The Economic Cost of Violence Against Women and Girls in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review of the Evidence

Evidence demonstrating the economic burden of violence against women and girls can support policy and advocacy efforts for investment in violence prevention and response programming. We undertook a systematic review of evidence on the costs of violence against women and girls in low- and middle-income countries published since 2005. In addition to understanding costs, we examined the consistency of methodological approaches applied and identified and assessed common methodological issues. Thirteen articles were identified, eight of which were from sub-Saharan Africa. Eight studies estimated costs associated with domestic or intimate partner violence, others estimated the costs of interpersonal violence, female genital cutting, and sexual assaults. Methodologies applied to estimate costs were typically based on accounting approaches. Our review found that out-of-pocket expenditures to individuals for seeking health care after an episode of violence ranged from US$29.72 (South Africa) to US$156.11 (Romania) and that lost productivity averaged from US$73.84 to US$2,151.48 (South Africa) per facility visit. Most studies that estimated provider costs of service delivery presented total programmatic costs, and there was variation in interventions, scale, and resource inputs measured which hampered comparability. Variations in methodological assumptions and data availability also made comparisons across countries and settings challenging. The limited scope of studies in measuring the multifaceted impacts of violence highlights the challenges in identifying cost metrics that extend beyond specific violence episodes. Despite the limited evidence base, our assessment leads us to conclude that the estimated costs of violence against women and girls are a fraction of its true economic burden.

The Questionnaire of Intention to Help in VAW Cases (QIHVC): Development and preliminary results

Introduction

Violence against women (VAW) is a worldwide social and health problem of epidemic proportions. This violence is preventable, and bystander programs are one of the possible preventative strategies. The main purpose of this research was to develop a tool that, by applying a contrastive methodology for its application in different forms of violence (forms of gender-based violence, such as intimate partner VAW, sexual harassment at work, and street harassment, and common violence, such as a robbery), would allow measuring the probability of occurrence of bystander response in the face of these types of violence with good evidence of content validity.

Method

Firstly (Study 1), an initial version of a measure tool, the Questionnaire of Intention to Help in VAW Cases (QIHVC), was developed; secondly (Study 2), a Delphi (modified) study was carried out to obtain valid, content-based evidence; and finally (Study 3), a pilot study was carried out to evaluate the appropriate functioning of the QIHVC and, if required, to make any necessary adjustments.

Results and discussion

The main result is the development of a set of case scenarios and a questionnaire related to its content which constitutes the QIHVC and, in its initial approximation, seems to constitute an adequate and sensible tool to capture the differences between the characterizations of common violence and VAW and in the possible response of bystanders in the face of such violence.

Preventing Co-occurring Intimate Partner Violence and Child Abuse in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: The Role of Family Functioning and Programmatic Reflections

Co-occurring intimate partner violence (IPV) and child abuse occur at staggering levels in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), yet little is known about the relationship between these forms of violence and a feminst-grounded conceptualization of family functioning nor how best to programmatically address these multiple forms of violence in the home. Analysis of cross-sectional baseline data from 203 adult couple dyads participating in a randomized controlled trial was undertaken to (1) understand the correlation of family functioning and violence in the home in North Kivu, DRC; (2) unpack potential shared correlates of violence in the home and family functioning, such as attitudes and behaviors; and (3) describe programmatic implications for delivering violence prevention programming that seeks to address multiple forms of violence in the home. Findings suggest over half of all families reported experiencing IPV against women or use of child abuse by any caregiver. Moderate levels of family functioning were also reported, although women reported lower levels. In adjusted models, a one-point change in family functioning score was associated with a 0.12 reduction in odds of co-occurring experience of IPV and use of child abuse for women, and a 0.03 reduction in odds of co-occurring perpetration for men. A focus on improving family functioning as a primary outcome, alongside explicit targeting of harmful gender norms and skills-based approaches, may be a promising avenue to integrate approaches from different violence prevention fields while maintaining a strong dedication to intersectional feminist-grounded approaches that allows for separate, but at times combined, approaches to reducing IPV and child abuse in the home.

Characteristics of intimate partner violence in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil, 2009-2018

OBJECTIVE

to analyze intimate partner violence (IPV) in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil, with emphasis on physical violence.

METHODS

this was a cross-sectional study applying multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) to records retrieved from the Notifiable Health Conditions Information System covering the period from 2009 to 2018.

RESULTS

of the 9,950 notifications registered, 91.8% were notifications of physical violence; higher rates were found in young females (189.2/100,000), who had up to incomplete high school education (139.6/100,000), had a partner (202.7/100,000), were Indigenous (488.8/100,000), and were living on the border with other countries (223,1/100,000); the aggressors were mostly current partners (76.9%) and male (95.5%); MCA revealed that physical violence was predominant at weekends, at night, with use of physical force and when the aggressor was under the influence of alcohol; most IPV did not occur at home, but was committed by current partners and was not a repeated event.

CONCLUSION

IPV stood out among young victims, those who had a partner, low education, Indigenous women and occurred notably in the border region.

The Use of Volatile Substances in Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault: A Systematic Review

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a significant crime that is increasing in incidence. The employment of volatile substances such as chloroform and aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons in DFSAs is quite an unusual choice. The objective of this review is to explore the use of volatile substances in DFSAs. Using the PubMed database, a systematic review of the literature was conducted. Thereafter, citation searching was carried out within the included studies from the primary search. A total of five studies were eligible for inclusion. Chloroform was the drug used in the DFSA in three of the included studies, and aromatic hydrocarbons in the remaining two. Two of the offenders who employed chloroform possessed a unique way to access the drug: their degrees. The evidence found in the DFSA cases included a chloroform-scented scarf and a solvent-immersed cloth. Headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-electrospray coupled tandem mass spectrometry, toxicology assays of blood and urine, and solvent or hydrocarbon gas chromatography flame-ionization detection followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were among the investigations performed to detect the volatile substances. The implementation of stricter regulations on chloroform for employees in chemical industries and laboratories is recommended. In cases where the autopsy is unclear and there are conspicuous facial and airway injuries, it is prudent to collect an early sample for volatile substance analysis.

Honor Killings in the Eastern Mediterranean Region: A Narrative Review

Honor killing is a violent crime committed by one or more perpetrators, in which the crime's intention is to restore honor to their family. In this narrative review, the authors investigate the epidemiology of honor killing in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Furthermore, the social, cultural, and legal aspects of honor killing are discussed. Numerous socio-cultural factors lead to the action of killing for honor in this region. They include deeply rooted patriarchal dominance, the desire to maintain social status, and being poorly educated. Honor killing perpetrators have similar characteristics, such as rating female chastity at a higher price and justifying violence against women. The impact of honor killing on family members is much greater than the perceived families' beliefs of the community's rejection of the female's dishonorable behavior. Silence culture dominates these societies, and many crimes are under-reported in this region. Often, a judicial trial is not conducted for such heinous crimes. Penal code reforms, campaigns to promote human rights, steps to improve the education level, and active participation of civil society in condemning such crimes are a few essential measures that need to be considered in order to curb the social evil of honor killing.

Orthopaedic surgeons can play important role in identifying victims of domestic violence in the emergency department - narrative review of Brazilian literature

Over the last year, with the social isolation imposed by the coronavirus disease pandemic, there has been a significant increase in complaints associated with physical violence against women. In the present study, an exploratory literature review was carried out on the role of the on-call orthopedic surgeon when faced with a suspicion of domestic violence, in accordance with Brazilian legislation. The main objective of the study was to show the role of this specialist in identifying victims of domestic violence by recognizing their profiles and associated risk factors. The secondary objectives were to demonstrate the most common skeletal and non-skeletal injuries in this type of violence and to present a quick and practical guide on how to identify, approach, and manage cases of domestic violence against women. The findings revealed that the main aggressors were close partners, such as spouses and ex-spouses. Young adult women, black or multiracial, and low socioeconomic status are major risk factors for intimate partner violence. Head and neck injuries are the most frequently observed lesions in this population, with more than one-third of victims reporting falls. Musculoskeletal injuries are present in up to 42% of victims of domestic violence, occurring predominantly in the upper limbs and chest, and are the leading cause of death in women aged 1 to 34 years. A practical guide for orthopedic surgeons who work in emergency departments is proposed, with basic information about their role and responsibility in identifying potential victims of intimate partner violence.

Exploring the Implementation of Workplace-Focused Primary Prevention Efforts to Reduce Family Violence in a Regional City: The Need for Clarity, Capacity, and Communication

In response to the high burden of family and domestic violence (FDV), The Australian National Plan to End Violence Against Women and Children has established that primary prevention measures are necessary to reduce FDV's harmful impacts on health. The Community, Respect, and Equality (CRE) project is a primary prevention initiative aimed towards changing harmful social norms and practices that enable FDV in Geraldton, Western Australia. Organizations affiliated with the CRE are required to promote gender equality and a respectful work environment. However, there is a gap in the literature regarding the impact and effectiveness of such interventions, especially in rural/regional areas. As such, this study served to evaluate the project's effectiveness in a CRE-certified workspace, a local non-profit social services provider. Investigators conducted interviews to learn how the organization had implemented the CRE, and whether the CRE had had an impact on social norms and practices within the work environment. Findings indicated that the project had largely failed to permeate workplace culture due to a lack of effective promotion, low perceived benefits, and low resources. Future interventions must take persuasive measures, even for organizations perceived to be receptive to change.

Co-Occurrence of Violence on the Severity of Abuse in Intimate Relationships

Several empirical studies have shown that women who experience violence in intimate personal relationships (IPV) commonly experience more than one form of violence. While it is recognized that individual trajectories of IPV vary over time, little is known about the temporal dynamics of this co-occurrence or its consequences. This study describes the different forms of violence experienced by women and looks at whether it is possible to predict when severe violence (physical and sexual) is most likely to occur. Data in the study comes from interviews with 70 women who had been victims of intimate partner violence. The life history calendar method was used to facilitate identifying kinds and levels of violence and the month in which violence took place. Individual victimization trajectories were found to be heterogenous and likely to change in the short term. The women in our sample experienced more than one form of intimate partner violence and co-occurrence of different forms of violence was common in individual trajectories. The characteristics of the kind of violence experienced were important in understanding the temporal aspects of acts of severe violence. The increased knowledge about patterns of violence provided by these results should help to develop better ways to intervene to prevent such events.

Patterns of Gender-Based Violence in Conflict-Affected Ukraine: A Descriptive Analysis of Internally Displaced and Local Women Receiving Psychosocial Services

Since 2014, a protracted armed conflict has afflicted eastern Ukraine, resulting in the displacement of over 1.4 million residents. The resulting humanitarian crisis has placed women, particularly displaced women, at greater risk of gender-based violence (GBV). In Ukraine, reports of GBV were higher following the start of the conflict (22.4% in 2014 vs. 18.3% in 2007), with displaced women suffering from GBV nearly three times more than non-displaced residents (15.2% vs. 5.3%). Many GBV incidents in Ukraine have been reported along the "contact line," the border separating government from non-government-controlled areas. This study compares types of GBV experienced by displaced and local (non-displaced) women receiving psychosocial support in order to identify the gaps in services during a time of conflict. Data was collected by mental healthcare providers from 11,826 women (25.5% displaced; 74.5% local) aged 15 to 69 receiving psychosocial services in five conflict-affected regions from February 2016 to June 2017. Group differences were assessed using Pearson's chi-squared or Fisher's exact tests for categorical variables and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests for continuous variables. Overall, almost half of the women experienced intimate partner violence and psychological abuse. Compared to residents, displaced women were more likely to report non-domestic GBV incidents involving sexual and economic violence. Almost 8% of violent incidents against displaced women occurred at checkpoints or at reception centers for internally displaced persons (IDP) and 20% were perpetrated by armed men. Consistent with the literature, this study suggests that displaced women are more vulnerable to attacks by persons outside the home and by armed groups. Our findings underscore the need to expand violence prevention programs to address the unique vulnerabilities of displaced women before, during, and after displacement. Programs should be tailored to prevent violence within and outside the home. Increased prevention efforts are needed in areas with high concentrations of armed men, along the contact line, and at IDP reception centers to protect displaced women. This is particularly urgent in the context of increased GBV due to COVID-19.

Leveraging Faith Communities to Prevent Violence against Women: Lessons from the Implementation and Delivery of the Motivating Action through Empowerment (MATE) Program

Gender-based violence is a human rights and public health issue, disproportionately affecting women. The Motivating Action Through Empowerment (MATE) bystander program aims to address violence against women by shifting focus from perpetrators and victims of violence to community responsibility for not accepting attitudes and behaviors that support or allow the violence to occur. Traditionally bystander programs have been delivered through institutions, most notably college campuses in the United States. The translation of bystander programs to community settings is not widely reported. This research aimed to understand whether a violence prevention program could be effectively delivered in a faith community setting; specifically, it focuses on the implementation of MATE in a Christian church network in the Gold Coast region of Queensland, Australia. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten church-based trainers in the MATE pilot program. Theoretically informed analysis using the COM-B behavior model identified that environmental factors had a large bearing on opportunities to deliver MATE workshops. This research identified six key lessons for MATE and other programs wishing to leverage faith communities: (1) Provide religious context; (2) Accommodate diversity; (3) Build faith leader capacity; (4) Employ social marketing; (5) Undertake co-design; (6) Actively administer, measure and monitor.

Breastfeeding and Obstetric Violence during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in Spain: Maternal Perceptions

Catalan legislation, a pioneer in Europe, has defined obstetric violence (OV) as "preventing or hindering access to truthful information, necessary for autonomous and informed decision-making". The definition also states that OV can affect physical and mental health, as well as sexual and reproductive health. Some authors have expressed concern about an increase in OV during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. During the pandemic, recommendations were also openly offered on the non-establishment and/or early abandonment of breastfeeding without scientific evidence to support them. Experiencing a traumatic childbirth can influence breastfeeding outcomes. Here, we conducted a cross-sectional study using a self-administered online questionnaire. The sample consisted of women who gave birth in Spain between March 2020 and April 2021. The mean age was 34.41 (±4.23) years. Of the women, 73% were employed, 78.2% had a university education, and almost all were Caucasian. Among the subjects, 3.3% were diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 during pregnancy and 1% were diagnosed during delivery. Some of the women (1.6%) were advised to stop breastfeeding in order to be vaccinated. Women diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 during delivery (p = 0.048), belonging to a low social class (p = 0.031), with secondary education (p = 0.029), or who suffered obstetric violence (p < 0.001) perceived less support and that the health care providers were less inclined to resolve doubts and difficulties about breastfeeding. Breastfeeding has been significantly challenged during the pandemic. In addition to all the variables to be considered that make breastfeeding support difficult, we now probably need to add SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis and OV.

Violence in Quilombola women living in rural communities in Brazil

OBJETIVE

To estimate the prevalence of psychological, physical, and sexual violence perpetrated against women by their intimate partner (IP) in Quilombola communities located in Espírito Santo State, Brazil.

METHODS

The data is from a population-based cross-sectional study of Quilombola women conducted from 2017 to 2018. In-person interviews collected information on women's sociodemographic characteristics, behaviors, and their experience of violence perpetrated by their IP. The analysis used chi-square test and hierarchical logistic regression.

RESULTS

219 women (94.8% of the invited ones) agreed to participate in the study. 59.0% (95%CI: 5.25-65.5) reported psychological violence; 41% (95%CI: 34.5-47.5) physical violence; and 8.2% (95%CI: 4.6-11.8) sexual violence. Psychological violence was associated with having three or more sexual partners in life, when compared to those who had up to two partners (p = 0,009), and previous violence involving other people outside of family increased the chance of suffering psychological violence by an IP more than nine times (p ≤ 0.001). Regarding physical violence, the association with use of barrier contraception (p = 0.031) and having a partner with other sexual partners (p = 0.024) were protective factors for IP violence. Having 3 or more sexual partners in the last 12 months (p = 0.006), partner using illicit drugs (p = 0,006), and alcoholism in the family (p = 0,001), increased the chance of suffer physical violence by the partner. Sexual violence perpetrated by the IP was associated with miscarriage (p = 0.016), partner using drugs (p = 0.020), and gynecological symptoms (p = 0.045).

CONCLUSIONS

These results showed the high frequency of intimate partner violence in Quilombola women and highlight the importance of reducing social and race inequities for interrupting the culture of violence against women.

Intimate Partner Violence against Mastectomized Women: Victims' Experiences

Exposure to situations of domestic violence during the treatment for breast cancer may compromise the treatment and quality of life of women patients, so it is essential that health professionals act in tracking this phenomenon in the approach to and care of women with breast cancer. The purpose of this study was to examine experiences of violence against women by their intimate partners after mastectomy. This is an exploratory descriptive study, with a qualitative approach, carried out in the Rehabilitation Program for Mastectomized Women in a Brazilian reference hospital for oncological treatment. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 mastectomized women. For data analysis, a content analysis technique was performed. The women interviewed were predominantly brown, with a minimum age of 44 years and maximum of 72 years. They presented with low education, were married, and had a mean period of five years of breast cancer diagnosis. The participants reported that after mastectomy, they experienced episodes of violence at a time when they were extremely vulnerable due to the various cancer treatments. Three major thematic categories emerged from interview data across the data collection: (1) experiences of psychological violence, (2) experiences of physical violence, and (3) experiences of sexual violence. Psychological violence took the form of humiliation and contempt for their condition. Physical violence involved assault and sexual violence in the form of forced sex by coercion. Violence was a phenomenon present after mastectomy, practiced in the domestic environment by the intimate partner. We emphasize the importance of health professionals in screening for this issue by listening to and welcoming women, recording cases, exposing this situation, and contributing to prevention.

Self-esteem in the context of intimate partner violence: A concept analysis

AIM

To explore the meaning of self-esteem in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV).

BACKGROUND

IPV is a preventable public health issue. The dynamic of IPV diminishes women's self-esteem. Defining self-esteem will guide the development of IPV interventions in healthcare settings.

DESIGN

Walker and Avant's eight-step approach was used.

DATA SOURCE

The search was conducted from Oxford Dictionary of English online, CINAHL, APA PsycInfo, PubMed, Women's Studies International, and Google Scholar.

REVIEW METHODS

No limits on the year of publication were applied.

RESULTS

Defining attributes of self-esteem are self-concept, self-affirmation, and self-respect. Antecedents of self-esteem are exposure to IPV and victim-blaming attitudes by healthcare professionals. Consequences include depression, substance abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Empirical referents include self-worth, self-competence, self-blame, self-evaluation, self-confidence, and self-determination.

CONCLUSIONS

Current literature is limited in its definition of self-esteem in the context of IPV. Women experiencing IPV with low self-esteem might not seek help for IPV from nurses. Nurses could develop culturally appropriate IPV screening tools that assess the changes in self-esteem among women from different sociodemographic and cultural backgrounds. The defining attributes could contribute to developing comprehensive IPV screening tools in healthcare settings.

Predictive Factors of Mental Health in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence in Chile

Studies about violence against women specific to the Chilean population are scarce. As a result, government treatment programs lack a local perspective. Predictor variables were analyzed in the mental health of Chilean women who have survived intimate partner abuse. Two hundred and two women who made regular visits to public Women's Centers participated in the study; on average, they had survived 11 years of abuse. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine what variable/s in the history of violence best predicted the mental health variables. Among other protective factors, an increase in both resilience and the time since the last violent episode yielded a reduction in levels of general psychological distress (B = -1.836, p < .001 and B = 1.117, p < .001 respectively), post-traumatic stress disorder (B = -1.243, p = .002 and B = 1.221, p < .001 respectively), and depression (B = -1.822, p < .001 and B = 1.433, p < .001 respectively). The study also noted risk factors such as a high level of additional stressors, which in turn led to increased levels of general psychological distress (B = 1.007, p = .005), post-traumatic stress disorder (B = 0.928, p = .013), and depression (B = 1.061, p = .016). The Women's Center is the place where women feel most supported. To improve the effectiveness of treatments at these centers and aid in the recovery of women who have suffered from intimate partner violence, the predictive factors significantly related to mental health should be taken into account. This means prioritizing cases where the last episode of violence was more recent, addressing additional stressors, and promoting resilience.

Sexual femicide, non-sexual femicide and rape: Where do the differences lie? A continuum in a pattern of violence against women

Violence against women is a growing health problem, especially when perpetrated in intimate relationships. Despite increasing attention, there is little comparative evidence on the different types of violence involved and there is a paucity of research on sexual femicides. This study examines cases of violence against women in northern Italy, focusing on sexual and non-sexual femicides and comparing them with rape that does not result in femicides. The sample included 500 women who were victims of sexual and non-sexual femicides, and of rape. Results show sexual femicides mostly involved unknown victims or women who were prostitutes. Sexual femicidal offenders used improper weapons to kill their victims, acted in secluded locations, and fled the crime scene; their crime was more likely the result of predatory intentions, with antisociality and sexual deviance being the most significant factors related to this type of femicide. The criminal and violent pattern that characterized sexual femicides in this study shared significant similarities with the pattern of violence involved in rape. Rape victims were in fact mostly unknown, or involved in a brief relationship with their killer. When the victim was known it was more likely that the abuse occurred at home and in front of the woman's children. Rapists were often under the effect of alcohol or drugs. Non-sexual femicides mainly involved known victims, and they were more often committed in the context of domestic disputes. It was not seldom that the long relationship between the victim and perpetrator was likely to be characterized by contentiousness, suggesting that the woman was often victim of an oppressive climate of emotional tension and domination. Morbid jealousy contributed to aggravating the tone of a controlling relationship. Non-sexual femicides bore more similarities to cases of rape within the pattern of intimate partner violence. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for prevention and intervention.

Major sports events and domestic violence: A systematic review

Increased rates of domestic violence (DV) have been associated with events such as public holidays, seasonal variations, disasters and economic crises. Sport is seen as gendered, exemplifying hegemonic masculinity and associated violence, with the link between sporting culture and violence against women well recognised. This paper reports on a systematic review of empirical research literature exploring the link between major sporting events and incidence of DV. We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus and Proquest Central databases from inception to December 2020 for quantitative studies examining major sports events and reports of DV using a pre-post comparison design. Study quality was assessed using the Kmet quality assessment tool. The review identified 1445 records following duplicate removal. Once screened and assessed for eligibility, 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. Results are presented qualitatively due to the heterogeneity across studies. Most studies originated in North America and the United Kingdom, used police records as their data source for measuring incidences of DV and few looked beyond the day of the sports event for recorded incidences of DV. Studies reviewed suggested that there is an association between certain major sports events and increased reporting of DV. However, studies' findings conflicted with regards to whether increases were associated with contact sports, the rivalry between competing teams, whether the events were emotionally salient and whether alcohol was a contributing factor. In conclusion, there is limited research globally. Heterogeneity and conflicting findings mean that more research is needed to understand the associations and inform community prevention/interventions to address DV.

Gender-Based Violence and Associated Factors Among Women with Disabilities in Jimma Town, Ethiopia

Background

Globally, women with disabilities have two times higher chance of suffering from violence compared to their non-disabled peers due to double discrimination. However, there is little evidence that quantifies the situation in this segment of the population by considering disability-related factors which make this group more vulnerable to gender-based violence in Ethiopia.

Objective

To assess the prevalence of gender-based violence and its associated factors among women with disabilities in Jimma town, southwest Ethiopia, 2020.

Methods

A community based cross-sectional study was conducted among a total of 308 women with disabilities. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were carried out to identify factors associated with gender-based violence. The significance of the association was decided by using the 95% confidence interval of AOR at a p-value of <0.05 in the multivariable analysis.

Results

The lifetime prevalence of gender-based violence among women with disabilities was found to be 73.1, while 46.1% had experienced it during the last 12 months. Gender-based violence in the past 12 months was significantly associated with non-schooling (AOR=5.10; 95% CI, 1.51, 17.14), being in age group of 20–34 (AOR=3.5; 95% CI, 1.74, 7.30), having visual impairment (AOR=3.1; 95% CI, 1.27, 7.54), having hearing impairment (AOR=3.0; 95% CI, 1.36, 6.89), alcohol use behavior (AOR=4.1; 95% CI, 1.74, 9.55), and perceived stigma and discrimination (AOR=4.2; 95% CI, 2.44, 7.39).

Conclusion

Prevalence of gender-based violence among women with disabilities was found to be high in the study area. Educational status, age, type of disability, alcohol use behavior, and perceived stigma and discrimination were independent predictors of gender-based violence. Measures have to be taken to curb the problem by taking integrated interventions like enrolling girls in school and targeted health education towards identified factors by considering the heterogeneity of disabilities.

Personal Traits of the People Who Help: The Case of Bystanders to Violence against Women

Within the context of emergency situations, the terms witness or bystander are used to refer to individuals involved in oppressive incidents who are neither the victim nor the perpetrator. Among the different types of emergency situations, our study focuses on violence against women (VAW). In keeping with current efforts in the scientific literature on bystander intervention and the evidence currently available, the main focus of this study is to analyze some personal factors that reflect the characteristics or experiences of bystanders and that could have a bearing on their predisposition to help victims of VAW (i.e., empathy, a just world belief system, and expectations of self-efficacy) and later analyze the possible relationship between these personal characteristics and gender or previous experience as a VAW bystander. An opportunity sample of 546 Spanish participants (73.4% women and 26.6% men) between 18 and 56 years of age took part in this study and fill out a sociodemographic data sheet, a questionnaire to evaluate the experience as violence witness designed ad hoc, and the Characteristics of People who Help Questionnaire scale (CPHQ). The results obtained indicate that CPHQ could constitute an adequate measure for the three dimensions analyzed. Female participants are significantly more empathetic than males, but in the case of a just world belief and expectations of self-efficacy the results showed no gender-related differences. Additionally, only a just world belief was clearly influenced by having been a bystander to some form of VAW. In conclusion, this study contributes a proposal for an evaluating instrument featuring three relevant personal characteristics in the development of helping behaviors, presenting some results of interest regarding empathy, a just world belief, and expectations of self-efficacy and their relationship with gender or previous experiences as VAW bystanders. These results obtained suggest an initial path toward future research in the development of interventions with bystander participation in our environment.

"Mi Corazón se Partió en Dos": Transnational Motherhood at the Intersection of Migration and Violence

In the recent Central American migrations spurred by violence, political instability, and economic insecurity, women grapple with whether and when to bring their children with them in pursuit of safety in another country, and with fulfilling their roles as mothers from afar. Drawing from the transnational motherhood literature and critical feminist theories, this interpretive qualitative study examined transnational motherhood grounded in the lived experiences of Central American women (n = 19) over the course of their migrations to the US. Informed by the principles of grounded theory, the inductive analysis identified five processes in which migration and violence shaped meanings of motherhood: risking everything, embodying separation, braving reunification, mothering others, and experiencing motherhood due to sexual violence. The findings contribute knowledge of how violence shapes and informs women's migrations and decision-making, and the consequences women endure in taking action to mitigate threats of violence in their own and their children's lives. The analysis furthermore highlights the specific and profound effects of family separation on mothers. The voices, perspectives, and experiences of migrating mothers and the ways in which migration and violence shapes notions and lived experiences of motherhood are imperative to research, practice, and advocacy to change oppressive immigration policies.

Content analysis of responses to The Line, an Australian primary prevention of violence against women campaign on Facebook

ISSUE ADDRESSED

Primary prevention of violence against women (PVAW) strategies and campaigns aim to address and challenge violence-supportive behaviour and normative social structures to intervene before violence happens. Towards this aim, from 2014 to 2019, The Line was a public Australian Commonwealth-supported PVAW campaign on social media that targeted young people. This study explores how young people discussed PVAW-related themes on the campaign's Facebook page.

METHODS

Social media scraping tools were used to collect 346 941 comments on The Line's Facebook page from 2014 to 2017. In this study, 3663 comments included three high frequency, PVAW-related key terms, 'violence' (1430 comments), 'gender' (1602 comments) and 'consent' (631 comments). These were identified and were thematically coded.

RESULTS

Young people's comments indicated high support for violence prevention but varied in how they understood gendered violence and factors that contribute to it, and instead, some argued that the campaign should not ignore men. Some young people who engaged with The Line on a long-term basis and spoke to its aims, proposed interpretations from their experiences, and challenged the campaign to progress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that young people influence each other by adopting and disrupting PVAW knowledge in a publicly funded social media campaign. SO WHAT?: Public PVAW social media campaigns can encourage young people to discuss gendered violence online. However, successful campaigns need ongoing support to develop conversations with target populations that allow diverse audiences to build their knowledge.

The relationship between violence against women and gender attitudes in men, Bolu province Kıbrıscık example

PURPOSE

The study has two purposes: "ascertaining the determinants and the frequency of violence against women in men" and "determining the relation between men's violence against women and gender attitudes."

DESIGN AND METHODS

The study is of cross-sectional type. Three questionnaires were used to collect the research data: sociodemographic information form, violence against women questionnaire, and the Gender Equality Scale.

FINDINGS

The first important finding of the study is that the rate of domestic violence against women is high. The second important finding is that men who have resorted to violence against women have more unequal gender attitudes.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

The research reveals the significance related to the participation of men in gender equality policies and provides guiding data for healthcare professionals.

The relationship between domestic violence against women, adaptation to pregnancy and maternal-fetal antenatal attachment

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the relationship between domestic violence against women, adaptation to pregnancy, and maternal-fetal antenatal attachment.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The study consisted of 385 pregnant women who were referred to the antenatal clinics of a public hospital in eastern Turkey. The data were collected using the Domestic Violence against Women Scale (DVAWS), the Maternal-Fetal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS), and the Prenatal Self-Evaluation Questionnaire (PSEQ) to assess adaptation to pregnancy.

FINDINGS

Pregnant women were exposed to low level of violence (Mean ± SD: 64.42 ± 5.30). A statistically significant positive correlation was found between their DVAWS and PSEQ mean scores. There was also a statistically significant positive correlation between their DVAWS and MAAS mean scores.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Findings show that as domestic violence against women increased, adaptation to pregnancy decreased and maternal-fetal attachment increased.