Comparative pharmacology and toxicology of pharmaceuticals in the environment: diphenhydramine protection of diazinon toxicity in Danio rerio but not Daphnia magna

Pharmaceuticals and other contaminants of emerging concern present unique challenges to environmental risk assessment and management. Fortunately, mammalian pharmacology and toxicology safety data are more readily available for pharmaceuticals than other environmental contaminants. Identifying approaches to read-across such pharmaceutical safety information to non-target species represents a major research need to assess environmental hazards. Here, we tested a biological read-across hypothesis from emergency medicine with common aquatic invertebrate and vertebrate models. In mammals, the antihistamine diphenhydramine (DPH) confers protection from poisoning by acetylcholinesterase inhibition because DPH blocks the acetylcholine receptor. We employed standardized toxicity methods to examine individual and mixture toxicity of DPH and the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor diazinon (DZN) in Daphnia magna (an invertebrate) and Danio rerio (zebrafish, a vertebrate). Though the standardized Fish Embryo Toxicity method evaluates early life stage toxicity of zebrafish (0-3 days post fertilization, dpf), we further evaluated DPH, DZN, and their equipotent mixture during three development stages (0-3, 3-6, 7-10 dpf) in zebrafish embryos. Independent action and concentration addition mixture models and fish plasma modeling were used to assist interpretation of mixture toxicity experiments. Though our primary hypothesis was not confirmed in acute studies with Daphnia magna, DPH conferred a protective effect for acute DZN toxicity to zebrafish when DPH plasma levels were expected to be greater than mammalian therapeutic, but lower than acutely lethal, internal doses. We further observed that timing of developmental exposure influenced the magnitude of DZN and DPH toxicity to zebrafish, which suggests that future zebrafish toxicity studies with pharmaceuticals and pesticides should examine exposure during developmental stages.

Changes in mouse liver and chicken embryo yolk sac membrane soluble proteins due to an organophosphorous insecticide (OPI) diazinon linked to several noncholinergic OPI effects in mice and chicken embryos

The objective of this study was to identify proteins in mouse livers and chicken embryo yolk sac membranes whose quantities were altered by an organophosphorous insecticide (OPI) treatment and which might be linked, based on their functionality, to the recognized noncholinergic effects of OPI. Mice and fertile chicken eggs were treated with an OPI representative diazinon. The quantitative changes in mouse liver and chicken embryo yolk sac membrane soluble proteins caused by diazinon were determined by two-dimensional electrophoresis. Proteins whose quantity was affected by diazinon were identified by the mass spectrometry. In mouse livers, the altered levels of several enzymes of glucose metabolism were considered with regards to amelioration of hyperglycemia due to diazinon; the reduced levels of 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase to the changes in the l-tryptophan to NAD metabolism caused by pyrimidinyl and crotonamide OPI; the reduced levels of catalase, peroxiredoxin and superoxide dismutase to OPI-increased lipid and/or kynurenine oxidation, the latter effect resulting also in increased urinary excretion of xanthurenic and kynurenic acids; and an increase in glutathione S-methyltransferase to OPI detoxification. In chicken embryo yolk sac membranes, the reduced availability of procollagen-proline dioxygenase may be the factor in micromelia caused by OPI in chicken embryos.

Hematological and gill histopathological changes in iridescent shark, Pangasius hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878) exposed to sublethal diazinon and deltamethrin concentrations

The effect of two insecticides, diazinon and deltamethrin, was investigated on hematological parameters and gill morphology in iridescent shark, Pangasius hypophthalmus. Fish were exposed to 0.5 and 1 ppm diazinon as well as 0.015 and 0.020 ppm deltamethrin over a 7-day period. Both insecticides caused leukocytosis, lymphopenia, neutrophilia as well as increases in red blood cell (RBC), hematocrit (Ht), hemoglobin (Hb) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV). Morphological gill damages were observed in fish exposed to both pesticides. It is suggested that diazinon and deltamethrin changed immune function and induced gill damages which could be the reason of increase in RBC, Ht, Hb and MCV in iridescent shark.

Importance of toxicokinetics for interspecies variation in sensitivity to chemicals

Interspecies variation in sensitivity to synthetic chemicals can be orders of magnitude large. Species traits causing the variation can be related to toxicokinetics (uptake, distribution, biotransformation, elimination) or toxicodynamics (interaction with biological target sites). We present an approach to systematically measure and model the contribution of uptake, biotransformation, internal distribution, and elimination kinetics toward species sensitivity differences. The aim is to express sensitivity as target tissue specific, internal lethal concentrations. A case study with the pesticides diazinon, imidacloprid, and propiconazole and the aquatic invertebrates Gammarus pulex, Gammarus fossarum, and Lymnaea stagnalis illustrates the approach. L. stagnalis accumulates more pesticides than Gammaridae when measured in whole organisms but less in target tissues such as the nervous system. Toxicokinetics, i.e. biotransformation and distribution, explain the higher tolerance of L. stagnalis to the insecticide diazinon when compared to Gammaridae. L. stagnalis was again more tolerant to the other neurotoxicant imidacloprid; however, the difference in sensitivity could not be explained by toxicokinetics alone, indicating the importance of toxicodynamic differences. Sensitivity to propiconazole was comparable among all species and, when expressed as internal lethal concentrations, falls in the range of baseline toxicity.

Prenatal organophosphates exposure alternates the cleavage plane orientation of apical neural progenitor in developing neocortex

Prenatal organophosphate exposure elicits long-term brain cytoarchitecture and cognitive function impairments, but the mechanism underlying the onset and development of neural progenitors remain largely unclear. Using precise positioned brain slices, we observed an alternated cleavage plane bias that emerged in the mitotic neural progenitors of embryonal neocortex with diazinion (DZN) and chlorpyrifos (CPF) pretreatment. In comparison with the control, DZN and CPF treatment induced decrease of vertical orientation, increase of oblique orientation, and increase of horizontal orientation. That is, the cleavage plane orientation bias had been rotated from vertical to horizontal after DZN and CPF treatment. Meanwhile, general morphology and mitotic index of the progenitors were unchanged. Acephate (ACP), another common organophosphate, had no significant effects on the cleavage plane orientation, cell morphology and mitotic index. These results represent direct evidence for the toxicity mechanism in onset multiplication of neural progenitors.

Astrocytes protect against diazinon- and diazoxon-induced inhibition of neurite outgrowth by regulating neuronal glutathione

Evidence demonstrating that human exposure to various organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) is associated with neurobehavioral deficits in children continues to emerge. The present study focused on diazinon (DZ) and its active oxygen metabolite, diazoxon (DZO), and explored their ability to impair neurite outgrowth in rat primary hippocampal neurons as a mechanism of developmental neurotoxicity. Both DZ and DZO (0.5-10 μM) significantly inhibited neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons, at concentrations devoid of any cyototoxicity. These effects appeared to be mediated by oxidative stress, as they were prevented by antioxidants (melatonin, N-t-butyl-alpha-phenylnitrone, and glutathione ethyl ester). Inhibition of neurite outgrowth was observed at concentrations below those required to inhibit the catalytic activity of acetylcholinesterase. The presence of astrocytes in the culture was able to provide protection against inhibition of neurite outgrowth by DZ and DZO. Astrocytes increased neuronal glutathione (GSH) in neurons, to levels comparable to those of GSH ethyl ester. Astrocytes depleted of GSH by L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine no longer conferred protection against DZ- and DZO-induced inhibition of neurite outgrowth. The findings indicate that DZ and DZO inhibit neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons by mechanisms involving oxidative stress, and that these effects can be modulated by astrocytes and astrocyte-derived GSH. Oxidative stress from other chemical exposures, as well as genetic abnormalities that result in deficiencies in GSH synthesis and regulation, may render individuals more susceptible to these developmental neurotoxic effects of OPs.

Effects of a fungicide (imazalil) and an insecticide (diazinon) on stream fungi and invertebrates associated with litter breakdown

The intensification of agriculture has promoted the use of pesticides such as fungicides and insecticides. Many pesticides readily leach into natural water bodies and affect both organisms and ecosystem processes such as leaf breakdown, a crucial process in headwater streams. As leaf breakdown in streams involves sequential steps by different groups of organisms (first microbial conditioning, then invertebrate shredding), pesticides targeting different organisms are likely to affect one or the other step, and a mixture of contaminants might have interactive effects. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of a fungicide (imazalil) and an insecticide (diazinon) on stream fungal and invertebrate activities, and their effects on leaf consumption. After an initial assay to define 'effective concentration' of both pesticides in a laboratory experiment, we manipulated pesticide presence/absence during the conditioning and shredding phases. Both pesticides affected fungal community and reduced the performance of the shredding amphipod Echinogammarus berilloni, and leaf consumption. The impact of pesticides on fungal sporulation depended on the length of the exposure period. In addition, pesticides seemed to cause an energetic imbalance in the amphipod, affecting body condition and mortality. The combined effect of both pesticides was similar to those of the fungicide. Overall, our results show that the effects of pesticide mixtures on leaf breakdown are hard to predict from those observed in either fungi or macroinvertebrate performance.

Differential toxicity and uptake of Diazinon on embryo-larval development of Rhinella arenarum

Diazinon, an anti-cholinesterase organophosphate, is an extensively used pesticide. The main objective of this work was to assess the lethal and sublethal effects of Diazinon and its comparison with the uptake by embryos and larvae of the common South American toad Rhinella arenarum by means of standardized bioassays during acute (96 h), short-term chronic (168 h) and chronic (504 h) exposures. Toxicity resulted time- and stage-dependent, thus the lethal concentration 50 for 96 h, 168 h and 504 h were 27.2; 20.1 and 6.8 mg Diazinon L(-1) for embryos and 8, 6.7 and 1.9 mg Diazinon L(-1) for larvae. It is noteworthy the remarkable differences found in the concentration which caused lethality with those causing adverse effects on development such as malformations (teratogenic effects). Therefore, the teratogenic index from 144 h was greater than two; the main adverse effects were axial flexures, irregular borders, wavy tail, microcephaly, malformed mouth and adhesive structures, gut miscoiling, underdeveloped gills, cloacal edema, desquamation and severe hydropsy. Moreover, the characteristic sublethal effect of Diazinon on larvae was abnormal behavior related to neurotoxicity with a NOEC-168 h of 4.5 mg Diazinon L(-1). Diazinon contents in R. arenarum were time-dependent and significantly related to exposure concentration for both embryos and larvae. Diazinon contents were also stage-dependent, as it was up to 27 times higher for organisms exposed from blastula stage onwards than early larvae. These facts and the Hazard Quotients, a numerical expression of ecological risk, of 2.73, which is above USEPA's Level of Concern, showed the threat that Diazinon represents for R. arenarum populations.

Diazinon and diazoxon impair the ability of astrocytes to foster neurite outgrowth in primary hippocampal neurons

Evidence from in vivo and epidemiological studies suggests that organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) are developmental neurotoxicants, but possible underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Astrocytes are increasingly recognized for their active role in normal neuronal development. This study sought to investigate whether the widely-used OP diazinon (DZ), and its oxygen metabolite diazoxon (DZO), would affect glial-neuronal interactions as a potential mechanism of developmental neurotoxicity. Specifically, we investigated the effects of DZ and DZO on the ability of astrocytes to foster neurite outgrowth in primary hippocampal neurons. The results show that both DZ and DZO adversely affect astrocyte function, resulting in inhibited neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons. This effect appears to be mediated by oxidative stress, as indicated by OP-induced increased reactive oxygen species production in astrocytes and prevention of neurite outgrowth inhibition by antioxidants. The concentrations of OPs were devoid of cytotoxicity, and cause limited acetylcholinesterase inhibition in astrocytes (18 and 25% for DZ and DZO, respectively). Among astrocytic neuritogenic factors, the most important one is the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin. DZ and DZO decreased levels of fibronectin in astrocytes, and this effect was also attenuated by antioxidants. Underscoring the importance of fibronectin in this context, adding exogenous fibronectin to the co-culture system successfully prevented inhibition of neurite outgrowth caused by DZ and DZO. These results indicate that DZ and DZO increase oxidative stress in astrocytes, and this in turn modulates astrocytic fibronectin, leading to impaired neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons.

Prenatal and postnatal exposure to diazinon and its effect on spermatogram and pituitary gonadal hormones in male offspring of rats at puberty and adulthood

The objective of this research is to study the possible reproductive adverse effects of diazinon on rat offspring exposed in utero and during lactation. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley female rats (10-12 week old) were randomly assigned to four groups, each consisting of six rats. Group 1 served as the control and these rats were given normal saline orally. Rats in groups 2, 3, and 4 were administered diazinon, dissolved in saline at 10, 15, 30 mg/ kg(-1) body weight, per oral, once daily, during mating, pregnancy and lactation. The male offsprings were examined at puberty and adulthood for body weight, testis weight, epididymis weight, sperm count, motility and morphology, pituitary-gonadal hormone levels. At 30 mg kg(-1) dose, the male offsprings showed a decrease in testicular weight, sperm count, motility, with an increase in abnormal sperm percentage and a decline in pituitary-gonadal hormones, at puberty. Upon attaining adulthood, there was a decrease in testicular weight, sperm count and motility with an increase in abnormal sperm percentage and a decrease in pituitary hormone level. There was evidence of some adverse reproductive effects on the male offspring at the 15 mg/ kg(-1) dose. Most of the adverse effects were irreversible and were evident at both puberty and adulthood in the offsprings, although a few parameters reverted to the normal growth pattern. Diazinon is a reproductive toxicant for male offsprings if exposed during prenatal and postnatal phases.

Reconsidering sufficient and optimal test design in acute toxicity testing

In dose-response analysis, regression analysis and hypothesis testing are the main tools of choice. These methods, however, have specific requirements for the design of acute toxicity experiments. To produce meaningful results, both approaches require a constant exposure concentration over the duration of the test, and regression analysis makes an additional demand for at least two doses with partial mortality at the end of the test. These requirements, however, result from the limitations of the statistical techniques, which only use the observations at the end of the test. In practice, most standard protocols for acute testing prescribe that observations are made at several points in time (often daily). In this contribution, I demonstrate how dynamic modelling can make use of this information to produce robust estimates of LC50 as function of time, with confidence intervals, from data sets that violate the requirements for standard dose-response analysis. This form of modelling invites an entirely different, more flexible, view on experimental design, which could lead to a more efficient use of test animals and, at the same time, a stronger support for environmental risk assessment as well as the science of ecotoxicology.

Characterization of acetylcholinesterase inhibition and energy allocation in Daphnia magna exposed to carbaryl

The inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and energy allocation in the freshwater organism Daphnia magna exposed to carbaryl and potential recovery from the effects was examined. The binding of carbaryl-AChE was characterized through in vitro assays. To evaluate the recovery from inhibition and the alteration in energy budget, in vivo exposure and recovery regime tests were conducted. In comparison to diazoxon, the active metabolite of the insecticide diazinon, the stability of enzyme-carbaryl complex was fifteen times lower and the reactivity toward the active site was two times lower, resulting in approximately 30 times lower overall inhibition rate than for diazoxon. The in vitro reactivation rate constant of the inhibited enzyme and the in vivo recovery rate constant of AChE activity were 1.9 h⁻¹ and 0.12 h⁻¹ for carbaryl, respectively, which are much higher than the corresponding rate constants for diazoxon. The lower AChE inhibition and greater reactivation/recovery rates are in accordance with the lower toxicity of carbaryl compared to diazinon. Carbaryl exposure also altered the profile of the energy reserve: the decrease in lipid and glycogen and the increase in protein content resulted in the reduction of the total energy budget by about 45 mJ/g(ww). This corresponds to 26 percent of the available energy, which might allocate for external stressors. The mechanistic model of AChE inhibition is helpful to get an insight into (eco-)toxicological effects of AChE inhibitors on freshwater crustaceans under environmentally realistic conditions.

Biochemical and histological changes in the liver tissue of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon

The organophosphate insecticide diazinon is widely used to control pest in Iran. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the antioxidant and histopathological changes in the liver tissue of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to 0.1 and 0.2 mg/L of a commercial formula of diazinon for a period of 28 days. Antioxidant enzyme activities--catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase--were determined after 7, 14 and 28 days of exposure. Histopathological analyses were performed at the 28th day. All antioxidant enzymes were induced after 7 days of diazinon treatment in both concentrations of diazinon. Catalase and superoxide dismutase maintained elevated activities during all the treatment period. Glutathione peroxidase activity returned to the control values at the 14th day, decreasing to values below control at the 28th day in both diazinon concentrations. Glutathione reductase maintained increased activities at the 14th day in the 0.1 mg/L diazinon, decreasing to control values at the 28th day. In the 0.2 mg/L group, the activity returned to control values at the 14th and decreased below the control at the 28th day. Total antioxidant capacity of hepatocytes significantly decreased in fishes exposed to diazinon during all experimental periods. Hypertrophy of hepatocytes, vacuolization of cell cytoplasm and hepatocyte cloudy swelling were observed in the liver tissue of fish exposed to both concentrations of diazinon. The results showed that diazinon altered the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the cellular total antioxidant capacity inducing oxidative stress and cellular damage in hepatocytes evidenced by histopathological analysis.

Interactive neurobehavioral toxicity of diazinon, malathion, and ethoprop to juvenile coho salmon

In western North America, mixtures of current use pesticides have been widely detected in streams and other aquatic habitats for threatened and endangered Pacific salmon and steelhead (Oncorhynchus sp.). These include organophosphate insecticides that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme activity in the salmon nervous system, thereby disrupting swimming and feeding behaviors. Several organophosphates have been shown to interact as mixtures to produce synergistic AChE inhibition at concentrations near or above the upper range of surface water detections in freshwater systems. To evaluate potential synergism at lower concentrations (near or below 1 part per billion), juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) were exposed to a range of mixtures of diazinon-malathion and ethoprop-malathion below a cumulative 0.05 of the predicted EC50 for AChE inhibition, as determined from single chemical concentration-response curves. Brain enzyme inhibition was concentration-dependent, with a 90% reduction and a significant decrease in spontaneous swimming speed at the highest binary mixture concentrations evaluated (diazinon-malathion at 2.6 and 1.1 μg/L, respectively; ethoprop-malathion at 2.8 and 1.2 μg/L, respectively). Brain enzyme activity gradually recovered over six weeks. Our findings extend earlier observations of organophosphate synergism in salmon and reveal an unusually steep concentration-response relationship across a mere 2-fold increase in mixture concentration.

Effects of oral exposure to diazinon on mice liver and kidney tissues: biometric analyses of histopathologic changes

OBJECTIVE

To determine the sublethal toxic effects of diazinon on liver and kidney tissues of Swiss albino mice.

STUDY DESIGN

Mice were exposed to different concentrations (30, 60, and 120 mg/kg) of diazinon through oral administration for 30 consecutive days. Biometric analyses (area measurements of histologic structures) of some histopathological changes were evaluated by measuring the areas of hepatocyte/nucleus in the liver and the areas of glomerulus and renal corpuscle in the kidney. Both glomerular area and renal corpuscle area statistically decreased from the low-dose group to high-dose group as compared to controls.

RESULTS

In liver tissue vacuolization in hepatocytes, mononuclear cell infiltration, congestion, enlargement of the veins, and an increase in the number of Kupffer cells were found in the liver of exposed mice. In kidney tissue, mononuclear cell infiltration, glomerular degeneration, glomerular loss, and congestion were observed in diazinon-treated groups.

CONCLUSION

Diazinon caused dose-related histopathological damage in liver and especially in kidney tissues of mice. This work indicates that it might cause adverse effects to nontarget organisms, including humans.

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) monitoring of the photolysis of diazinon in aqueous solution: degradation route and toxicity of by-products against Artemia salina

The photolytic degradation of diazinon, an organophosphorus pesticide, in aqueous medium under assorted pH values was continuously monitored by direct infusion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The results indicated that the UV radiation was quite efficient in promoting the pesticide degradation at the three pH levels evaluated (5, 7 and 8). The m/z of the most abundant ions observed in the mass spectra (MS), in conjunction with the fragmentation patterns of such ionic species (MS/MS data), made possible the proposition of chemical structures for the main by-products formed. As a result, routes for the photodegradation of diazinon in aqueous solution could thus be suggested. In the assays using Artemia salina (brine shrimp) it was verified that the photodegradation products exhibited much lower toxicity than the primary substrate. Aiming at mimicking the conditions ordinarily found in water treatment plants, an additional series of tests was conducted with a solution containing sodium hypochlorite and diazinon. This solution, when not exposed to UV radiation, exhibited high toxicity against the microorganisms. Under the influence of UV radiation, however, the toxicity rates decreased dramatically. This result is relevant because it points toward the confident application of UV radiation to neutralize the deleterious effects caused by diazinon (and perhaps other organophosphorus pesticides) as well as sodium hypochlorite to the environment.

Sublethal exposures of diazinon alters glucose homostasis in Wistar rats: Biochemical and molecular evidences of oxidative stress in adipose tissues

Disorder of glucose homeostasis is one of the most important complications following exposure to organophosphorous (OPs) pesticides. Regarding the importance of adipose tissue in regulating blood glucose and the role of oxidative stress in toxicity of OPs and in the continue of our previous works, in the present study we focused on tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (Nf-κB) in a sublethal model of toxicity by diazinon as a common OPs. Following time-course study of various doses of diazinon in impairing blood glucose, dose of 70mg/kg/day was found the optimum. Animals were treated for 4 weeks and after gavage of glucose (2g/kg), the glucose change was evaluated at time-points of 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180min to identify oral glucose tolerance test (GTT). In addition, serum insulin was measured in fasting condition. In adipose tissue, oxidative stress markers including reactive oxygen species (ROS), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase and TNFα were evaluated. The mRNA expression of GLUT4, Nf-κB and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were also determined by real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Diazinon at dose of 70mg/kg/day impaired GTT and diminished insulin level while augmented ROS, NADPH oxidase, and TNFα. The GLUT4 mRNA expression was amplified by diazinon while unlikely, the expression of Nf-κB gene did not change. On the basis of biochemical and molecular findings, it is concluded that diazinon impairs glucose homeostasis through oxidative stress and related proinflammatory markers in a way to result in a reduced function of insulin inside adipose tissue. Although, diazinon interfered with pancreatic influence on the adipose tissue most probably via stimulation of muscarinic receptors, current data are not sufficient to introduce adipose tissue as a target organ to OPs toxicity. Considering the potential of OPs to accumulate in adipose tissue, it seems a good candidate organ for future studies. Although, hyperglycemia was not induced by diazinon but increased AUC0-180min leads us to the point that diazinon induces kind of instability in glucose homostasis and diabetes.

Investigation of the toxicity of some organophosphorus pesticides in a repeated dose study in rats

The study aimed to the investigation of the toxicity of organophosphorus pesticides malathion (MLT) and diazinon (DZN) in Wistar rats in a repeated dose study for 35 days. MLT and DZN in corn oil vehicle were oral administered. Body and organs weights, plasma and brain cholinesterase activities, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities, histopathological changes in liver and kidney, and some parameters of the immune function, such as leukocyte formula, spleen weight and cellularity, spleen lymphocytes proliferation in response to concanavalin A (Con A) were investigated; the potential oxidative stress (malondialdehyde in plasma and brain, and blood catalase activity) was also evaluated. No clinical toxicity signs attributed to pesticides were noted; no significant changes in the organ weights have been found. Body weight tends slightly to increase, predominantly in DZN treated rats. The results suggest that plasma cholinesterase is more susceptible than brain cholinesterase to the inhibitory effect of DZN and MLT. Other serum biochemical parameters showed no significant difference. DZN produced a marked increase of the number of spleen lymphocytes without a significant gain of the relative spleen weight. The both pesticides produced an increase of the number of mononuclear cells÷weight spleen. The splenic lymphocyte proliferation has not been influenced by MLT or DZN treatment. Histopathological observations identified some changes (vasodilatation, microvacuoles, and granular dystrophy) in the liver, with MLT, inducing macrovacuolar steatosis. The study indicates that repeated exposure, at subclinical doses, to organophosphorus MLT and DZN causes some biochemical, histopathological and immune alterations in rats.

Ecotoxicological characterization of a tropical soil after diazinon spraying

The impact of diazinon spraying in an agricultural tropical soil through the evaluation of both the habitat and retention functions of the soil system was never reported. To fill this gap, five times the recommended dose of a commercial diazinon formulation was sprayed in an agricultural area of Costa Rica, and dilution gradients of the sprayed soil were prepared in the laboratory. Avoidance and reproduction tests with soil organisms (Eisenia andrei, Enchytraeus crypticus and Folsomia candida) to evaluate losses in terrestrial habitat function, and growth and reproduction tests with aquatic organisms (Chlorella vulgaris and Daphnia magna, respectively) to evaluate the retention function of soil were performed. Results demonstrated that regarding habitat function, F. candida reproduction was the most sensitive endpoint (EC(50) = 0.288 mg a.i./kg), followed by avoidance behaviour of E. andrei (EC(20) = 1.75 mg a.i./kg). F. candida avoidance and the reproduction of E. andrei and E. crypticus were not affected by diazinon. The toxicity tests with aquatic organisms showed that the soil retention function was insufficient to prevent effects of diazinon either on microalgae growth (EC(50) ≤ 0.742 mg/L and EC(20) ≤ 0.223 mg/L) and on the reproduction of the cladoceran (EC(50) ≤ 0.00771 mg/L and EC(20) ≤ 0.00646 mg/L). Results suggested that diazinon exerted toxic effects even at the dilution corresponding to the recommended dose, fact which makes its misuse an issue of environmental concern. Furthermore, the present study highlighted the importance and complementary nature of the assessment of both habitat and retention functions to an ecological risk assessment in tropical systems.

Genome-wide study of DNA methylation alterations in response to diazinon exposure in vitro

Pesticide exposure has repeatedly been associated with cancers. However, molecular mechanisms are largely undetermined. In this study, we examined whether exposure to diazinon, a common organophosphate that has been associated with cancers, could induce DNA methylation alterations. We conducted genome-wide DNA methylation analyses on DNA samples obtained from human hematopoietic K562 cell exposed to diazinon and ethanol using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation27 BeadChip. Bayesian-adjusted t-tests were used to identify differentially methylated gene promoter CpG sites. We identified 1069 CpG sites in 984 genes with significant methylation changes in diazinon-treated cells. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that some genes are tumor suppressor genes, such as TP53INP1 (3.0-fold, q-value <0.001) and PTEN (2.6-fold, q-value <0.001), some genes are in cancer-related pathways, such as HDAC3 (2.2-fold, q-value=0.002), and some remain functionally unknown. Our results provided direct experimental evidence that diazinon may modify gene promoter DNA methylation levels, which may play a pathological role in cancer development.

Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic model for diazinon toxicity--mechanistic explanation of differences in the sensitivity of Daphnia magna and Gammarus pulex

A mechanistic toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic model for acute toxic effects (immobilization, mortality) of the organothiophosphate insecticide diazinon in Daphnia magna is presented. The model was parameterized using measured external and internal (whole-body) concentrations of diazinon, its toxic metabolite diazoxon, and the inactive metabolite 2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinol, plus acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity measured during exposure to diazinon in vivo. The toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic model provides a coherent picture from exposure to the resulting toxic effect on an organism level through internally formed metabolites and the effect on a molecular scale. A very fast reaction of diazoxon with AChE (pseudo first-order inhibition rate constant k(i) = 3.3 h(-1)) compared with a slow formation of diazoxon (activation rate constant k(act) = 0.014 h(-1)) was responsible for the high sensitivity of D. magna toward diazinon. Recovery of AChE activity from inhibition was slow and rate-determining (99% recovery within 16 d), compared with a fast elimination of diazinon (99% elimination within 17 h). The obtained model parameters were compared with toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic parameters of Gammarus pulex exposed to diazinon from previous work. This comparison revealed that G. pulex is less sensitive because of a six times faster detoxification of diazinon and diazoxon and an approximately 400 times lower rate for damage accrual. These differences overcompensate the two times faster activation of diazinon to diazoxon in G. pulex compared to D. magna. The present study substantiates theoretical considerations that mechanistically based effect models are helpful to explain sensitivity differences among different aquatic invertebrates.

A review of endosulfan, dichlorvos, diazinon, and diuron--pesticides used in Jamaica

The global agricultural sector is the primary user of pesticides, consuming more than three billion kilograms of pesticides annually. Although pesticides are beneficial in controlling the proliferation of pests, they have been associated with adverse human and ecological impacts. Approximately 87% of the annually imported pesticides in Jamaica are applied within agricultural or household settings. However, in Jamaica, the potential impact on humans, their property, and the environment is unknown, as the fate of many of the locally applied pesticides has not been established. This review discusses four pesticides extensively applied in agricultural practices in Jamaica - endosulfan, diazinon, diuron, and dichlorvos. The information presented is essential for the development of fate and transport models of these chemicals. Consequently, health and ecological impact assessments may be conducted from the generated models.

Endocrine-disrupting and cytotoxic potential of anticholinesterase insecticide, diazinon in reproductive toxicity of male mice

We evaluated the effects of diazinon (2, 4.1 and 8.2mg/kg bw/day for 4 weeks) in gonadotropins, testosterone and estrogen levels, whether the regulatory interactions in the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis are modified by acetylcholinesterase inhibition and histopathological changes in adult mice testes. Diazinon at doses higher than 2mg/kg bw/day resulted in decreased testis weight, inhibition in acetylcholinesterase activities, decrease in levels of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone, following reduction in mating and fertility indices. Diazinon increased testosterone content in 4.1mg/kg group, but decreased testosterone concentration in 8.2mg/kg group. Diazinon increased estrogen, prolactine and decreased levels of acetylcholinesterase activities in 4.1mg/kg group but levels of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone remained unmodified. It may be simply postulated a scenario that acetylcholine in the cholinergic neurons has a potential threshold to perform a crucial part in the complex circuitry of neuroendocrine regulatory mechanisms. On overaccumulation, other neurotransmitters can be appropriately recruited to modulate the mechanisms of circuitry.

Historical trends analysis of 2004 to 2009 toxicity and pesticide data for California's central valley

The goals of this study were to conduct temporal trends analysis of 2004-2009 toxicity and pesticide data sets for four Central Valley Water Quality Coalitions in California. The general conclusions from analysis of 6 years of toxicity and pesticide data from these Central Valley Coalitions is that a significant decline has occurred with Ceriodaphnia toxicity, diazinon concentrations and chlorpyrifos concentrations. There was no data to support a significant increase in toxicity or pesticide concentrations from any of the data sets analyzed from 2004 to 2009. In addition, the percent of diazinon and chlorpyrifos samples exceeding water quality objectives of these organophosphate insecticides has also declined significantly from 2004 to 2009. Interpretation of all toxicity and pesticide data used in this analysis within a "weight of evidence context" suggests that water quality conditions have generally improved in the Central Valley Region of California from 2004 to 2009.

Environmental risk assessment of fluctuating diazinon concentrations in an urban and agricultural catchment using toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic modeling

Temporally resolved environmental risk assessment of fluctuating concentrations of micropollutants is presented. We separated the prediction of toxicity over time from the extrapolation from one to many species and from acute to sublethal effects. A toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic (TKTD) model predicted toxicity caused by fluctuating concentrations of diazinon, measured by time-resolved sampling over 108 days from three locations in a stream network, representing urban, agricultural and mixed land use. We calculated extrapolation factors to quantify variation in toxicity among species and effect types based on available toxicity data, while correcting for different test durations with the TKTD model. Sampling from the distribution of extrapolation factors and prediction of time-resolved toxicity with the TKTD model facilitated subsequent calculation of the risk of undesired toxic events. Approximately one-fifth of aquatic organisms were at risk and fluctuating concentrations were more toxic than their averages. Contribution of urban and agricultural sources of diazinon to the overall risk varied. Thus using fixed concentrations as water quality criteria appears overly simplistic because it ignores the temporal dimension of toxicity. However, the improved prediction of toxicity for fluctuating concentrations may be small compared to uncertainty due to limited diversity of toxicity data to base the extrapolation factors on.