0.0002), and lymphocytic reaction (p = 0.0001), and significantly directly with the estrogen receptor status (p = 0.0009). Although patients with a higher p43 content showed a trend for a better outcome (median follow-up: 61.4 months), an independent influence of the cytosolic p43 content on survival could not be confirmed by a multivariate Cox model. In accordance with the observed negative correlation of features of differentiation vs. p43 expression, induction of proliferation by estradiol plus FCS added to serum-free tissue culture medium correlated with a decrease of p43 synthesis in both cell lines. Expression of p43 in estrogen and FCS-absent media revealed also a decrease in relation to a low spontaneous proliferation. However, the drop of p43 synthesis was significantly stronger in cell lines with estrogen-stimulated proliferation. Our in vitro and cytosol results confirm recent clinical observations describing an inverse correlation of p43 synthesis with the degree of proliferation and differentiation in breast cancer. However, the pathologic mechanisms leading to this phenomenon as well as the negative correlation with lymphocytic infiltration are still unclear and need to be further elucidated.

DNA ploidy and other results of DNA flow cytometry as prognostic factors in operable breast cancer: 10 year results of a randomised study

We evaluated breast cancer specimens from 241 patients of a controlled clinical trial by means of DNA flow cytometry. We report the correlations between DNA index (DNI) and fraction of cells in S-phase (SPF) and other prognostic parameters. Both univariately and in a Cox model, the predictive power of these factors is evaluated after a follow-up of more than 10 years. There are strong correlations between DNI and SPF (P = 0.0001) and between flow cytometry parameters and clinical and histopathological factors such as axillary lymph node involvement, tumour size and histological grade. In univariate analysis DNI fails to provide prognostic information, whereas SPF turns out to be able to differentiate between patients at high and low risk for relapse and death (P = 0.002). In the multivariate Cox model, too, SPF is an important prognostic parameter with respect to patient survival (relative risk: +86%), only surpassed by nodal involvement. DNI, however, turns out to be an independent predictor of relapse free survival and distant recurrence free survival. By combination of DNI and SPF, patients can be divided into three prognostic subgroups. We conclude that data from DNA flow cytometry can be of great importance for the decision on the level of aggressiveness of adjuvant therapy for an individual patient and therefore may help to avoid overtreatment and toxicity.

Selective functional posterior rhizotomy for treatment of spastic cerebral palsy in children. Review of 50 consecutive cases

Fifty consecutive children are described with spastic cerebral palsy treated with selective functional lumbar and sacral rhizotomy and followed for a minimum of 6 months. In all patients, spasticity improved postoperatively, but this was not necessarily accompanied by a functional improvement. Eighteen children who could not walk preoperatively were able to do so after rhizotomy. All 17 children who could walk preoperatively could do so following surgery, and in 15, gait was improved. Complications included transient urinary dysfunction in 4 children and sensory loss in 1. The operative procedure evolved with time: the technique of replacement laminotomy was refined; the electrophysiologic basis for selection of nerve rootlets changed after studies of nonspastic controls; smaller percentages of the L3 and L4 roots were sectioned in an attempt to prevent postoperative weakness of quadriceps, and there was a trend in the most recent patients to cut a smaller portion of all the posterior roots.

Immunohistochemical localization of DARPP-32 in striatal projection neurons and striatal interneurons: implications for the localization of D1-like dopamine receptors on different types of striatal neurons

Immunohistochemical double-label techniques were used to study the localization of DARPP-32, a phosphoprotein that is enriched in neurons possessing members of the D1 subfamily of dopamine receptors, in several different types of striatal neurons in the rat basal ganglia. The vast majority (94.1%) of striatonigral projection neurons (the vast majority of which contain substance P), identified by retrograde labeling with fluorogold, were observed to contain DARPP-32. Similarly, the vast majority of striatopallidal projection neurons (87.7%), identified by immunofluorescence labeling for enkephalin (ENK), were found to label for DARPP-32. In contrast, cholinergic and neuropeptide Y-containing striatal interneurons were never observed to contain DARPP-32. These results suggest that essentially all major types of striatal medium spiny projection neurons may possess members of the D1 subfamily of dopamine receptors, but that striatal local circuit neurons do not possess members of the D1 subfamily of receptors.

Calcitonin-gene related peptide is an evolutionarily conserved marker within the amniote thalamo-telencephalic auditory pathway

The distribution of neurons and fibers containing calcitonin-gene-related peptide (CGRP) was mapped in the thalamo-telencephalic auditory pathways of four amniote species, rats, pigeons (Columba livia), caiman (Caiman crocodilus), and turtles (Pseudemys scripta). In colchicine-treated turtles and pigeons, numerous CGRP+ perikarya were observed in the auditory relay nucleus of the thalamus (n. reuniens of reptiles, and n. ovoidalis of birds). In pigeons, these neurons were most abundant in the outer circumference of the nucleus and were not observed without colchicine pretreatment. In the telencephalon of turtles, caiman, and pigeons, CGRP+ fibers were observed within portions of the dorsal ventricular ridge previously shown to receive projections from the auditory thalamus, thus implying that the thalamic CGRP+ neurons observed here in fact project to these telencephalic areas. In colchicine treated rats, numerous CGRP+ perikarya were observed along the ventral margin of the medial geniculate nucleus extending into the posterior intralaminar and peripeduncular nuclei, as well as occasionally within the ventral subdivision of the medial geniculate nucleus. Injections of fluorogold into the auditory cortex combined with immunofluorescence labeling for CGRP revealed that CGRP+ cells in these areas do, in fact, project to the auditory cortices. The present results are interpreted as providing strong support for the theory, advanced previously, that the medial geniculate nucleus of mammals, nucleus ovoidalis of birds, and nucleus reuniens of reptiles contain at least some homologous cell populations. Although the data are consistent with the theory that the telencephalic projection fields are homologous, other interpretations are also consistent with the data presented here. These include the possibility that auditory thalamic projections to the telencephalon arose independently in the lines of evolution leading to mammals and sauropsids.

Ultrastructural single- and double-label immunohistochemical studies of substance P-containing terminals and dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in pigeons

The vast majority of striatonigral projection neurons in pigeons contain substance P (SP), and the vast majority of SP-containing fibers terminating in the substantia nigra arise from neurons in the striatum. To help clarify the role of striatonigral projection neurons, we conducted electron microscopic single- and double-label immunohistochemical studies of SP+ terminals and/or dopaminergic neurons (labeled with either anti-dopamine, DA, or anti-tyrosine hydroxylase, TH) in pigeons to determine: (1) the synaptic organization of SP+ terminals, (2) the synaptic organization of TH+ perikarya and/or dendrites, and (3) the synaptic relationship between SP+ terminals and TH+ neurons in the substantia nigra. Tissue single-labeled for SP revealed numerous SP+ terminals contacting thin unlabeled dendrites in the substantia nigra, but few SP+ terminals were observed contacting perikarya or large-diameter dendrites. SP+ terminals contained round, densely packed, clear vesicles, and often contained one or more dense-core vesicles. Synaptic junctions between SP+ terminals and their targets were more often symmetric (86%) than asymmetric. In tissue single-labeled for DA, we observed few terminals contacting DA+ perikarya, whereas terminals contacting DA+ dendrites were more abundant. Terminals contacting DA+ structures comprised at least four different morphologically distinct types based on the morphology of the clear synaptic vesicles and the type of synaptic junction. One type of terminal contained round clear vesicles and made symmetric synapses, and thus resembled the predominant type of SP+ terminal. The second type contained round clear vesicles and made asymmetric synapses, the third type contained medium-size pleomorphic clear vesicles and made symmetric synapses, and the fourth type contained small pleomorphic clear vesicles and made symmetric synapses. The presence of contacts between SP+ terminals and dopaminergic dendrites in the substantia nigra was directly demonstrated in tissue double-labeled for SP (by the peroxidase-antiperoxidase procedure, or PAP, with diaminobenzidine) and TH (by either the silver-intensified immunogold procedure or the PAP procedure with benzidine dihydrochloride). SP+ terminals commonly contacted thin TH+ dendrites in the substantia nigra, but few SP+ terminals contacted large-diameter TH+ dendrites or perikarya. Synapses between SP+ terminals and TH+ neurons were always symmetric. TH+ dendrites also were contacted by terminals not labeled for SP, which were more abundant than were SP+ terminals. Non-TH+ neurons were also contacted by both SP+ terminals and non-SP+ terminals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Neurotransmitter organization of the nucleus of Edinger-Westphal and its projection to the avian ciliary ganglion

Two morphologically distinct types of preganglionic endings are observed in the avian ciliary ganglion: boutonal and cap-like. Boutonal endings synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons (called choroidal neurons) innervating choroidal blood vessels, while cap-like endings synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons (called ciliary neurons) controlling the lens and pupil. Some of both types of preganglionic endings contain the neuropeptides substance P (SP) and/or leucine-enkephalin (LENK). Although both types of preganglionic terminals are also known to be cholinergic, there has been no direct evidence that SP and LENK are found in cholinergic endings in the ciliary ganglion. The present studies in pigeons, which involved the use of single- and double-label immunohistochemical techniques, were undertaken to examine this issue, as well as to (1) determine the relative percentages of the boutonal and cap-like endings that contain SP, LENK, or both SP and LENK; and (2) determine if the two different types of terminals in the ciliary ganglion arise from different subdivisions of the nucleus of Edinger-Westphal (EW). Single- and double-label immunohistochemical studies revealed that all neurons of EW, regardless of whether they contained immunohistochemically detectible amounts of SP or LENK, are cholinergic. In the medial subdivision of EW (EWM), which was found to contain approximately 700 neurons, 20.2% of these neurons were observed to contain both SP and LENK, while 11.6% were observed to contain SP only and 10.7% were observed to contain LENK only. In contrast, in lateral EW (EWL), which was found to contain approximately 500 neurons, 16.2% of the neurons were observed to contain both SP and LENK, while 19.2% of the neurons were observed to contain SP only and 12.6% were observed to contain LENK only. Retrograde-labeling studies involving horseradish peroxidase injections into the ciliary ganglion revealed that EW was the sole source of input to the ciliary ganglion and all, or nearly all, neurons in EW innervate the ciliary ganglion. Immunohistochemical labeling of the ciliary ganglion neurons with an antiserum against choline acetyltransferase revealed that approximately 900 choroidal neurons and approximately 600 ciliary neurons are present in the ganglion, all of which receive cholinergic preganglionic endings. Of the choroidal neurons, 94% receive butonal terminals containing both SP and LENK, while only 2% receive SP+ only boutonal endings and 2% receive LENK+ only butonal endings. Of the ciliary neurons, 25% receive cap-like endings containing both SP and LENK, 30% receive cap-like endings containing only SP and 3% receive cap-like endings containing only LENK.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The Edinger-Westphal nucleus: sources of input influencing accommodation, pupilloconstriction, and choroidal blood flow

This study used neuroanatomical techniques to investigate sources of afferents to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EW) of the pigeon. The EW contains the parasympathetic preganglionic neurons that, by way of the oculomotor nerve, project to the ciliary ganglion (Narayanan and Narayanan, '76; Lyman and Mugnaini, '80). The ciliary ganglion, in turn, innervates the internal musculature of the eye; the ciliary body, the iris sphincter muscle, and the smooth muscle of choroidal blood vessels (Marwitt et al., '71; Pilar and Tuttle, '82). In the bird, the neurons in the ciliary ganglion that innervate the iris sphincter muscle and the ciliary body receive input specifically from cells in the lateral EW (EWl), whereas those that innervate choroidal blood vessels receive input from cells in the medial EW (EWm) (Reiner et al., '83). Thus neurons in the EWl mediate pupilloconstriction and accommodation, whereas neurons in the EWm modulate choroidal blood flow. To study the afferents to EW, injections of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were placed in this nucleus. These injections resulted in labeled cells in the area pretectalis, a retinorecipient pretectal nucleus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus, a retinorecipient hypothalamic nucleus. We have previously identified both these areas as being sources of afferents to EW (Gamlin et al., '82, '84). In addition, these HRP injections into EW resulted in labeled cells in the medial mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) lateral and ventral to the oculomotor nucleus and in a localized area of the rostral lateral mesencephalic reticular formation (LRF) dorsolateral to nucleus subpretectalis. Injections of tritiated amino acids into the MRF labeled the entire EW, while such injections into the LRF labeled only the lateral EW. Both of these projections were predominantly contralateral. This study has identified the sources of two previously undocumented inputs to the avian EW. Both sources of input, the MRF and rostral LRF, receive afferents from visuomotor areas of the telencephalon and visual structures in the midbrain. The MRF input to EW could have either direct or modulatory influences on pupil diameter, accommodation, and choroidal blood flow. The LRF input to EW could play a role in controlling accommodation and possibly the pupillary near response.

Distribution, laminar location, and morphology of tectal neurons projecting to the isthmo-optic nucleus and the nucleus isthmi, pars parvocellularis in the pigeon (Columba livia) and chick (Gallus domesticus): a retrograde labelling study

Retrograde transport of Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin (PHA-L), fluorogold, fast blue, rhodamine labelled microspheres, and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was employed to study the distribution, laminar location within the optic tectum, and morphology of tectal cells projecting upon the isthmo-optic nucleus (ION) and the nucleus isthmi, pars parvocellularis (Ipc), in the pigeon and chick. Following injections into the ION, all retrograde markers labelled tecto-ION neurons and their dendrites in the ipsilateral tectum. The cells were located within a relatively narrow band at the border between layers 9 and 10 of the stratum griseum et fibrosum superficiale (SGFS). Retrogradely labelled neuronal somata were different in both dendritic branching and shape; however, tecto-ION neurons generally possessed non-spiny radially oriented and multi-branched dendrites. The apical processes extended into the retino-recipient layers (2-7) of the SGFS and basal dendrites extended into layers 12-14 of the SGFS. Positive neuronal somata were observed throughout the rostro-caudal extent of the optic tectum. The average distance between adjacent tecto-ION neurons varied from one region to another. Specifically, retrogradely labelled cells were more numerous in the caudal, lateral, and ventral tectum, and less numerous at rostro-dorsal levels. Approximately 12,000 tecto-ION neurons were labelled within the ipsilateral optic tectum following either PHA-L or fluorescent dye injections. While the regional distribution of tecto-Ipc neurons was not examined, the morphology indicated that the cells had a single radially oriented dendritic process. Therefore, the apical dendrites are more restricted than those of tecto-ION cells. Moreover, the dendrites were spiny and arborized within layers 3, 5, and 9 of the ipsilateral optic tectum. The axon of tecto-Ipc cells arise from the apical process as a shepherd's crook and descend into the deep layers of the optic tectum. These results indicate that 1) tecto-ION and tecto-Ipc neurons are possibly monosynaptically activated by retinal input, 2) tecto-ION neurons are heterogeneous in morphology, and 3) there is a differential distribution of the tecto-ION neurons throughout the rostro-caudal extent of the optic tectum, suggesting a greater representation of the caudo-ventral portion of the optic tectum within the ION. The discussion primarily concerns the organization of the retino-tecto-ION-retinal circuit in light of the distribution and morphology of tecto-ION neurons within the optic tectum.