KRASG12C inhibition produces a driver-limited state revealing collateral dependencies

Inhibitors targeting KRAS^G12C, a mutant form of the guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) KRAS, are a promising new class of oncogene-specific therapeutics for the treatment of tumors driven by the mutant protein. These inhibitors react with the mutant cysteine residue by binding covalently to the switch-II pocket (S-IIP) that is present only in the inactive guanosine diphosphate (GDP)-bound form of KRAS^G12C, sparing the wild-type protein. We used a genome-scale CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) functional genomics platform to systematically identify genetic interactions with a KRAS^G12C inhibitor in cellular models of KRAS^G12C mutant lung and pancreatic cancer. Our data revealed genes that were selectively essential in this oncogenic driver-limited cell state, meaning that their loss enhanced cellular susceptibility to direct KRAS^G12C inhibition. We termed such genes "collateral dependencies" (CDs) and identified two classes of combination therapies targeting these CDs that increased KRAS^G12C target engagement or blocked residual survival pathways in cells and in vivo. From our findings, we propose a framework for assessing genetic dependencies induced by oncogene inhibition.

Neuronal Apolipoprotein E4 Expression Results in Proteome-Wide Alterations and Compromises Bioenergetic Capacity by Disrupting Mitochondrial Function

Apolipoprotein (apo) E4, the major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), alters mitochondrial function and metabolism early in AD pathogenesis. When injured or stressed, neurons increase apoE synthesis. Because of its structural difference from apoE3, apoE4 undergoes neuron-specific proteolysis, generating fragments that enter the cytosol, interact with mitochondria, and cause neurotoxicity. However, apoE4's effect on mitochondrial respiration and metabolism is not understood in detail. Here we used biochemical assays and proteomic profiling to more completely characterize the effects of apoE4 on mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism in Neuro-2a neuronal cells stably expressing apoE4 or apoE3. Under basal conditions, apoE4 impaired respiration and increased glycolysis, but when challenged or stressed, apoE4-expressing neurons had 50% less reserve capacity to generate ATP to meet energy requirements than apoE3-expressing neurons. ApoE4 expression also decreased the NAD+/NADH ratio and increased the levels of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial calcium. Global proteomic profiling revealed widespread changes in mitochondrial processes in apoE4 cells, including reduced levels of numerous respiratory complex subunits and major disruptions to all detected subunits in complex V (ATP synthase). Also altered in apoE4 cells were levels of proteins related to mitochondrial endoplasmic reticulum-associated membranes, mitochondrial fusion/fission, mitochondrial protein translocation, proteases, and mitochondrial ribosomal proteins. ApoE4-induced bioenergetic deficits led to extensive metabolic rewiring, but despite numerous cellular adaptations, apoE4-expressing neurons remained vulnerable to metabolic stress. Our results provide insights into potential molecular targets of therapies to correct apoE4-associated mitochondrial dysfunction and altered cellular metabolism.

TCO, a Putative Transcriptional Regulator in Arabidopsis, Is a Target of the Protein Kinase CK2

As multicellular organisms grow, spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression are strictly regulated to ensure that developmental programs are invoked at appropriate stages. In this work, we describe a putative transcriptional regulator in Arabidopsis, TACO LEAF (TCO), whose overexpression results in the ectopic activation of reproductive genes during vegetative growth. Isolated as an activation-tagged allele, tco-1D displays gene misexpression and phenotypic abnormalities, such as curled leaves and early flowering, characteristic of chromatin regulatory mutants. A role for TCO in this mode of transcriptional regulation is further supported by the subnuclear accumulation patterns of TCO protein and genetic interactions between tco-1D and chromatin modifier mutants. The endogenous expression pattern of TCO and gene misregulation in tco loss-of-function mutants indicate that this factor is involved in seed development. We also demonstrate that specific serine residues of TCO protein are targeted by the ubiquitous kinase CK2. Collectively, these results identify TCO as a novel regulator of gene expression whose activity is likely influenced by phosphorylation, as is the case with many chromatin regulators.

Comparative Flavivirus-Host Protein Interaction Mapping Reveals Mechanisms of Dengue and Zika Virus Pathogenesis

Mosquito-borne flaviviruses, including dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV), are a growing public health concern. Systems-level analysis of how flaviviruses hijack cellular processes through virus-host protein-protein interactions (PPIs) provides information about their replication and pathogenic mechanisms. We used affinity purification-mass spectrometry (AP-MS) to compare flavivirus-host interactions for two viruses (DENV and ZIKV) in two hosts (human and mosquito). Conserved virus-host PPIs revealed that the flavivirus NS5 protein suppresses interferon stimulated genes by inhibiting recruitment of the transcription complex PAF1C and that chemical modulation of SEC61 inhibits DENV and ZIKV replication in human and mosquito cells. Finally, we identified a ZIKV-specific interaction between NS4A and ANKLE2, a gene linked to hereditary microcephaly, and showed that ZIKV NS4A causes microcephaly in Drosophila in an ANKLE2-dependent manner. Thus, comparative flavivirus-host PPI mapping provides biological insights and, when coupled with in vivo models, can be used to unravel pathogenic mechanisms.

Multiple Routes to Oncogenesis Are Promoted by the Human Papillomavirus-Host Protein Network

We have mapped a global network of virus-host protein interactions by purification of the complete set of human papillomavirus (HPV) proteins in multiple cell lines followed by mass spectrometry analysis. Integration of this map with tumor genome atlases shows that the virus targets human proteins frequently mutated in HPV- but not HPV+ cancers, providing a unique opportunity to identify novel oncogenic events phenocopied by HPV infection. For example, we find that the NRF2 transcriptional pathway, which protects against oxidative stress, is activated by interaction of the NRF2 regulator KEAP1 with the viral protein E1. We also demonstrate that the L2 HPV protein physically interacts with the RNF20/40 histone ubiquitination complex and promotes tumor cell invasion in an RNF20/40-dependent manner. This combined proteomic and genetic approach provides a systematic means to study the cellular mechanisms hijacked by virally induced cancers.Significance: In this study, we created a protein-protein interaction network between HPV and human proteins. An integrative analysis of this network and 800 tumor mutation profiles identifies multiple oncogenesis pathways promoted by HPV interactions that phenocopy recurrent mutations in cancer, yielding an expanded definition of HPV oncogenic roles. Cancer Discov; 8(11); 1474-89. ©2018 AACR. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1333.

Extending chemical perturbations of the ubiquitin fitness landscape in a classroom setting reveals new constraints on sequence tolerance

Although the primary protein sequence of ubiquitin (Ub) is extremely stable over evolutionary time, it is highly tolerant to mutation during selection experiments performed in the laboratory. We have proposed that this discrepancy results from the difference between fitness under laboratory culture conditions and the selective pressures in changing environments over evolutionary timescales. Building on our previous work (Mavor et al., 2016), we used deep mutational scanning to determine how twelve new chemicals (3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole, 5-fluorocytosine, Amphotericin B, CaCl₂, Cerulenin, Cobalt Acetate, Menadione, Nickel Chloride, p-Fluorophenylalanine, Rapamycin, Tamoxifen, and Tunicamycin) reveal novel mutational sensitivities of ubiquitin residues. Collectively, our experiments have identified eight new sensitizing conditions for Lys63 and uncovered a sensitizing condition for every position in Ub except Ser57 and Gln62. By determining the ubiquitin fitness landscape under different chemical constraints, our work helps to resolve the inconsistencies between deep mutational scanning experiments and sequence conservation over evolutionary timescales.

Sympathetic inputs regulate adaptive thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue through cAMP-Salt inducible kinase axis

Various physiological stimuli, such as cold environment, diet, and hormones, trigger brown adipose tissue (BAT) to produce heat through sympathetic nervous system (SNS)- and β-adrenergic receptors (βARs). The βAR stimulation increases intracellular cAMP levels through heterotrimeric G proteins and adenylate cyclases, but the processes by which cAMP modulates brown adipocyte function are not fully understood. Here we described that specific ablation of cAMP production in brown adipocytes led to reduced lipolysis, mitochondrial biogenesis, uncoupling protein 1 (Ucp1) expression, and consequently defective adaptive thermogenesis. Elevated cAMP signaling by sympathetic activation inhibited Salt-inducible kinase 2 (Sik2) through protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated phosphorylation in brown adipose tissue. Inhibition of SIKs enhanced Ucp1 expression in differentiated brown adipocytes and Sik2 knockout mice exhibited enhanced adaptive thermogenesis at thermoneutrality in an Ucp1-dependent manner. Taken together, our data indicate that suppressing Sik2 by PKA-mediated phosphorylation is a requisite for SNS-induced Ucp1 expression and adaptive thermogenesis in BAT, and targeting Sik2 may present a novel therapeutic strategy to ramp up BAT thermogenic activity in humans.

Abstract PR04: HER3 crosstalk with HPV16-E6E7 is a feedback resistance mechanism to PI3K-targeted therapies in head and neck cancer

Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 plays an etiologic role in a growing subset of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), where viral expression of the E6 and E7 oncoproteins is necessary for tumor growth and maintenance. Although patients with HPV(+) tumors have a more favorable prognosis, there are currently no HPV-selective therapies. Accumulating evidence indicates that HPV oncoproteins can activate the Phosphoinositol-3-Kinase (PI3K) pathway, which contributes to transformation. Furthermore, PI3K is genomically activated by PIK3CA mutation or amplification in a disproportionately high number of HPV(+) tumors as compared to HPV(-) tumors. Based on this knowledge, we investigated the efficacy of PI3K-targeted therapies in preclinical models of HPV(+) HNSCC. Our results indicate that HPV(+) preclinical models were less sensitive to the PI3K inhibitors BYL719, BKM120, and BEZ235 as compared with HPV(-) models. Sensitivity of HPV(+) cell lines to PI3K inhibitors was increased upon knockdown of the E6 and E7 oncoproteins. Reciprocally, overexpression of E6 and E7 in HPV(-) cells rendered them resistant to PI3K-targeted therapies. Proteomic analyses indicated that treatment of HPV(+) cell lines and patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) with the PI3Kα inhibitor BYL719 induced expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase HER3, as well as E6 and E7. HER3 was found to regulate the abundance of E6 and E7 in the HPV(+) models. Targeting HER3 with siRNAs or the monoclonal antibody, KTN3379, blocked the increase in E6 and E7 protein levels following BYL719 treatment, and enhanced the efficacy of PI3K inhibitors in HPV(+) cell line and PDX models. Taken together, these results suggest that crosstalk between HER3 and HPV16-E6E7 can limit the efficacy of PI3K inhibitors, and that co-targeting HER3 and PI3K may be an effective therapeutic strategy in HPV(+) tumors.

This abstract is also being presented as Poster 67.

Citation Format: Toni M. Brand, Stefan Hartmann, Neil E. Bhola, Hua Li, Yan Zeng, Rachel O'Keefe, Max V. Ranall, Sourav Bandyopadhyay, Margaret Soucheray, Danielle L. Swaney, Nevan Krogan, Carolyn Kemp, Umamaheswar Duvvuri, Daniel E. Johnson, Michelle A. Ozbun, Julie E. Bauman, Jennifer R. Grandis. HER3 crosstalk with HPV16-E6E7 is a feedback resistance mechanism to PI3K-targeted therapies in head and neck cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR-AHNS Head and Neck Cancer Conference: Optimizing Survival and Quality of Life through Basic, Clinical, and Translational Research; April 23-25, 2017; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Clin Cancer Res 2017;23(23_Suppl):Abstract nr PR04.

Enrichment of Modified Peptides via Immunoaffinity Precipitation with Modification-Specific Antibodies

Immunoaffinity precipitation is an effective method of purifying select protein posttranslational modifications (PTMs) for proteomic analysis via mass spectrometry. Peptides containing a modification of interest are isolated directly from protease-digested cellular protein extracts using an antibody with specificity against the modification, and the modified peptides are analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. Antibodies now exist with specificity for a variety of individual PTMs, such as phosphotyrosine, acetyl-lysine, methyl-arginine, ubiquitylation (i.e., diglycyl-lysine affinity), etc. Here we outline a generalized protocol for the purification of modified peptides by immunoaffinity precipitation. The main restriction for using this protocol is the availability of an antibody against the modification of interest. To purify modified peptides, antibodies are first conjugated to a solid support, such as agarose beads. The beads are then incubated with a complex peptide mixture, derived from a cellular lysate, under neutral pH to facilitate binding of modified peptides. The incubation time can vary from 30 min to overnight, depending upon the antibody used and the complexity of the peptide sample. Finally, acidic buffer conditions are used to elute the PTM-enriched bound peptides for mass spectrometry analysis.

Proteomic Analysis of Protein Posttranslational Modifications by Mass Spectrometry

The addition of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) to proteins is an influential mechanism to temporally control protein function and ultimately regulate entire cellular processes. Most PTMs are present at low stoichiometry and abundance, which limits their detection when analyzing whole cell lysates. PTM purification methods are thus required to comprehensively characterize the presence and dynamics of PTMs using mass spectrometry-based proteomics approaches. Here we describe several of the most influential PTMs and discuss the fundamentals of proteomics experiments and PTM purification methods.

Enrichment of Phosphopeptides via Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography

Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is a frequently used method for the enrichment of phosphorylated peptides from complex, cellular lysate-derived peptide mixtures. Here we outline an IMAC protocol that uses iron-chelated magnetic beads to selectively isolate phosphorylated peptides for mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis. Under acidic conditions, negatively charged phosphoryl modifications preferentially bind to positively charged metal ions (e.g., Fe(3+), Ga(3+)) on the beads. After washing away nonphosphorylated peptides, a pH shift to basic conditions causes the elution of bound phosphopeptides from the metal ion. Under optimal conditions, very high specificity for phosphopeptides can be achieved.

Phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Ser65 affects its polymerization, targets, and proteome-wide turnover

Ubiquitylation is an essential post-translational modification that regulates numerous cellular processes, most notably protein degradation. Ubiquitin can itself be phosphorylated at nearly every serine, threonine, and tyrosine residue. However, the effect of this modification on ubiquitin function is largely unknown. Here, we characterized the effects of phosphorylation of yeast ubiquitin at serine 65 in vivo and in vitro. We find this post-translational modification to be regulated under oxidative stress, occurring concomitantly with the restructuring of the ubiquitin landscape into a highly polymeric state. Phosphomimetic mutation of S65 recapitulates the oxidative stress phenotype, causing a dramatic accumulation of ubiquitylated proteins and a proteome-wide reduction of protein turnover rates. Importantly, this mutation impacts ubiquitin chain disassembly, chain linkage distribution, ubiquitin interactions, and substrate targeting. These results demonstrate that phosphorylation is an additional mode of ubiquitin regulation with broad implications in cellular physiology.

E2~Ub conjugates regulate the kinase activity of Shigella effector OspG during pathogenesis

Pathogenic bacteria introduce effector proteins directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic cells to promote invasion and colonization. OspG, a Shigella spp. effector kinase, plays a role in this process by helping to suppress the host inflammatory response. OspG has been reported to bind host E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes activated with ubiquitin (E2~Ub), a key enzyme complex in ubiquitin transfer pathways. A co-crystal structure of the OspG/UbcH5c~Ub complex reveals that complex formation has important ramifications for the activity of both OspG and the UbcH5c~Ub conjugate. OspG is a minimal kinase domain containing only essential elements required for catalysis. UbcH5c~Ub binding stabilizes an active conformation of the kinase, greatly enhancing OspG kinase activity. In contrast, interaction with OspG stabilizes an extended, less reactive form of UbcH5c~Ub. Recognizing conserved E2 features, OspG can interact with at least ten distinct human E2s~Ub. Mouse oral infection studies indicate that E2~Ub conjugates act as novel regulators of OspG effector kinase function in eukaryotic host cells.

Global analysis of phosphorylation and ubiquitylation cross-talk in protein degradation

Cross-talk between different types of post-translational modifications on the same protein molecule adds specificity and combinatorial logic to signal processing, but it has not been characterized on a large-scale basis. We developed two methods to identify protein isoforms that are both phosphorylated and ubiquitylated in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, identifying 466 proteins with 2,100 phosphorylation sites co-occurring with 2,189 ubiquitylation sites. We applied these methods quantitatively to identify phosphorylation sites that regulate protein degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Our results demonstrate that distinct phosphorylation sites are often used in conjunction with ubiquitylation and that these sites are more highly conserved than the entire set of phosphorylation sites. Finally, we investigated how the phosphorylation machinery can be regulated by ubiquitylation. We found evidence for novel regulatory mechanisms of kinases and 14-3-3 scaffold proteins via proteasome-independent ubiquitylation.

Affinity-based probes based on type II kinase inhibitors

Protein kinases are key components of most mammalian signal transduction networks and are therapeutically relevant drug targets. Efforts to study protein kinase function would benefit from new technologies that are able to profile kinases in complex proteomes. Here, we describe active site-directed probes for profiling kinases in whole cell extracts and live cells. These probes contain general ligands that stabilize a specific inactive conformation of the ATP-binding sites of protein kinases, as well as trifluoromethylphenyl diazirine and alkyne moieties that allow covalent modification and enrichment of kinases, respectively. A diverse group of serine/threonine and tyrosine kinases were identified as specific targets of these probes in whole cell extracts. In addition, a number of kinase targets were selectively labeled in live cells. Our chemical proteomics approach should be valuable for interrogating protein kinase active sites in physiologically relevant environments.

Systematic functional prioritization of protein posttranslational modifications

Protein function is often regulated by posttranslational modifications (PTMs), and recent advances in mass spectrometry have resulted in an exponential increase in PTM identification. However, the functional significance of the vast majority of these modifications remains unknown. To address this problem, we compiled nearly 200,000 phosphorylation, acetylation, and ubiquitination sites from 11 eukaryotic species, including 2,500 newly identified ubiquitylation sites for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We developed methods to prioritize the functional relevance of these PTMs by predicting those that likely participate in cross-regulatory events, regulate domain activity, or mediate protein-protein interactions. PTM conservation within domain families identifies regulatory "hot spots" that overlap with functionally important regions, a concept that we experimentally validated on the HSP70 domain family. Finally, our analysis of the evolution of PTM regulation highlights potential routes for neutral drift in regulatory interactions and suggests that only a fraction of modification sites are likely to have a significant biological role.

Value of using multiple proteases for large-scale mass spectrometry-based proteomics

Large-scale protein sequencing methods rely on enzymatic digestion of complex protein mixtures to generate a collection of peptides for mass spectrometric analysis. Here we examine the use of multiple proteases (trypsin, LysC, ArgC, AspN, and GluC) to improve both protein identification and characterization in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using a data-dependent, decision tree-based algorithm to tailor MS(2) fragmentation method to peptide precursor, we identified 92 095 unique peptides (609 665 total) mapping to 3908 proteins at a 1% false discovery rate (FDR). These results were a significant improvement upon data from a single protease digest (trypsin) - 27 822 unique peptides corresponding to 3313 proteins. The additional 595 protein identifications were mainly from those at low abundances (i.e., < 1000 copies/cell); sequence coverage for these proteins was likewise improved nearly 3-fold. We demonstrate that large portions of the proteome are simply inaccessible following digestion with a single protease and that multiple proteases, rather than technical replicates, provide a direct route to increase both protein identifications and proteome sequence coverage.

Phosphoproteomics for the masses

Protein phosphorylation serves as a primary mechanism of signal transduction in the cells of biological organisms. Technical advancements over the last several years in mass spectrometry now allow for the large-scale identification and quantitation of in vivo phosphorylation at unprecedented levels. These developments have occurred in the areas of sample preparation, instrumentation, quantitative methodology, and informatics so that today, 10 000-20 000 phosphorylation sites can be identified and quantified within a few weeks. With the rapid development and widespread availability of such data, its translation into biological insight and knowledge is a current obstacle. Here we present an overview of how this technology came to be and is currently applied, as well as future challenges for the field.

Large-scale phosphoprotein analysis in Medicago truncatula roots provides insight into in vivo kinase activity in legumes

Nitrogen fixation in legumes requires the development of root organs called nodules and their infection by symbiotic rhizobia. Over the last decade, Medicago truncatula has emerged as a major model plant for the analysis of plant-microbe symbioses and for addressing questions pertaining to legume biology. While the initiation of symbiosis and the development of nitrogen-fixing root nodules depend on the activation of a protein phosphorylation-mediated signal transduction cascade in response to symbiotic signals produced by the rhizobia, few sites of in vivo phosphorylation have previously been identified in M. truncatula. We have characterized sites of phosphorylation on proteins from M. truncatula roots, from both whole cell lysates and membrane-enriched fractions, using immobilized metal affinity chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Here, we report 3,457 unique phosphopeptides spanning 3,404 nonredundant sites of in vivo phosphorylation on 829 proteins in M. truncatula Jemalong A17 roots, identified using the complementary tandem mass spectrometry fragmentation methods electron transfer dissociation and collision-activated dissociation. With this being, to our knowledge, the first large-scale plant phosphoproteomic study to utilize electron transfer dissociation, analysis of the identified phosphorylation sites revealed phosphorylation motifs not previously observed in plants. Furthermore, several of the phosphorylation motifs, including LxKxxs and RxxSxxxs, have yet to be reported as kinase specificities for in vivo substrates in any species, to our knowledge. Multiple sites of phosphorylation were identified on several key proteins involved in initiating rhizobial symbiosis, including SICKLE, NUCLEOPORIN133, and INTERACTING PROTEIN OF DMI3. Finally, we used these data to create an open-access online database for M. truncatula phosphoproteomic data.

Dual-pressure linear ion trap mass spectrometer improving the analysis of complex protein mixtures

The considerable progress in high-throughput proteomics analysis via liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry over the past decade has been fueled to a large degree by continuous improvements in instrumentation. High-throughput identification experiments are based on peptide sequencing and are largely accomplished through the use of tandem mass spectrometry, with ion trap and trap-based instruments having become broadly adopted analytical platforms. To satisfy increasingly demanding requirements for depth of characterization and throughput, we present a newly developed dual-pressure linear ion trap mass spectrometer (LTQ Velos) that features increased sensitivity, afforded by a new source design, and demonstrates practical cycle times 2 times shorter than that of an LTQ XL, while improving or maintaining spectral quality for MS/MS fragmentation spectra. These improvements resulted in a substantial increase in the detection and identification of both proteins and unique peptides from the complex proteome of Caenorhabditis elegans, as compared to existing platforms. The greatly increased ion flux into the mass spectrometer in combination with improved isolation of low-abundance precursor ions resulted in increased detection of low-abundance peptides. These improvements cumulatively resulted in a substantially greater penetration into the baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) proteome compared to LTQ XL. Alternatively, faster cycle times on the new instrument allowed for higher throughput for a given depth of proteome analysis, with more peptides and proteins identified in 60 min using an LTQ Velos than in 180 min using an LTQ XL. When mass analysis was carried out with resolution in excess of 25,000 full width at half-maximum (fwhm), it became possible to isotopically resolve a small intact protein and its fragments, opening possibilities for top down experiments.

A new probabilistic database search algorithm for ETD spectra

Peptide characterization using electron transfer dissociation (ETD) is an important analytical tool for protein identification. The fragmentation observed in ETD spectra is complementary to that seen when using the traditional dissociation method, collision activated dissociation (CAD). Applications of ETD enhance the scope and complexity of the peptides that can be studied by mass spectrometry-based methods. For example, ETD is shown to be particularly useful for the study of post-translationally modified peptides. To take advantage of the power provided by ETD, it is important to have an ETD-specific database search engine, an integral tool of mass spectrometry-based analytical proteomics. In this paper, we report on our development of a database search engine using ETD spectra and protein sequence databases to identify peptides. The search engine is based on the probabilistic modeling of shared peaks count and shared peaks intensity between the spectra and the peptide sequences. The shared peaks count accounts for the cumulative variations from amino acid sequences, while shared peaks intensity models the variations between the candidate sequence and product ion intensities. To demonstrate the utility of this algorithm for searching real-world data, we present the results of applications of this model to two high-throughput data sets. Both data sets were obtained from yeast whole cell lysates. The first data set was obtained from a sample digested by Lys-C, and the second data set was obtained by a digestion using trypsin. We searched the data sets against a combined forward and reversed yeast protein database to estimate false discovery rates. We compare the search results from the new methods with the results from a search engine often employed for ETD spectra, OMSSA. Our findings show that overall the new model performs comparably to OMSSA for low false discovery rates. At the same time, we demonstrate that there are substantial differences with OMSSA for results on subsets of data. Therefore, we conclude the new model can be considered as being complementary to previously developed models.

Toward defining the phosphoproteome of Xenopus laevis embryos

Phosphorylation is universally used for controlling protein function, but knowledge of the phosphoproteome in vertebrate embryos has been limited. However, recent technical advances make it possible to define an organism's phosphoproteome at a more comprehensive level. Xenopus laevis offers established advantages for analyzing the regulation of protein function by phosphorylation. Functionally unbiased, comprehensive information about the Xenopus phosphoproteome would provide a powerful guide for future studies of phosphorylation in a developmental context. To this end, we performed a phosphoproteomic analysis of Xenopus oocytes, eggs, and embryos using recently developed mass spectrometry methods. We identified 1,441 phosphorylation sites present on 654 different Xenopus proteins, including hundreds of previously unknown phosphorylation sites. This approach identified several phosphorylation sites described in the literature and/or evolutionarily conserved in other organisms, validating the data's quality. These data will serve as a powerful resource for the exploration of phosphorylation and protein function within a developmental context. Developmental Dynamics 238:1433-1443, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Decision tree-driven tandem mass spectrometry for shotgun proteomics

Mass spectrometry has become a key technology for modern large-scale protein sequencing. Tandem mass spectrometry, the process of peptide ion dissociation followed by mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) analysis, is the critical component for peptide identification. Recent advances in mass spectrometry now permit two discrete, and complementary, types of peptide ion fragmentation: collision-activated dissociation (CAD) and electron transfer dissociation (ETD) on a single instrument. To exploit this complementarity and increase sequencing success rates, we designed and embedded a data-dependent decision tree algorithm (DT) to make unsupervised, real-time decisions of which fragmentation method to use based on precursor charge and m/z. Applying the DT to large-scale proteome analyses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and human embryonic stem cells, we identified 53,055 peptides in total, which was greater than by using CAD (38,293) or ETD (39,507) alone. In addition, the DT method also identified 7,422 phosphopeptides, compared to either 2,801 (CAD) or 5,874 (ETD) phosphopeptides.

A proteomics grade electron transfer dissociation-enabled hybrid linear ion trap-orbitrap mass spectrometer

Here we detail the modification of a quadrupole linear ion trap-orbitrap hybrid (QLT-orbitrap) mass spectrometer to accommodate a negative chemical ionization (NCI) source. The NCI source is used to produce fluoranthene radical anions for imparting electron transfer dissociation (ETD). The anion beam is stable, robust, and intense so that a sufficient amount of reagents can be injected into the QLT in only 4-8 ms. Following ion/ion reaction in the QLT, ETD product ions are mass-to-charge (m/z) analyzed in either the QLT (for speed and sensitivity) or the orbitrap (for mass resolution and accuracy). Here we describe the physical layout of this device, parametric optimization of anion transport, an evaluation of relevant ETD figures of merit, and the application of this instrument to protein sequence analysis. Described proteomic applications include complex peptide mixture analysis, post-translational modification (PTM) site identification, isotope-encoded quantitation, large peptide characterization, and intact protein analysis. From these experiments, we conclude the ETD-enabled orbitrap will provide the proteomic field with several new opportunities and represents an advance in protein sequence analysis technologies.