SECONDARY POISONING OF EAGLES FOLLOWING INTENTIONAL POISONING OF COYOTES WITH ANTICHOLINESTERASE PESTICIDES IN WESTERN CANADA

Records of eagles, coyotes (Canis latrans), and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) necropsied at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, between 1967 and 2002 were reviewed for cases suggestive of anticholinesterase poisoning. From 1993 to 2002, 54 putative poisoning incidents involving 70 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and 10 golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetus) were identified. Of these, 50 incidents occurred in Saskatchewan, two were in Manitoba, and one occurred in each of Alberta and the Northwest Territories. The diagnosis was confirmed in eight instances by demonstration of pesticide in ingesta from eagles or known use of pesticide at the site together with brain cholinesterase (AChE) reduction of >50% in at least one animal. A presnmptive diagnosis of poisoning was made in 33 incidents based on brain AChE reduction of >50% in at least one animal; 13 incidents were considered suspicious because of circumstantial evidence of the death of eagles in association with other species and limited AChE reduction. Other wild species were found dead in 85% of the incidents involving eagles. Coyotes, foxes, black-billed magpies (Pica pica), and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) were associated with 34, six, six, and three incidents, respectively. There were eight additional incidents that did not involve eagles in which poisoning was diagnosed in coyotes. Carbofuran was identified in nine incidents. Carbamate poisoning was indicated on the basis of reactivation of brain AChE activity in two additional incidents. Brain AChE activity was not reduced from normal in eagles in four of seven incidents in which carbofuran was identified. The organophosplorous insecticide terbufos was found together with carbofuran in one incident. Brain AChE activity was measured in wild canids and in eagles in 15 incidents; in all of these incidents, brain AChE was redulced by >50% in at least one mammal, whereas this level of reduction occrred in eagles in only four incidents. Use of anticholinesterase pesticides to poison coyotes is illegal, but the practice continues and secondary poisoning of eagles is a problem of unknown proportions in western North America.

Clinical and pathological features of anticoagulant rodenticide intoxications in dogs

Ten dogs underwent clinical monitoring and laboratory investigations following accidental poisoning with anticoabulant rodenticide products. Hematobiochemical parameters, coagulation profiles and toxicologic analyses of plasma and/or tissues were monitored. In 2 cases necropsy examinations were done. The clinical-pathological aspects of anticoagulant rodenticide poisonings of dogs are then discussed.

Renal subcapsular hematoma associated with brodifacoum toxicosis in a dog

A 5-y-old female dog died acutely and was presented for postmortem examination. Hemorrhage in the thoracic and peritoneal cavities and a large subcapsular renal hematoma were present at necropsy. Brodifacoum, a second-generation coumarin anticoagulant, was detected in the liver by HPLC analysis. Renal subcapsular hematoma is a well known, but uncommon condition in man. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a brodifacoum-associated renal subcapsular hematoma in a non-human species.

Salt poisoning in beef cattle

Salt poisoning has been described under various circumstances in adult cattle. Presenting clinical signs in 6 Holstein beef cattle with such poisoning were primarily dysfunction of the central nervous system and included ataxia, opisthotonus, nystagmus, depression, muscle twitching and intermittent convulsions, as well as abdominal pain and polydipsia. Diarrhea occurred in 2, and blindness in 3/6 cattle. Hypernatremia (161.8 - 178.8 mmol/L) and hyperosmolality (331.81 - 366.18 mOsm/L) were present in all animals. To treat the affected cattle, access to fresh water was restricted, vascular volume was expanded with isotonic saline and then hypotonic fluid (5% Dextrose solution) i.v. and dexamethasone im was administered. Although biochemical parameters returned to normal reference ranges, 3/6 affected animals remained blind.

Two years' activity of the Veterinary Toxicology Attention Service of Lugo, Spain

The Veterinary Toxicology Attention Service was created at the beginning of 2001 as the first on-line toxicology service for veterinarians and animal owners in Spain. In the present study, data about the general functioning of the Service and the toxicological analysis and consultations performed are summarized. Canine-related cases constituted the main call group and veterinary practitioners represented half of the consultations. Coordination between all veterinary toxicology services in Spain and the rest of the European Union should improve this service.

Two hundred and thirteen cases of marijuana toxicoses in dogs

Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) is a commonly used recreational drug among humans; animals may be exposed following ingestion or accidental inhalation of smoke. From January 1998 to January 2002, 213 incidences were recorded of dogs that developed clinical signs following oral exposure to marijuana, with 99% having neurologic signs, and 30% exhibiting gastrointestional signs. The marijuana ingested ranged from 1/2 to 90 g. The lowest dose at which signs occurred was 84.7 mg/kg and the highest reported dose was 26.8 g/kg. Onset of signs ranged from 5 min to 96 h, with most signs occurring within 1 to 3 h after ingestion. The signs lasted from 30 min to 96 h. Management consisted of decontamination, sedation (with diazepam as drug of choice), fluid therapy, thermoregulation and general supportive care. All followed animals made full recoveries.

Use of neostigmine in massive ivermectin toxicity in cats

Over-the-counter availability of drugs in developing countries poses the risk of their abuse and overdosing in animals by the owners. This report describes ivermectin toxicosis and its treatment with neostigmine methylsulfate in 2 kittens and an adult cat that had been massively overdosed by their owners. Of two 4-w-old 300 g kittens, one was injected with 1.5 ml ivermectin (15 mg; corresponding to 250 times the recommended dose) by the owner and became comatose, started salivation and died after 2 1/2 h. The other kitten was treated with about 0.75 ml ivermectin (7.5 mg; corresponding to 125 times the recommended dose) by the same owner and developed ataxia and salivation after 2 h, went into coma the next morning and was presented for treatment with mydriasis, coma, slight fever (102.4 F), tachypnea (48/min) and severe tachycardia. This kitten was treated twice at a half hourly interval with neostigmine methylsulfate (25 microg) and 5% dextrose (20 ml) iv showed a transient improvement but died 12 h later. A 2-y-old, 4.5 kg male cat was treated s.c. with 1.5 ml ivermectin (15 mg; corresponding to 16.6 times the recommended dose) by its owner and developed slight salivation, lacrimation. mydriasis, protrusion of third eye-lid, tachypnea (42 breaths/min), tachycardia (128 beats/min) and ataxia. The patient was treated with neostigmine methylsulfate (150 microg) and 5% dextrose (100 ml) i.v., and 200 ml of Heartmann's solution i.v. Treatment was repeated after 6 h Follow up treatment over next 2 d was with daily i.v. administration of neostigmine and dextrose. The patient completely recovered 5 d after initiation of treatment.

Molybdenum-associated Pituitary Endocrinopathy in Sheep Treated with Ammonium Tetrathiomolybdate

Ammonium tetrathiomolybdate (TTM) has hitherto been the treatment of choice for chronic copper poisoning in sheep, but the long-term consequences have not been evaluated. This study was based on a flock of copper-poisoned sheep which, after apparently successful treatment with TTM, became infertile and progressively unthrifty and eventually died 2-3 years later. The last five surviving animals were subjected to euthanasia and detailed study. Necropsy revealed marked wasting together with depletion of the pituitary and adrenal glands, testicular atrophy and ovarian cystic follicles. Histopathological examination revealed a non-inflammatory atrophy or degeneration of the adenohypophysis with loss of trophic cells; adrenocortical and testicular atrophy and ovarian degeneration. The regressive changes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary were confirmed by immunocytochemical labelling, which revealed a marked depletion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in the affected pituitaries by comparison with healthy controls. Excess molybdenum (Mo) retention (P<0.02) was identified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) in the pituitaries and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) in the adrenals and brains of affected sheep. It was concluded that molybdenum introduced systemically as TTM is retained within the brain, pituitary and adrenal glands and is associated with a toxic endocrinopathy. It is postulated that Mo administered as thiomolybdate adversely affects the hypothalamo-adenohypophyseal system by interfering with trophic hormone release, leading to the cessation of reproductive activity and ultimately the failure of intermediary metabolism. Whether Mo exerts its effect centrally or directly on the pituitary was not established.

Accidental colchicine poisoning in a dog

A 14-month-old toy poodle-cross was presented, after ingesting the owner's colchicine medication, with severe gastrointestinal disturbances and in shock. Despite aggressive medical management, the patient was euthanized approximately 24 hours after the ingestion. The clinical features, treatment, and necropsy findings of colchicine poisoning are discussed.

Assessment of some clinical and laboratory variables for early diagnosis of cumulative copper poisoning in sheep

Sixteen male Suffolk lambs fed a 8 ppm Cu basal diet were randomly assigned to 2 groups: 12 copper-loaded (CL) and 4 controls (C). The CL sheep were drenched initially with 3 mg Cu/kg bw daily for a week. Every week an additional dose of 3 mg Cu/kg bw was included in the drench until signs of copper poisoning appeared; the control sheep were drenched with saline solution. The onset of copper poisoning occurred between 42 and 55 d. Food intake and body weight were recorded daily. Blood samples were collected weekly to measure the activity of the liver enzymes gamma-glutamyltransferase (gammaGT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), sorbitoll dehydrogenase (SDH) and acid phosphatase (AF). The following changes were significantly recorded in the CL sheep in the weeks or days previous to the hemolytic crisis: higher levels of gammaGT were found on the -28th d increasing slowly but continuously until the hemolytic crisis; SDH fluctuated during the period presenting higher levels on the -28th, -14th and -7th d; AST and AF activities increased from the -14th and -7th d respectively; sharp decreases in the activities of SDH and AF at the hemolytic crisis; lower feed intake and body weight gain from the -7th d; and sheep ceased eating concentrates from the -9th d and became anoretic the day before the hemolytic crisis. Plasma copper concentration increased only the day before the hemolytic crisis. There were no changes in respiratory and heart rates, rectal temperature or rumen movements throughout the pre-hemolytic phase. The higher the amount of cumulative copper drenched, the higher was the gammaGT and AST activities. It was concluded that gammaGT followed by AST are the best enzymes to assess copper-load in sheep during the pre-hemolytic phase. Sheep fed copper-rich diets with high plasma activity of these enzymes, decreased feed consumption and subtle loss of body weight are most likely to present with a hemolytic crisis in a few days.

Amphetamine poisoning in a dog: case report, literature review and veterinary medical perspectives

Amphetamine abuse in human beings has increased, resulting in many reports of toxicity and death. In the US over 4 million people have abused amphetamines at least once, thus small animals are exposed to increased accidental poisoning risk. This report describes an acute amphetamine poisoning in a dog due to ingestion of 15 mg/kg fenproporex, leading to typical signs of catecholamines release and effects in different organ systems. Similar clinical and laboratory findings observed in human beings are reviewed and physiopathogenic mechanisms discussed, as well as the therapeutic approaches available in veterinary medicine.

Acute endosulfan poisoning in cattle

Endosulfan poisoning was observed in cattle where the owner applied the insecticide topically as ectoparasitic control. Two of 11 cattle died in 2 d with rapid and difficult breathing, foamy exudates in the mouth, tremors, exophthalmos and coma. At necropsy, hemorrhages were on the serosal membranes of the visceral organs and lungs, and there was severe edema and emphysema in the lungs. The levels of endosulfan in the liver, kidney, lungs and muscle were 13.1, 4.0, 1.6 and 0.8 ppm, respectively.

Overingestion of methionine tablets by a dog

Methionine tablets are used as urinary acidifiers for pets and to decrease damage from dog urine to lawns. A 39-kg Labrador Retriever ingested approximately 350 tablets containing 150 mg methionine/tablet and was presented after repeated episodes of vomiting. The only abnormality was posterior ataxia suggestive of spinal cord injury. The animal was treated with i.v. fluids, steroids and gastrointestinal protectants. Approximately 4.5 h after entering the clinic the dog had a single seizure episode lasting 2-3 min which was treated with phenobarbital. Serum ammonia at that time was normal (0.19 mg/dL). The animal did not show further CNS abnormalities and awoke apparently normal. A musty odor to the breath was noticed through the course of the day, possibly due to volatile mercaptans produced from methionine metabolism. The animal made an uneventful recovery and was discharged the next day.

First cases of animal diseases published since 2000. 3. Cattle

In this third article of a series of papers listing first case reports of animal diseases published since 2000, the following seven cases of cattle diseases are discussed: AL amyloidosis. Canola oil intoxication. Disseminated intracytoplasmic neuronal vacuolation. Encephalomyelitis associated with Akabane virus infection in adult cows. Lower limb deformity: "mirror image duplication of the plantar/palmar half of the distal portion of the digit". Lupinus argenteus intoxication. Novel Propionibacterium infection. After a short introduction, the bibliographical data, the abstract of the author(s), and some additional information derived from the article are given. The article will be regularly updated adding overlooked as well as new first reports.

A model for ammonia poisoning in cattle

The intravenous infusion of ammonium chloride was used to induce ammonia (NH3) poisoning in cattle. A 1.5 M ammonium chloride solution, buffered to pH 7.0, was infused at 400 mL/h until a convulsive episode occurred and therapy was initiated. Convulsions occurred with 200 to 1200 mL of ammonium solution. The clinical picture and metabolic effects were similar to the natural poisoning; no side effected occurred. The hypermmoniemia caused hyperglycemia, hyperlactemia, hyperkalemia and Intense metabolic acidosis. After treatment there was a sharp decrease in plasma NH3. Within 110 min all steers stood and recovered appetites. The induction of NH3 poisoning in cattle with ammonium chloride offers many advantages over the administration of high po doses of urea.

Suspected lasalocid poisoning in three dogs

The ionophore lasalocid has been used as a feed additive for broilers chickens and for improving feed efficiency in ruminants. Although dogs appear to be more sensitive to lasalocid intoxication than other species, there is only 1 report in the veterinary literature about lasalocid poisoning in dogs. We describe the clinical signs, treatment and resolution of 3 hunting dogs that developed acute neurological signs consistent with lasalocid poisoning after the consumption of several broilers that had died on a nearby farm.

Haemorrhage in seven cats with suspected anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication

Clinical features were evaluated in seven adult cats (six males, one female) with haemorrhage and presumptive anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication. Haemorrhage appeared as thoracic haemorrhage, otic bleeding, haematoma, melena, haematochezia, and petechiation. The most common other presenting signs were lethargy, anorexia, and tachypnoea or dyspnoea. Six cats were anaemic, four cats were mildly thrombocytopenic (58000-161000/ microL), and three had slightly decreased plasma protein or albumin values. The prothrombin time (30.3->100 s, reference range: 16.5-27.5 s) and activated partial thromboplastin time values (32.6->100 s; reference range: 14-25 s) were markedly prolonged in all cats. All cats received vitamin K(1)subcutaneously or orally (3.7-5 mg/kg body weight initially) and depending on severity of signs five cats were transfused with fresh whole blood. Plasma coagulation times improved in all cats and returned to normal in 1-5 days. Rodenticide poisons represent an important but relatively rare cause of haemorrhage in cats and can be effectively treated.

The toxicology of honey bee poisoning

The use of insecticides continues to be a basic tool in pest management, since there are many pest situations for which there are no known alternative management methods. However, the harmful effects of insecticides against beneficial Insects continuous to be a serious problem. Poisoning of bee pollinators is a serious adverse effect of insecticide use which leads to a decrease in insect population, to reduction of honey yields, to destruction of plant communities, to insecticide residues in food, and to a significant loss of beekeepers' income. In bee poisoning, the identification of the responsible toxicant is necessary by both environmental and biological monitoring, to prevent bee poisoning and for the protection of public health. The different aspects of bee poisoning with anticholinesterase insecticides are discussed in detail.

Atypical presentation of long-term ethylene glycol poisoning in a German shepherd dog

Ethylene glycol is a common cause of poisoning and death in pets by being converted to more toxic metabolites responsible of many toxic effects, mainly renal damage. The present paper describes an atypical case of ethylene glycol poisoning in a dog due to consumption of small amounts of antifreeze solution over a long period of time, and resulting a renal failure.

Assessment of bioconcentration and secondary poisoning of surfactants

The relevance of the bioconcentration behaviour of surfactants for the secondary poisoning assessment and for the risk characterisation in the bird and mammalian food chain has been investigated. The approach used is described in the recently revised EU Technical Guidance Document for the Risk Assessment of Substances. The results demonstrate that, based on experimentally derived bioconcentration factors, environmental concentrations and effects in animals, there is a clear level of safety for both linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS) and alcohol ethoxylates (AE), the most important surfactants by volume. To assess other surfactants used in detergents, a bioconcentration factor that would need to be attained for secondary poisoning to be of concern has been estimated from predicted environmental concentrations and known long-term effects data in animals. Based on the known structural similarity of these surfactants to LAS and AE and the ubiquitous nature of the enzymatic systems that are present in biotransformation processes in organisms, it is concluded that bioconcentration of these surfactants to these levels is highly unlikely. Therefore the potential for secondary poisoning effects of these surfactants is extremely low.

The comparative efficacy of yohimbine and atipamezole to treat amitraz intoxication in dogs

This study compared the efficacy of yohimbine with atipamezole, a new alpha2 adrenergic antagonist, to treat canine amitraz intoxication. Thirty dogs were divided equally into 3 groups (A, AY, and AA). Group A received 2.5% amitraz iv at 1 mg/kg; Group AY received the same dose of amitraz followed 30 min later by 0.1 mg/kg (2 mg/mL) yohimbine iv; and Group AA received the same dose of amitraz followed 30 min later by 0.2 mg/kg (5 mg/ mL) atipamezole iv. Temperature, heart rate, respiratory frequency, mean arterial pressure, degree of sedation, mean time of tranquilization and diameter of pupils were monitored for 360 min. Sedation, loss of reflexes, hypothermia, bradycardia, hypotension, bradypnea and mydriasis were observed in Group A, with 3rd eyelid prolapse, increased diuresis and vomiting in some animals. Yohimbine reversed all alterations induced by amitraz, but induced significant cardiorespiratory effects such as tachycardia and tachypnea. Atipamezole was a useful antagonist for amitraz, with less cardiorespiratory effects, suggesting its potential role as an alternative treatment of amitraz intoxication in dogs.

Indirect molecular diagnosis of copper toxicosis in Bedlington terriers is complicated by haplotype diversity

Positional cloning recently identified the mutation causing copper toxicosis (CT) in Bedlington terriers. Isolation of the MURR1 gene will be of great value in developing a reliable diagnostic test for the breeding of a copper toxicosis-free stock. It will replace the current diagnostic test using the CT-linked marker, C04107, which is located in intron 1 of the MURR1 gene with a distance of approximately 8 kb from the exon 2 deletion. Despite the short distance between C04107 and the CT mutation, possible recombinant dogs have been reported with C04107. Although these dogs have a normal phenotype, they carry the C04107 allele 2, which is associated with CT. To study the origin of this possible recombination event we collected a pedigree consisting of two unaffected American Bedlington terriers and their litter of four pups, which were all homozygous for the C04107 2,2 genotype. Mutation analysis showed that two dogs were heterozygous for the CT exon 2 deletion mutation, whereas four dogs were homozygous for the wild-type (WT) allele. Haplotype analysis was performed using two DNA markers in the MURR1 gene and four DNA markers flanking the gene and spanning a region of approximately 600 kb. Surprisingly, we identified a new haplotype (haplotype C) that contains allele 2 of marker C04107 in combination with the WT MURR1 allele. Analysis of the flanking markers suggests there are different genetic backgrounds in the Bedlington terrier population.

Evaluation of the present breeding programme against copper toxicosis in Danish Bedlington terriers

A breeding programme to eradicate copper toxicosis in Danish Bedlington terriers has been established based on a DNA marker test. Genotyping of both parents is compulsory and after 1 January 2000, only homozygous non-carriers are used for breeding. In this study, two groups of Bedlington terriers were genotyped at 18 microsatellite loci. One group represented the original population of Bedlington terriers before introducing the breeding programme (n = 23); the other represented a group of homozygous non-carriers (n = 24) available for breeding after year 2000. Allele numbers, allele frequencies, observed heterozygosities (Ho), expected heterozygosities (He), locus-specific coefficients of inbreeding (Fl) and Nei's genetic distance (D) was calculated. Individual coefficients of inbreeding (Fi) were calculated from the pedigrees and an assignment test was performed. Four rare alleles were lost in the group of homozygous non-carriers. No significant differences were observed between the mean values of allele numbers, Ho, He, Fl and Fi of the two populations of dogs. Nei's genetic distance between the two populations was 0.06 and 88% of the homozygous non-carriers were assigned correctly in the assignment test. The overall diversity of the breed was low (Ho = 0.41) and the breeders were advised to include the heterozygous carriers again.

Modeling control of rabies outbreaks in red fox populations to evaluate culling, vaccination, and vaccination combined with fertility control

A predictive model of spread and control of rabies in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations was used to evaluate efficacy of culling, oral vaccination, and oral vaccination and fertility control (V + FC) as rabies control strategies. In addition, effects of season, fox population density, and a delay in starting control were modeled. At fox densities of 0.5 fox families/km2 or greater, a single oral vaccination campaign with bait uptake rates of less than 50% resulted in ineffective rabies control. An uptake rate of at least 80% was required to give a better than 80% chance of eliminating rabies. Vaccination was least effective at controlling rabies if applied 1 or 2 mo before the foxes gave birth. Seasonal timing of poison or V + FC had little effect on efficacy, which was always more successful than the oral vaccination alone. The longer the delay between the simulated start of the rabies infection and the application of a single vaccination campaign, the less successful was the control, particularly at the higher fox densities tested. At a fox density of 0.25 families/km2, all the strategies were equally successful at eliminating rabies. At higher fox densities V + FC was slightly less successful than culling, whereas vaccination-only was considerably less successful. The sole use of vaccination is not considered a viable control method for areas with high fox densities. The model suggests that an area of culling centered on the disease focus, plus an outer ring of vaccine or V + FC, could be the best strategy to control a point-source wildlife rabies outbreak.

Nitrate poisoning in cattle fed Chenopodium album hay

Three cows fed Chenopodium album hay died 30 min after showing ataxia, bluish-brown mucous membranes, rapid and difficult breathing, increased heart rates, tremors and coma. Brown-colored and badly coagulated blood was the prominent necropsy finding. Slight pulmonary edema was prominent and all visceral organs were hyperemic. The hay contained 2,500 ppm nitrate-nitrogen and 11 ppm nitrite nitrogen.

Intentional poisoning of animals in southeastern Spain: a review of the veterinary toxicology service from Murcia, Spain

Data of toxicological analyses carried out over a 10-y period for suspected cases of wild and domestic animal poisonings are summarized. Of the 123 cases suspected as deliberate, 102 were be analyzed and 50 of them were positive to intentional poisoning, a total of 107 dead animals. Pesticides, especially insecticides (72%) and rodenticides (26%), were frequently involved. Aldicarb (n=15), anticoagulant rodenticides (n=8) and strychnine (n=4) were the most common toxins in baits prepared for intentional poisonings; carbofuran, methomyl, endosulfan and paraquat were also used. A coordinated Veterinary Toxicology Services network of collaboration should be set up in Spain to improve the quality of the services provided.

Ethylene glycol toxicosis in chickens

Ethylene glycol (EG) toxicosis was diagnosed on postmortem examination in a white leghorn chicken. The clinical signs were sudden onset of depression, ataxia, convulsions and death. Natural cases of EG toxicosis have not been reported in chickens. This report highlights the importance of including EG toxicosis on differential diagnoses lists for sudden onset of depression, ataxia and death in chickens.

Acute selenium poisoning from selenium-containing iron supplement in suckling pigs

We report an outbreak of acute selenium poisoning among suckling pigs; 92 piglets were found dead or moribund without preceding symptoms. Necropsy revealed acute congestion of liver and small intestine. The source was a powdered iron supplement contaminated by sodium selenite.

Essentiality and toxicity of selenium and its status in Australia: a review

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for animals and humans because of its role in an antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. This enzyme protects cell membranes from damage caused by the peroxidation of lipids. The paper provides an overview of the effects of Se toxicity and deficiency in humans and animals. It is well established that Se deficiency causes health implications in humans and animals. Se is also very toxic and can cause Se poisoning (selenosis) in humans and animals. In Australia, Se deficiency has caused health problem to livestock; however, the problems were eliminated after the introduction of Se supplementation. Se toxicity has also been reported in some regions of Australia as a result of livestock feeding on Se accumulative plant species. The major source of Se is diet, and in many regions of the world the levels of Se in the soils generally reflect the Se status in human populations. In foods, the bioavailability and toxicity of Se depend on its chemical forms. Generally, organic forms of Se are more bioavailable and less toxic than the inorganic forms (selenites, selenates). The Se status in the Australian population and how this is compared with the rest of the world is also discussed.

Use of a test for proteins induced by vitamin K absence or antagonism in diagnosis of anticoagulant poisoning in dogs: 325 cases (1987-1997)

OBJECTIVE

To determine usefulness of the test for proteins induced by vitamin K absence or antagonism (PIVKA) to identify anticoagulant-poisoned dogs, compared with one-stage prothrombin time (OSPT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) tests.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

325 dogs.

PROCEDURE

Comparisons of results of PIVKA, OSPT, and APTT measurements in dogs with anticoagulant poisoning, hepatic disease, disseminated intravascular coagulation, other blood-related disorders, immune-mediated diseases, or other chronic and acute diseases were performed. Median, quartile, and range values were determined.

RESULTS

PIVKA tests with a 150-second critical value had > 98% specificity and > 90% sensitivity for diagnosis of anticoagulant poisoning versus > 99% specificity and > 79% sensitivity with a 300-second critical value. Comparison of PIVKA values among diagnostic groups revealed significant differences between dogs with anticoagulant poisoning and all other groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The PIVKA test with a 150-second critical value is diagnostically useful for distinguishing anticoagulant poisoning from other coagulopathies. Severe liver disease can cause false-positive results. Administration of vitamin K1 or early evaluation (within a few hours of ingesting anticoagulant) may cause false-negative results. Dogs with PIVKA test values > 150 seconds and clinical signs of anticoagulant poisoning can confidently be considered to have anticoagulant poisoning because of the high test sensitivity and specificity.

Gastric outflow obstruction after ingestion of wood glue in a dog

A 2-year-old, male, mixed-breed dog presented with a 12-day history of vomiting, depression, and weight loss after ingestion of industrial-strength wood glue containing diphenylmethane diisocyanate as its active ingredient. A diagnosis of gastric foreign body was made from survey abdominal radiographs. A large aggregate of solidified wood glue was surgically removed, and the dog recovered uneventfully. Fourteen other cases have been reported to the Animal Poison Control Center at the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). Eight of those 14 cases required surgical intervention. All cases recovered completely.

Poisoning with Amitraz

Amitraz, an insecticide and veterinary medicine, has been available in many countries since 1974 but reports of poisoning with it have only become prominent in the last 7 years. The vast majority of cases have occurred in Turkey and have involved children. The data available, both human and animal, do not allow clear separation of the features of toxicity of amitraz from those of the hydrocarbon solvents in which it is commonly dissolved. Amitraz stimulates alpha 2-adrenoceptors resulting in impairment of consciousness, respiratory depression, convulsions, bradycardia, hypotension, hypothermia and hypoglycaemia. Even the most severely poisoned patients recover with nothing more than intensive care; only one possible death has been documented. Animal studies indicate that the alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonists, yohimbine and atipamezole, can reverse amitraz-induced toxicity but they have not been assessed in poisoned humans.

Clinical and pathological findings of acute zinc intoxication in a puppy

This report describes the clinical and pathological findings in a case of acute zinc poisoning in a young dog. The puppy suffered four days of progressively more severe vomiting and diarrhoea. Jaundice and pale mucous membranes, severe haematemesis and haemoglobinuria were other findings. Despite intensive therapy, the dog died a few hours after hospitalisation. Postmortem examination revealed a metallic foreign body in the stomach, catarrhal gastritis, hepatomegaly and enlarged, dark kidneys. Histology showed hepatic centrilobular vacuolar degeneration, haemoglobinuric nephrosis with early tubular necrosis, haemosiderosis and extramedullary haematopoiesis, as well as neuronal damage. The foreign body was mainly composed of zinc. Plasma zinc values were markedly raised (34.5 microg/ml; normal range 0.8 to 1.0 microg/ml). Pathophysiological mechanisms of zinc poisoning are discussed.

Doxycycline toxicity in calves in two feedlots

Doxycycline toxicity caused by a large overdose (10 times the therapeutic dosage) in two feedlots is described. The clinical symptoms occurred after 2-3 days and mortality 5 days after the onset of the medication which was added to the milk replacement. Mortality reached 25% (five calves) and 27% (seven calves) in herds A and B, respectively. Pathological and histological findings revealed pulmonary oedema, myocardial degeneration and necrosis. These findings confirm the cardiovascular toxicity, caused apparently by doxycycline administration to the calves, and indicate the potential side-effects of this drug in cattle.

Mortality associated with melarsomine dihydrochloride administration in two North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) and a red panda (Ailurus fulgens fulgens)

Two adult North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) and an adult red panda (Ailurus fulgens fulgens) at three separate institutions died within 22 hr after receiving single 2.5- to 2.7-mg/kg doses of melarsomine dihydrochloride administered in the epaxial musculature as a treatment for filarid nematodes. One otter had a suspected Dirofilaria immitis infection, the other had a confirmed D. lutrae infection, and the red panda had a confirmed Dirofilaria sp. infection, presumably with D. immitis. Postmortem examinations revealed similar gross lesions, although they were less severe in the red panda. The trachea and primary bronchi contained abundant foamy fluid, the lungs were mottled with areas of consolidation, and the pulmonary parenchyma exuded abundant fluid at the cut section. Histologic evaluation revealed acute pulmonary edema, which resulted in respiratory failure and death. There may have been direct pulmonary cellular toxicity of melarsomine dihydrochloride or a severe systemic anaphylactic reaction to antigens released after parasite death. An idiosyncratic drug reaction or a low therapeutic index of melarsomine probably caused the death of the three individuals. Melarsomine dihydrochloride use should be avoided in North American river otters and red pandas.

Clozapine intoxication in a dog

Intoxication with clozapine in a dog, suspected from history and clinical signs at presentation, was confirmed by demonstration of decreasing serum levels of this drug. Clozapine is a tricyclic dibenzodiazepine used for treatment of human schizophrenia, and clinical signs of intoxication in humans include tachycardia, seizures, muscle fasciculations, agitation, and sialorrhea. This dog showed ptyalism, hyperthermia, tachycardia, and was easily excited by tactile or auditory stimulation. The calculated peak concentration of clozapine in this dog was approximately 6,000 ng/mL, and the elimination half-life (t(1/2)) was 5 hours. Charcoal administration and supportive care led to a successful outcome in this patient.

Evaluation of immunocontraception as a publicly acceptable form of vertebrate pest species control: the introduced grey squirrel in Britain as an example

We sent out a targeted questionnaire to organizations and private individuals across the UK that have expressed an interest in squirrel management and conservation. Respondents were asked to evaluate shooting, trapping, poisoning and immunocontraception (IMC), according to their perceived efficacy, cost efficiency, and whether they were considered to be humane. The majority of both professionals and enthusiasts indicated support for grey squirrel control to help conserve red squirrels and to reduce economic damage to timber crops. Respondents\' comparative evaluations of current forms of control showed that trapping is the most acceptable method. When IMC is compared with the other methods, it was considered to be more humane and acceptable. In contrast, poisoning was seen as humane or acceptable by the fewest respondents. Furthermore, poisoning elicited the greatest difference in opinion between the professional and enthusiast groups. This difference (34\%) may be interpreted partly as concern over the type of death that results from poisoning and partly as due to the possibility of poisoning nontarget species. Our findings indicate a need for more public information regarding secondary poisoning hazards to other species and their predators. Interest and concern about squirrel control correlated with the overlap between contemporary areas of distribution of the two species. It is these areas where consultation and education programs about control methods should be targeted. This research indicates that there would be support for grey squirrel control using IMC from both lay and professional interest groups. It demonstrates the existence of a sound basis for constructive dialog that can lead to the design and implementation of acceptable and efficient control strategies.

Toxic pyrrolyzidine alkaloids from three mongolian plants. a possible risk for cattle poisoning

Ten pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) were isolated from Senecio ambraceus, Senecio arcticus, and Nonea pulla growing on Mongolian pastures and meadows. Because of the contained toxic PA, these plants are suspected of causing cattle poisoning, which is reported in the literature and also in personal reports from local farmers and herdsmen. The structures of the PA were elucidated using spectroscopical methods. S. ambraceus contains the toxic PA senecionine, seneciphylline, and otosenine. In S. arcticus, senecionine can be found too, besides the non-toxic PA platyphylline, neoplatyphylline, and acetylplatyphylline. Nonea pulla is shown to contain the 0-7 isomers lycopsamine and intermedine as well as their 0-7-acetylderivatives. Besides the first mentioned acetylplatyphylline, all PA were already described in the literature.

Ivermectin toxicosis after topical administration in dog-faced fruit bats (Cynopterus brachyotis)

Forty dog-faced fruit bats (Cynopterus brachyotis) were administered 1 drop of 1% ivermectin topically as part of a routine physical exam and deworming program, and 11 developed sudden generalized paresis. Six of the bats recovered within 24-48 hr, and the remaining 5 were presented recumbent and weak to the University of Florida Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. Ivermectin toxicosis was suspected, and the admitted bats died or were euthanatized within 3-5 days of the development of clinical signs despite supportive care. Three of the dead bats had renal tubular necrosis.

Evidence of saxitoxin derivatives as causative agents in the 1997 mass mortality of monk seals in the Cape Blanc Peninsula

Monk seals in Cape Blanc (Western Sahara coast) suffered a mass mortality during May-July 1997 which was attributed to a morbillivirus. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis on tissues of seals killed during the outbreak and on related fauna showed peaks with retention times coincident with those of some saxitoxin derivatives but their identity was not proved. Here we present results of further HPLC analyses that unambiguously prove the identity of these toxins by mass spectrometry (MS), supporting the hypothesis that this mortality of monk seals was caused by biotoxins rather than by a morbillivirus.

S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) for the treatment of acetaminophen toxicity in a dog

An 8-month-old, spayed female Shetland sheepdog presented 48 hours after ingesting acetaminophen (1 gm/kg body weight). On presentation, the dog was laterally recumbent and hypovolemic. The dog had brown mucous membranes, severe Heinz-body hemolytic anemia, bleeding tendencies, and a red blood cell (RBC) glutathione (GSH) concentration that was 10% of reference values, despite a regenerative erythroid response. Treatment with s-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe) as a GSH donor successfully rescued this dog, despite the animal's late presentation after drug ingestion. A loading dose (40 mg/kg body weight) of a stable SAMe salt per os was followed by a maintenance dose (20 mg/kg body weight) sid for 7 days. Additional therapeutic interventions included an intravenous (i.v.) infusion of one unit of packed RBCs (on admission), i.v. fluid support (3 days), and famotidine (7 days) to reduce gastric acidity. Sequential assessment of RBC GSH concentrations and RBC morphology documented response to antidote administration within 72 hours. This case suggests that SAMe may provide a therapeutic option for treatment of acetaminophen toxicosis in dogs capable of retaining an orally administered antidote and maintaining adequate hepatic function for metabolism of SAMe to its thiol substrates.

Domoic acid toxicity in Californian sea lions (Zalophus californianus): clinical signs, treatment and survival

Eighty-one Californian sea lions (Zalophus californianus) with signs of domoic acid toxicity stranded along the coast of California in 1998 when there were blooms of the domoic acid-producing alga Pseudonitzschia australis off-shore. In 2000, a further 184 sea lions stranded with similar clinical signs, but the strandings occurred both during detectable algal blooms and after the blooms had subsided. The clinical signs in these 265 Californian sea lions included seizures, ataxia, head weaving, decreased responsiveness to stimuli and scratching behaviour. Affected animals had high haematocrits, and eosinophil counts, and high activities of serum creatine kinase. They were treated supportively by using fluid therapy, diazepam, lorazepam and phenobarbitone. Fifty-five of the 81 sea lions (68 per cent) affected in 1998 and 81 of the 184 (44 per cent) affected in 2000 died despite the treatment. Three of the 23 sea lions which survived in 1998 were tracked with satellite and radiotransmitters; they travelled as far south as San Miguel Island, California, and survived for at least three months. Eleven of the 129 animals which were released stranded within four months of being released.