Significance of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) load and Interleukin-10 in post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders

The complex relationship between EBV, IL-10 and lymphomagenesis has been widely investigated and several studies have highlighted the diagnostic value of EBV DNA copies and serum IL-10, that may be considered as tumor markers. Notwithstanding the great number of data published in the last few years on the behavior of EBV DNA copies in the peripheral blood of transplanted patients, a threshold value significant for impending or overt post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) has not yet been defined. Too many factors, both technical and clinicopathological, may affect the results of clinical studies, making their comparison difficult. On the contrary, although the role of IL-10 in PTLDs has been well documented, a sufficient number of studies exploring sensitivity and specificity of serum IL-10 measurement is lacking. The aim of this review is to summarise data on EBV load quantification and serum IL-10 detection in transplanted patients, providing clinicians with wide and useful information in order to improve bedside management of transplanted patients with regard to PTLDs occurrence and treatment.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a patient with x-linked lymphoproliferative disease

X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP) is a primary immunodeficiency affecting approximately 1 to 3 per million live male births. Patients are generally healthy until facing a viral infection such as Epstein-Barr Virus and then may develop fulminant infectious mononucleosis and die. XLP patients are also at increased risk of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), which may be triggered by assorted viruses. Here we report a novel case of HLH in a patient with XLP. Significant to his presentation is a paradoxical increase in natural killer (NK) cell activity. We hypothesize that this indicates that Parvovirus B19 activates NK cells via a signaling lymphocytic activation molecule-associated protein (SAP)-independent mechanism. Our case demonstrates an important etiology to consider in the differential diagnosis of XLP patients with nonfocal findings and febrile illnesses.

Herpes zoster as a useful clinical marker of underlying cell-mediated immune disorders

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to determine the necessity of further evaluation of patients presented with herpes zoster (HZ) to the Emergency Department for the underlying decreased cell-mediated immunity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data of 132 adult patients presenting with HZ to the Emergency Department were collected from the computerised database of Akdeniz University Hospital. The following data were recorded: demographic data and underlying diseases during onset of HZ and laboratory results (white blood cell counts, blood glucose levels).

RESULTS

There were 132 patients with HZ in the study period. The mean age of patients was 52.98 +/- 18.91 years (range, 14 to 96) and 53% (70 patients) were male. Of the study patients, 70.5% (93 patients) were over 45 years old. Eight (6.1%) patients had been diagnosed to have a malignancy, 18 (13.6%) had diabetes mellitus and 3 (2.3%) patients had undergone organ transplantation during their admission. Malignancy, diabetes mellitus and organ transplantation prevalence in the HZ group was significantly higher than the whole Emergency Department population.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate a relationship between the presence of HZ and increasing age and cell-mediated immunosuppressive disorders in Emergency Department patients over the age of 45 years. HZ should be considered as a clinical marker of cell-mediated immunosuppressive disorders, particularly in elderly patients.

Immune hemolytic anemia--selected topics

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is most often idiopathic. However, in recent years, AIHA has been noted with increased incidence in patients receiving purine nucleoside analogues for hematologic malignancies; it has also been described as a complication of blood transfusion in patients who have also had alloimmunization. As the technology of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has become more widespread, immune hemolysis in the recipients of ABO-mismatched products has become better recognized. The syndrome is caused by passenger lymphocytes transferred from the donor and, although transient, can be quite severe. A similar syndrome has been observed in recipients of solid organ transplants when there is ABO-incompatibility between donor and recipient. Venous thromboembolism is a little-recognized, though likely common, complication of AIHA, and may in some instances be related to coexistent antiphospholipid antibodies. While AIHA is a well-documented complication of malignant lymphoproliferative disorders, lymphoproliferative disorders may also paradoxically appear as a consequence of AIHA. A number of newer options are available for treatment of AIHA in patients refractory to corticosteroids and splenectomy. Newer immunosuppressives such as mycophenolate mofetil may have a role in such cases. Considerable experience has been accumulating in the last few years with monoclonal antibody therapy, mainly rituximab, in difficult AIHA cases; it appears to be a safe and effective option.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and related disorders

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), which has many genetic causes, is characterized by multi-system inflammation. HLH is a reactive process resulting from prolonged and excessive activation of antigen presenting cells (macrophages, histiocytes) and CD8(+) T cells. Hemophagocytosis, which is mediated through the CD163 heme-scavenging receptor, is a hallmark of activated macrophages/histiocytes and is the characteristic finding for which the disorder was named. The majority of genetic causes identified to date affect the cytotoxic function of NK and T cells, crippling immunologic mechanisms that mediate natural immune contraction. The predominant clinical findings of HLH are fevers (often hectic and persistent), cytopenias, hepatitis and splenomegaly. Due to the life-threatening implications of the diagnosis of genetically determined HLH, antiinflammatory therapy, often consisting of steroids, etoposide or antithymocyte globulin (ATG), should be instituted promptly, followed by curative hematopoietic cell transplantation. Secondary HLH, associated with autoimmune disorders or viral infections in teens and adults, also carries a significant mortality rate and should be managed in consultation with specialists familiar with the diagnosis and treatment of such disorders.

[Effectiveness of treatment of single cerebral metastasis depending on prognostic groups (RPA RTOG)]

Our investigation was aimed at establishing a relationship between single metastases in the brain and a set of prognostic factors. It involved 278 patients treated at the Center in 1983-2003. The whole brain was irradiated in 273 while 159 of them (58.2%) received additional local irradiation of the brain. Single dosage of 2-2.5 Gy was administered to 158 (57.9%), 115--3Gy and more (42.1%). Mean total dosage was 36 Gy per metastasis for the whole brain and 46 Gy--for total plus local exposure. Among patients with favorable prognosis (RPA) were those aged up to 65, Karnofsky's index > or = 70%, with cured or controllable tumor and without extracranial metastases; poor prognosis--Karnofsky's index < or = 70%, irrespective of any other prognosticators, and intermediate prognosis--the remaining cases. The following four treatment modalities were used: 1) surgery --> radio- or radiochemotherapy (40); 2) chemotherapy > or = radiotherapy --> chemotherapy successively (56); (3) radiotherapy alone (110) and (4) simultaneous radiochemotherapy (72).

Causes, etiology and diagnosis of acquired von Willebrand disease: a prospective diagnostic workup to establish the most effective therapeutic strategies

Acquired von Willebrand disease (aVWD) occurs in association with a variety of underlying disorders, most frequently in lymphoproliferative and myeloproliferative disorders, other malignancies, and cardiovascular disease. aVWD is a complex and heterogeneous defect with a multifactorial etiology and the pathophysiologic mechanisms remain unclear in many cases. Assays for anti-factor VIII (FVIII)/von Willebrand factor (VWF) activities often yield negative results although antibodies may be present in autoimmune disease and some lymphoproliferative disorders. Functional assays of VWF in patients' plasma and particularly in heart valve disease, VWF multimer analysis are important for aVWD diagnosis. In patients with normal partial thromboplastin times and normal VWF activity, the diagnosis of aVWD is based on clinical suspicion and a careful bleeding history, which should prompt the clinician to initiate further laboratory investigations. Management of bleeding in aVWD relies mainly on desmopressin, FVIII/VWF concentrates and high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin. The half-life of VWF may be very short, and in bleeding episodes high doses of FVIII/VWF concentrates at short intervals may be necessary even when high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin was applied before. Since the optimal treatment strategy has not yet been defined for aVWD of different etiology, controlled multicenter trials aiming at the development of standardized treatment protocols are urgently needed.

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders in kidney transplant recipients: an Iranian multicenter experience

INTRODUCTION

Limited data with adequate sample size exist on the development of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) in living donor kidney recipients. We conducted a retrospective cohort study on the data of 10 transplant centers to identify the incidence of PTLD in Iran.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data of 9917 kidney transplant recipients who received their kidneys between 1984 and 2008 were reviewed. Fifty-one recipients (0.5%) who developed PTLD were evaluated with a median follow-up of 47.5 months (range, 1 to 211) months.

RESULTS

Patients with PTLD represented 24% of all posttransplant malignancies (51 out of 211 cases). There was no relationship between PTLD and sex (P = .20). There were no statistically significance differences considering the age at transplantation between patients with and without PTLD. The late-onset PTLD (70.6%) occurred more frequently compared to the early form. There was no signification relationship between early-onset and late-onset groups in terms of clinical course and outcome. In patients who received azathioprine, PTLD was more frequent when compared to those who received mycophenolate mofetil (P < .001). The lymph nodes were the predominantly involved site (35.3%), followed by the gastrointestinal tract, brain, kidney allograft, lung, ovary, vertebrae, and palatine. Age at diagnosis and the time from transplantation to diagnosis were comparable for various involvement sites of PTLDs. The overall mortality in this series of patients was 51.0%.

CONCLUSIONS

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder is a rare but devastating complication and long-term prognosis can be improved with early recognition and appropriate therapy.

High incidence of tuberculosis after alemtuzumab treatment in Hong Kong Chinese patients

Twenty-seven patients received the anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody alemtuzumab for hematologic malignancies and autoimmune cytopenias in a tuberculosis-endemic area. Seven patients developed mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) infections (median: 4, 1-24, months from alemtuzumab). The actuarial 1- and 2-year incidence of TB was 31% and 45%. All patients had severe depression of lymphocyte counts subsequent to alemtuzumab treatment, and tuberculosis was extra-pulmonary in three cases. All seven patients had received prior chemotherapy/immunosuppression and tuberculosis had not occurred until alemtuzumab was administered. Patients receiving alemtuzumab in areas endemic for tuberculosis should have careful initial evaluation of TB exposure, so that prophylactic antibiotics might be administered. Tuberculosis reactivation should be considered for unexplained fever and symptoms after alemtuzumab treatment.

[Epstein-Barr virus-associated B cell lymphoproliferative disorder complicated in adult T-cell leukemia]

Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) is accompanied by remarkably impaired cellular immune responses. Reports on the simultaneous development of ATL and Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders (EBV-LPD) are, however, quite rare. A 53-years-old man was admitted to our hospital because of multiple bilateral pulmonary nodules, skin rash, lymphadenopathy, and hypercalcemia. The smear preparation of peripheral blood demonstrated pathological lymphocytes with lobulated nuclei. They expressed CD2, CD3, and CD25, but did not express either CD4 or CD8. In addition, he was positive for Human T-cell leukemic virus type-I (HTLV-I), and monoclonal integration of HTLV-I provirus was detected in peripheral blood. Unexpectedly, inguinal lymph node biopsy showed polyclonal proliferation of EBV-positive large and bizarre-shaped B cells, and monoclonal growth of large abnormal T cells. He was diagnosed as having acute type ATL complicated by EBV-LPD. Chemotherapy for ATL effectively decreased the tumor burden of ATL, but persistent high fever developed suddenly on the 68th day after admission, and he died of multi-organ failure with severe metabolic acidosis. At the time of multi-organ failure, viral load had increased strikingly, suggesting that the progression of EBV-LPD might have been responsible for multi-organ failure in this case.

Factors influencing varicella zoster virus infection after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation: low-dose acyclovir prophylaxis and pre-transplant diagnosis of lymphoproliferative disorders

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection is one of the frequent opportunistic infections after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, with a high incidence of 30-50%. However, no data have been reported on VZV infection after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation (PBSCT).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We report a retrospective analysis of VZV infection in 192 allogeneic PBSCT recipients. Twenty-seven patients (14%) received long-term prophylaxis of low-dose acyclovir (200 mg twice daily orally > or =3 months) for recurrent oral (n=21) or genital herpes simplex virus infection (n=5) or for a previous history of recurrent VZV infection (n=1).

RESULTS

Forty-two patients (22%) developed VZV infections: localized (n=37) and disseminated infection (n=5). The incidence of VZV infection at 1 and 3 years was 19.3+/-3.3% and 36.8+/-5.2%, respectively. Complications included post-herpetic neuralgia (n=18, 43%), secondary bacterial infections (n=3), and intracranial hemorrhage (n=1) with 2 deaths. A higher risk factor for VZV infection was pre-transplant diagnosis of a lymphoproliferative disorder (LPD): chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (P=0.021, 52.5% in LPD vs. 32.6% in non-LPD group). The use of low-dose acyclovir prophylaxis (P=0.043, 14.7% in acyclovir vs. 41.6% in nonacyclovir group) was found to be protective. Although no VZV infection episodes were noted during the period of acyclovir prophylaxis, 3 episodes of VZV infection were noted after acyclovir cessation.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of VZV infection after PBSCT was high at 36.8%, with patients transplanted for LPDs at higher risk. The long-term use of low-dose acyclovir may be protective for VZV infection, although it does not completely prevent rebound of late VZV infection.

[Autoimmune hemolytic anemia]

Diagnosis of autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) requires both serologic evidence of an autoantibody and hemolysis. Based on the characteristic temperature reactivity of the autoantibody to red cell membranes, AIHA is classified into warm AIHA or cold AIHA (cold agglutinin disease and paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria). Sensitized RBCs are destructed by intravascular and/or extravascular hemolysis. On the basis of etiology, AIHA are classified as idiopathic or secondary. The common cause of secondary AIHA is lymphoproliferative disorders, autoimmune diseases, and infections. The first line therapy of patients with warm AIHA is glucocorticoids and primary treatment for cold AIHA is avoiding cold exposure. The other standard treatments include splenectomy and immunosuppressive drugs. Recently, rituximab, a monoclonal anti-CD20 antibody, has been used in refractory AIHA with excellent responses.

Rituximab for lymphoproliferative disease prior to haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency

Lymphoproliferative disease (LPD) is a complication of congenital and acquired immunodeficiency states. There are a number of treatment options for LPD arising after haematopoietic stem cell or solid organ transplantation including reduction of immunosuppression, targeted therapies, such as the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, rituximab, and EBV specific cytotoxic lymphocytes. Treatment of LPD in children with congenital immunodeficiency syndromes remains unsatisfactory and is associated with a high mortality rate. We recently managed an infant found to have polymorphic LPD concurrent with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) had to be deferred because of progressive LPD. Treatment with rituximab resulted in regression of the LPD following which the patient received a 5/6 HLA matched umbilical cord blood (UCB) transplant. The patient remains well 20 months following transplantation. Rituximab treatment may have a useful role in the control of LPD associated with congenital immunodeficiency prior to HSCT.

[Synchronous and metachronous tumors in patients with hematological neoplasms]

The study has indicated the relatively frequent occurrence of secondary tumors in hematological patients. These tumors may be both synchronous and metachronous. They generally occur in different periods after chemo- and/or radiotherapy. A secondary hematological tumor that is unilinear or heterolinear more commonly develops. The authors have not found a correlation between the intensity of the therapy and the occurrence of a secondary tumor and the impact of elderly age on the shorter occurrence of a secondary pathological process.

Multicentric Castleman disease, Kaposi sarcoma, hemophagocytic syndrome, and a novel HHV8-lymphoproliferative disorder

The case of a 45-year-old man with HIV disease with bulky lymphadenopathy, fevers, and weight loss is presented. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome was initially believed to be the cause, but the patient was found to suffer from Kaposi sarcoma, multicentric Castleman disease, hemophagocytic syndrome, and a newly described lymphoproliferative disorder. The diagnostic reasoning related to the causes of the fulminant illness is discussed as well as the roles of Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 8, and hepatitis C virus in the patient's clinical presentation and the therapeutic choices.

B lymphocytes and Epstein-Barr virus: the lesson of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human gamma-herpes virus that establishes a life-long asymptomatic infection in immunocompetent hosts by colonizing memory B lymphocytes and hijacking cellular signaling pathways that regulate antigen-dependent B-cell activation and differentiation. In patients with solid organ or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, the defect in EBV-specific immune responses may allow the outgrowth of EBV-carrying B lymphocytes that may give rise to a spectrum of different clinico-pathologic entities encompassed by the term post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD). EBV-driven immortalization of B-cells is mediated by the cooperative activity of viral proteins that derange critical cellular pathways controlling growth and/or survival of B lymphocytes. Full transformation of infected B-cells is achieved by the contribution of poorly defined additional co-factors, including microenvironmental stimuli, genetic and epigenetic alterations. The quantification of circulating EBV DNA and EBV-specific T cells are valuable tools in the clinical monitoring of EBV-associated PTLD. The recent advances in elucidation of the mechanisms underlying EBV-induced growth transformation will be instrumental in guiding the design of novel approaches for the treatment of these often life-threatening lymphoproliferative disorders.

Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: an update on pathogenesis, clinical features and therapy

Chronic cold agglutinin disease (CAD) is a subgroup of autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Primary CAD has traditionally been defined by the absence of any underlying or associated disease. The results of therapy with corticosteroids, alkylating agents and interferon-a have been poor. Cold reactive immunoglobulins against erythrocyte surface antigens are essential to pathogenesis of CAD. These cold agglutinins are monoclonal, usually IgMκ auto antibodies with heavy chain variable regions encoded by the V_H4-34 gene segment. By flowcytometric and immunohistochemical assessments, a monoclonal CD20⁺κ⁺B-lymphocyte population has been demonstrated in the bone marrow of 90% of the patients, and lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is a frequent finding. Novel attempts at treatment for primary CAD have mostly been directed against the clonal B-lymphocytes. Phase 2 studies have shown that therapy with the chimeric anti-CD20 antibody rituximab produced partial response rates of more than 50% and occasional complete responses. Median response duration, however, was only 11 months. In this review, we discuss the clinical and pathogenetic features of primary CAD, emphasizing the more recent data on its close association with clonal lymphoproliferative bone marrow disorders and implications for therapy. We also review the management and outline some perspectives on new therapy modalities.

Hepatitis B virus vaccine in lymphoproliferative disorders: a prospective randomized study evaluating the efficacy of granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor as a vaccine adjuvant

OBJECTIVES

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is effectively preventable by immunization with the commercially available recombinant HBV vaccines (HBV(vac)) in approximately 95% of healthy people. Immunosuppressive diseases like hematological malignancies are a risk factor for non-response to HBV(vac). The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy and safety of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) as a vaccine adjuvant in lymphoproliferative disorders (LPD).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

One- hundred and two patients with LPD were randomized to receive either a single dose of 40 mug HBV(vac) intramuscularly or one course of 40 mug HBV(vac) after 5 mug/kg recombinant GM-CSF injection.

RESULTS

Of the 94 patients that could be evaluated at 1 month, the seroprotection rate was higher in GM-CSF + HBV(vac) group (25.5% in GM-CSF + HBV(vac) group vs. 17% in HBV(vac) group). The median anti-HBs titer was also higher in GM-CSF + HBV(vac) group. However the difference did not reach to a significant level in terms of response rate and median antibody titers (P > 0.05). Univariate analysis identified age and time to vaccination from the last chemotherapy course as significant predictors of seroprotection. In multivariate analysis, age was the only predictor of achieving a seroprotective response. Patients who lost the seroprotective response during monitoring were boosted with a 20 microg HBV(vac) and they all achieved a seroprotective anti-HBs titer > 100 mIU/mL.

CONCLUSION

In LPD, the response to HBV(vac) is impaired. GM-CSF enhance to HBV(vac) in terms of the rate of response and average of antibody titers at the dose and schedule given.

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome in a patient with common variable immunodeficiency: dichotomy of apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) is a disorder usually associated with hypergammaglobulinemia and defective apoptosis mostly due to Fas or Fas ligand mutation. Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a disorder with hypogammaglobulinemia commonly associated with increased Fas expression and spontaneous apoptosis.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a patient with a unique combination of hypogammaglobulinemia and ALPS with Fas deficiency but high spontaneous apoptosis.

METHODS

Fas expression on freshly isolated lymphocytes was evaluated by means of immunofluorescence using polyclonal rabbit anti-Fas IgG antibody. Apoptosis of cultured lymphocytes was quantitated using acridine orange and ethidium bromide staining.

RESULTS

We describe a male patient diagnosed as having CVID at the age of 10 years receiving monthly intravenous immunoglobulin. The patient developed ALPS at the age of 21 years manifested by persistent lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly. The percentage of double-negative T lymphocytes was estimated to be 9%. Freshly isolated lymphocytes showed low Fas expression (3.6% for the patient and 11.2% for the control). The spontaneous apoptosis rate was high (15% for the patient and 5% for the control).

CONCLUSIONS

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome can be associated with hypogammaglobulinemia and should be looked for in chronic nonmalignant lymphoproliferation in CVID. Common variable immunodeficiency might involve Fas-independent pathways or recruitment of Fas downstream molecules for apoptosis. There is a subset of patients with both CVID and ALPS in whom Fas deficiency could be associated with enhanced spontaneous apoptosis.

Rituximab responsive immune thrombocytopenic purpura in an adult with underlying autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome due to a splice-site mutation (IVS7+2 T>C) affecting the Fas gene

A 36 yr-old man of Israeli descent with a history of childhood splenectomy for severe thrombocytopenia and a family history of autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS), presented with severe immune thrombocytopenic purpura refractory to standard therapy. He was found to possess a heterozygous mutation in the Fas gene (also termed TNFRSF6, CD95, Apo-1) affecting the donor splice site of intron 7 (IVS7+2 T>C). This frameshift mutation truncates the cytoplasmic domain of the Fas death receptor, resulting in circulating CD4/8 double negative T lymphocytes, lymphadenopathy and autoimmune complications typical of ALPS. Administration of Rituximab in this patient was associated with a durable hematologic response (currently more than 12 months). This report highlights the need to consider rare inherited causes of thrombocytopenia in adults with a family history of immune cytopenia(s) and the effective use of anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody in patients unresponsive to immunosuppression and splenectomy.