High dose lipopolysaccharide triggers polarization of mouse thymic Th17 cells in vitro in the presence of mature dendritic cells

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plays an important role in the activation of innate immune cells, leading to secretion of proinflammatory factors and bridging the adaptive immune system. Exposing total mouse thymic cells culture to LPS induced a unique expression profile of cytokines (IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22) and the essential ROR-γt master transcription factor, which suggested a preferential differentiation of thymocytes towards the Th17 cell phenotype. Th17-polarizing molecules (IL-23, IL-23R, IL-6, and TGF-β) and IL-17A(+)CD4(+) thymocytes were also specifically produced by the in vitro LPS-stimulation of thymic cells. Furthermore, both the expression of Th17 differentiation-related molecules and the frequency of Th17 cells were significantly up-regulated with increasing doses of LPS, as evidenced by quantitative RT-PCR and flow cytometric analysis, respectively. The expressions and frequency reached maximum levels when LPS exposure had been maintained at an extremely high concentration (100 μg/mL) for 48 h. On the other hand, depletion of thymic dendritic cells (DCs) blocked the LPS-induced polarization of thymus-derived Th17 cell lineage. Addition of bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) to the purified immature CD4(+) CD62L(low) thymocytes culture recovered the switch towards Th17 cells, which synergistically prompted the cytotoxic activity of CD8(+) T cells. Taken together, our data indicates that high doses of LPS can promote the differentiation of mouse thymus-derived Th17 cells by a mechanism involving components associated with mature DCs.

Target gene repression mediated by miRNAs miR-181c and miR-9 both of which are down-regulated by amyloid-β

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA regulators of protein synthesis that are essential for normal brain development and function. Their profiles are significantly altered in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) that is characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau deposition in brain. How deregulated miRNAs contribute to AD is not understood, as their dysfunction could be both a cause and a consequence of disease. To address this question we had previously profiled miRNAs in models of AD. This identified miR-9 and -181c as being down-regulated by Aβ in hippocampal cultures. Interestingly, there was a remarkable overlap with those miRNAs that are deregulated in Aβ-depositing APP23 transgenic mice and in human AD tissue. While the Aβ precursor protein APP itself is a target of miRNA regulation, the challenge resides in identifying further targets. Here, we expand the repertoire of miRNA target genes by identifying the 3' untranslated regions (3' UTRs) of TGFBI, TRIM2, SIRT1 and BTBD3 as being repressed by miR-9 and -181c, either alone or in combination. Taken together, our study identifies putative target genes of miRNAs miR-9 and 181c, which may function in brain homeostasis and disease pathogenesis.

Stretch of human mesothelial cells increases cytokine expression

Peritoneal dialysis requires large solution volumes that increase abdominal girth and stretch the mesothelial cells of the abdominal wall. To address the hypothesis that stretch stimulates those cells to increase synthesis and production of inflammatory cytokines, we grew MeT-5A human mesothelial cells to confluence and placed the cells in growth arrest on BioFlex Collagen membranes (Flexcell International Corporation, Hillsborough, NC, U.S.A.). After 48 hours, cells were either left stationary (STA) or cycled using a 3000T system (Flexcell International Corporation) with a sinusoidal stretch (STR) frequency of 10 cycles per minute and an amplitude of 30%. The supernatant and cells of individual wells were removed at 0, 4, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. Supernatant was assayed by ELISA for transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). After trypsinization, the total number of viable cells in each well was estimated from the lack of trypan blue staining. Total RNA from the cells was extracted, and real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was used to determine messenger RNA (mRNA) for IL-6, TGF-beta, VEGF, TGF-beta receptors 2 and 3 (TGF-beta-R2, -R3), kinase insert domain receptor (KDR), and FMS-related tyrosine kinase 1 (Flt1). Because of decline of cell numbers and viability, results for STR were compared with those for STA at each time interval up to 72 hours. The mRNA for TGF-beta, VEGF, TGF-beta-R3, and KDR were significantly higher in the STR group throughout the 72 hours, and STR IL-6 mRNA declined nonsignificantly. Normalized to the number of viable cells, supernatant IL-6, TGF-beta, and VEGF were not significantly different between the groups. We conclude that mechanical stress from mesothelial stretch does not enhance mesothelial cell secretion oflL-6, TGF-f, or VEGF, but does increase expression ofTGF-P, VEGF, and their corresponding cell receptors TGF-f-R3 and KDR.

Low expression and secretion of circulating soluble CTLA-4 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and sera from type 1 diabetic children

BACKGROUND

High levels of soluble cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (soluble CTLA-4), an alternative splice form of the regulatory T-cell (Treg) associated CTLA-4 gene, have been associated with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and other autoimmune diseases, such as Grave's disease and myasthenia gravis. At the same time, studies have shown soluble CTLA-4 to inhibit T-cell activation through B7 binding. This study aimed to investigate the role of soluble CTLA-4 in relation to full-length CTLA-4 and other Treg-associated markers in T1D children and in individuals with high or low risk of developing the disease.

METHODS

T1D children were studied at 4 days, 1 and 2 years after diagnosis in comparison to individuals with high or low risk of developing the disease. Isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells were stimulated with the T1D-associated glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 and phytohaemagglutinin. Subsequently, soluble CTLA-4, full-length CTLA-4, FOXP3 and TGF-β mRNA transcription were quantified and protein concentrations of soluble CTLA-4 were measured in culture supernatant and sera.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Low protein concentrations of circulating soluble CTLA-4 and a positive correlation between soluble CTLA-4 mRNA and protein were seen in T1D, in parallel with a negative correlation in healthy subjects. Further, low levels of mitogen-induced soluble CTLA-4 were accompanied by low C-peptide levels. Interestingly, low mitogen-induced soluble CTLA-4 mRNA and low TGF-β mRNA expression were seen in high risk individuals, suggesting an alteration in activation and down-regulating immune mechanisms during the pre-diabetic phase.

TNF-α mRNA expression correlates with TGF-β mRNA expression in vivo

TNF-α is postulated to play a significant role in regulating TGF-β(1) expression. In lung fibroblasts, for example, TNF-α is supposed to induce TGF-β(1) via AP-1 activation. TNF-α receptor, knock-out mice are resistant to induced fibrosis and over-expression of TNF-α causes increased TGF-β(1) production in mice. Therefore, we investigated whether TNF-α mRNA levels are associated with the TGF-β(1) mRNA levels of blood leucocytes in humans. Quantitative real-time PCR of TNF-α and TGF-β(1) was performed in 118 Germans. Calculations of expression were made with the 2(-ΔΔCT) method. When the investigated population was divided in two groups (TNF-α low and TNF-α high) by the median of the determined TNF-α expression, highly significant (p < 0.0001) differences of TGF-β1 mRNA expression were revealed. Additionally, dividing the investigated population into quartiles of the determined TNF-α expression showed significantly different TGF-β1 mRNA expressions. Comparing the determined CT-values of TNF-α in context with these of TGF-β1, a coefficient of determination R(2) = 0.4635 was calculated. In this study we demonstrated in vivo a significant association of the relative TNF-α/B2M mRNA expression and the relative TGF-β(1)/B2M mRNA expression in 118 Germans.

Recombinant Wolbachia heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) mediated immune responses in patients with lymphatic filariasis

Wolbachia, an endosymbiont present in filarial nematodes, have been implicated in a variety of roles, including the worm development and survival. Elucidation of the role of Wolbachia in filarial nematode biology and pathogenesis has become the focus of many studies and its contribution to parasite survival or immune response is still unclear. Recombinant Wolbachia HSP60 decreases T cell activation and lymphoproliferation in filarial infected people compared to endemic controls as observed by the assessment of T cell activation markers and cytokine responses in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Reduced T cell activation may be linked to T regulatory cell activity since it is associated with increased expression of CTLA4 and CD25 on CD4(+) T cells in filarial infected group upon stimulation with recombinant Wolbachia HSP60. In addition, elevated interleukin-10 and TGF-β cytokines corroborate the reduced CD4(+) T cell activation and interferon-γ observed upon recombinant Wolbachia HSP60 stimulation in filarial patients. Hence, these findings indicate that Wolbachia HSP60 may also contribute to the immune modulation seen in filarial patients.

Early secreted antigen ESAT-6 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis promotes protective T helper 17 cell responses in a toll-like receptor-2-dependent manner

Despite its relatively poor efficacy, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) has been used as a tuberculosis (TB) vaccine since its development in 1921. BCG induces robust T helper 1 (Th1) immune responses but, for many individuals, this is not sufficient for host resistance against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) infection. Here we provide evidence that early secreted antigenic target protein 6 (ESAT-6), expressed by the virulent M. tb strain H37Rv but not by BCG, promotes vaccine-enhancing Th17 cell responses. These activities of ESAT-6 were dependent on TLR-2/MyD88 signalling and involved IL-6 and TGF-β production by dendritic cells. Thus, animals that were previously infected with H37Rv or recombinant BCG containing the RD1 region (BCG::RD1) exhibited improved protection upon re-challenge with virulent H37Rv compared with mice previously infected with BCG or RD1-deficient H37Rv (H37RvΔRD1). However, TLR-2 knockout (TLR-2⁻/⁻) animals neither showed Th17 responses nor exhibited improved protection in response to immunization with H37Rv. Furthermore, H37Rv and BCG::RD1 infection had little effect on the expression of the anti-inflammatory microRNA-146a (miR146a) in dendritic cells (DCs), whereas BCG and H37RvΔRD1 profoundly induced its expression in DCs. Consistent with these findings, ESAT-6 had no effect on miR146a expression in uninfected DCs, but dramatically inhibited its upregulation in BCG-infected or LPS-treated DCs. Collectively, our findings indicate that, in addition to Th1 immunity induced by BCG, RD1/ESAT-6-induced Th17 immune responses are essential for optimal vaccine efficacy.

Differential synthesis and action of TGFß superfamily ligands in mouse and rat islets

Members of the TGFß superfamily, including activins and TGFß, modulate glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in vitro using rat islets while genetic manipulations that reduce TGFß superfamily signaling in vivo in mice produced hypoplastic islets and/or hyperglycemia. Moreover, deletion of Fstl3, an antagonist of activin and myostatin, resulted in enlarged islets and ß-cell hyperplasia. These studies suggest that endogenous TGFß superfamily ligands regulate ß-cell generation and/or function. To test this hypothesis, we examined endogenous TGFß ligand synthesis and action in isolated rat and mouse islets. We found that activin A, TGFß1, and myostatin treatment enhanced rat islet GSIS but none of the ligands tested enhanced GSIS in mouse islets. However, follistatin inhibited GSIS, consistent with a role for endogenous TGFß superfamily ligands in regulating insulin secretion. Endogenous expression of TGFß superfamily members was different in rat and mouse islets with myostatin being highly expressed in mouse islets and not detectable in rats. These results indicate that TGFß superfamily members directly regulate islet function in a species-specific manner while the ligands produced by islets differ between mice and rats. The lack of in vitro actions of ligands on mouse islets may be mechanical or result from species-specific actions of these ligands.

Down-regulation of Treg cells and up-regulation of TH1/TH2 cytokine ratio were induced by polysaccharide from Radix Glycyrrhizae in H22 hepatocarcinoma bearing mice

Radix Glycyrrhizae polysaccharide (GP) possesses multiple pharmacological activities. However, the effect of GP on CD4+CD25+ regulatory T (Treg) cells has not been elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the effects of GP on Treg cells and Th1/Th2 cytokines in H22 hepatocarcinoma tumor-bearing mice. The results demonstrated that GP inhibits tumor progression. In the lymph nodes of the tumor microenvironment and spleen, the proportion of Treg cells was significantly higher in the tumor-bearing mice. GP administration down-regulated the population of Treg cells (P < 0.01) and decreased lymph node Foxp3 and IL-10 mRNA expression (P < 0.01). In addition, GP treatment decreased IL-10 and TGF-β level (P < 0.01) and increased IL-2 and IL-12p70 level in serum (P < 0.01). In conclusion, GP reduced the proportion of Treg cells and Foxp3 lowered expression in Treg cells, and up-regulated Th1/Th2 cytokine ratio in serum in the tumor bearing mice, which might partially cause the inhibition of tumor growth.

Reactivation of embryonic nodal signaling is associated with tumor progression and promotes the growth of prostate cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Nodal is a member of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily that directs embryonic patterning and promotes the plasticity and tumorigenicity of tumor cells, but its role in the prostate is unknown. The goal of this study was to characterize the expression and function of Nodal in prostate cancer and determine whether, like other TGFβ ligands, it modulates androgen receptor (AR) activity.

METHODS

Nodal expression was investigated using immunohistochemistry of tissue microarrays and Western blots of prostate cell lines. The functional role of Nodal was examined using Matrigel and soft agar growth assays. Cross-talk between Nodal and AR signaling was assessed with luciferase reporter assays and expression of endogenous androgen regulated genes.

RESULTS

Significantly increased Nodal expression was observed in cancer compared with benign prostate specimens. Nodal was only expressed by DU145 and PC3 cells. All cell lines expressed Nodal's co-receptor, Cripto-1, but lacked Lefty, a critical negative regulator of Nodal signaling. Recombinant human Nodal triggered downstream Smad2 phosphorylation in DU145 and LNCaP cells, and stable transfection of pre-pro-Nodal enhanced the growth of LNCaP cells in Matrigel and soft agar. Finally, Nodal attenuated AR signaling, reducing the activity of a PSA promoter construct in luciferase assays and down-regulating the endogenous expression of androgen regulated genes.

CONCLUSIONS

An aberrant Nodal signaling pathway is re-expressed and functionally active in prostate cancer cells.

Role of TGF-β and BMP7 in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis

To understand the molecular pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis (OSF), which is a chronic inflammatory disease, gene expression profiling was performed in 10 OSF tissues against 8 pooled normal tissues using oligonucleotide arrays. Microarray results revealed differential expression of 5,288 genes (P ≤ 0.05 and fold change ≥ 1.5). Among these, 2,884 are upregulated and 2,404 are downregulated. Validation employing quantitative real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry confirmed upregulation of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), TGFBIp, THBS1, SPP1, and TIG1 and downregulation of bone morphogenic protein 7 (BMP7) in OSF tissues. Furthermore, activation of TGF-β pathway was evident in OSF as demonstrated by pSMAD2 strong immunoreactivity. Treatment of keratinocytes and oral fibroblasts by TGF-β confirmed the regulation of few genes identified in microarray including upregulation of connective tissue growth factor, TGM2, THBS1, and downregulation of BMP7, which is a known negative modulator of fibrosis. Taken together, these data suggest activation of TGF-β signaling and suppression of BMP7 expression in the manifestation of OSF.

Pituitary tumor transforming gene induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition by regulation of Twist, Snail, Slug, and E-cadherin

Pituitary tumor-transforming gene (PTTG) is an oncogene with its expression levels correlating with tumor development and metastasis. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a crucial step in tumor progression and metastasis. Using ovarian epithelial tumor cell line (A2780) for loss-of-function or gain-of-function of PTTG in our experiments, we observed up regulation of TGF-β, Twist, Snail, Slug, vimentin and down regulation of E-cadherin on infection of cells with Ad-PTTG cDNA. In contrast reverse phenomena was observed on depletion of PTTG on infection of cells with Ad-PTTG siRNA, suggesting an important role of PTTG in induction of EMT in ovarian cancer cells.

Proinflammatory environment dictates the IL-17-producing capacity of human invariant NKT cells

CD1d-reactive invariant NKT (iNKT) cells have been implicated in a number of experimental models of human pathologies. Given the scope of their immunoregulatory activities mediated through distinct cytokine patterns, it has been proposed that this functional diversity originates from distinct iNKT subpopulations. In this study, we report that human CD161(+) iNKT cells are intrinsically endowed with the capacity to generate IL-17, but require TGF-β, IL-1β, and IL-23 to carry out this potential. IL-17-producing iNKT cells are already present in cord blood but, in contrast to peripheral blood iNKT cells, they cannot generate IFN-γ. These IL-17 producers respond to aryl hydrocarbon receptor stimulation and express IL-23 receptor and retinoic acid-related orphan receptor C, similar to conventional T helper 17 cells, from which they differ by their restricted ability to coproduce IL-22. In conclusion, IL-17 production by human iNKT cells depends on two critical parameters, namely an intrinsic program and a proinflammatory environment.

Murine CD4 T cells produce a new form of TGF-β as measured by a newly developed TGF-β bioassay

BACKGROUND

It is generally assumed that T cells do not produce active TGF-β since active TGF-β as measured in supernatants by ELISA without acidification is usually not detectable. However, it is possible that active TGF-β from T cells may take a special form which is not detectable by ELISA.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We constructed a TGF-β bioassay which can detect both soluble and membrane-bound forms of TGF-β from T cells. For this bioassay, 293T cells were transduced with (caga)(12) Smad binding element-luciferase along with CD32 (Fc receptor) and CD86. The resulting cells act as artificial antigen presenting cells in the presence of anti-CD3 and produce luciferase in response to biologically active TGF-β. We co-cultured pre-activated murine CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells or CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells with the 293T-caga-Luc-CD32-CD86 reporter cells in the presence of anti-CD3 and IL-2. CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells induced higher luciferase in the reporter cells than CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells. This T cell-produced TGF-β is in a soluble form since T cell culture supernatants contained the TGF-β activity. The TGF-β activity was neutralized with an anti-mouse LAP mAb or an anti-latent TGF-β/pro-TGF-β mAb, but not with anti-active TGF-β Abs. An anti-mouse LAP mAb removed virtually all acid activatable latent TGF-β from the T cell culture supernatant, but not the ability to induce TGF-β signaling in the reporter cells. The induction of TGF-β signaling by T cell culture supernatants was cell type-specific.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

A newly developed 293T-caga-Luc-CD32-CD86 reporter cell bioassay demonstrated that murine CD4 T cells produce an unconventional form of TGF-β which can induce TGF-β signaling. This new form of TGF-β contains LAP as a component. Our finding of a new form of T cell-produced TGF-β and the newly developed TGF-β bioassay system will provide a new avenue to investigate T cell function of the immune system.

Reversal of gastrointestinal carcinoma-induced immunosuppression and induction of antitumoural immunity by a combination of cyclophosphamide and gene transfer of IL-12

Immunotherapy-based strategies for gastrointestinal carcinomas (GIC) have been exploited so far, but these approaches have to face strong mechanisms of immune escape induced by tumours. We previously demonstrated that sub-therapeutic doses of an adenovirus expressing IL-12 genes (AdIL-12) mediated a potent antitumour effect against subcutaneous (s.c.) colorectal carcinomas (CRC) in mice pre-treated with low doses of cyclophosphamide (Cy). In our study we used this combination to assess its impact on the immunosuppressive microenvironment. In s.c. CRC model we demonstrated that non-responder mice failed to decrease Tregs in tumour, spleen and peripheral blood. Reconstitution of Tregs into tumour-bearing mice treated with combined therapy abolished the antitumoural effect. In addition, Cy + AdIL-12 modified Tregs functionality by inhibiting the in vitro secretion of IL-10 and TGF-β and their ability to inhibit dendritic cells activation. Combined treatment decreased the number of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in comparison to non-treated mice and, interestingly, administration of Tregs restored splenic MDSCs population. Furthermore, combined therapy potently generated specific cytotoxic IFN-γ-secreting CD4+ T cells able to eradicate established CRC tumours after adoptive transfer. Finally, we evaluated the combination on disseminated CRC and pancreatic carcinoma (PC). Cy + AdIL-12 were able to eradicate liver metastatic CRC (47%) and PC tumour nodules (40%) and to prolong animal survival. The results of this study support the hypothesis that Cy + AdIL-12 might be a valid immunotherapeutic strategy for advanced GIC.

Abnormal production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines by lupus monocytes in response to apoptotic cells

Monocytes are a key component of the innate immune system involved in the regulation of the adaptive immune response. Previous studies have focused on apoptotic cell clearance abnormalities in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) monocytes. However, whether SLE monocytes might express unique patterns of cytokine secretion in response to apoptotic cells is still unknown. Here, we used monocytes from healthy controls and SLE patients to evaluate the production of TNF-α and TGF-β in response to apoptotic cells. Upon recognition of apoptotic material, monocytes from healthy controls showed prominent TGF-β secretion (mean ± SD: 824.6±144.3 pg/ml) and minimal TNF-α production (mean ± SD: 32.6±2.1 pg/ml). In contrast, monocytes from SLE patients had prominent TNF-α production (mean ± SD: 302.2±337.5 pg/ml) and diminished TGF-β secretion (mean ± SD: 685.9±615.9 pg/ml), a difference that was statistically significant compared to normal monocytes (p≤10(-6) for TNF-α secretion, and p = 0.0031 for TGF-β, respectively). Interestingly, the unique cytokine response by SLE monocytes was independent of their phagocytic clearance efficiency, opsonizing autoantibodies and disease activity. We further showed that nucleic acids from apoptotic cells play important role in the induction of TNF-α by lupus monocytes. Together, these observations suggest that, in addition to potential clearance defects, monocytes from SLE patients have an abnormal balance in the secretion of anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to apoptotic cells. Since the abnormal cytokine response to apoptotic material in SLE is not related to disease activity and opsonizing autoantibodies, it is possible that this response might be an intrinsic property of lupus monocytes. The studies focus attention on toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their downstream pathways as mediators of this response.

Aloe vera oral administration accelerates acute radiation-delayed wound healing by stimulating transforming growth factor-β and fibroblast growth factor production

BACKGROUND

Delayed wound healing is a significant clinical problem in patients who have had previous irradiation. This study investigated the effectiveness of Aloe vera (Av) on acute radiation-delayed wound healing.

METHODS

The effect of Av was studied in radiation-exposed rats compared with radiation-only and control rats. Skin wounds were excised on the back of rats after 3 days of local radiation. Wound size was measured on days 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 after wounding. Wound tissues were examined histologically and the expressions of transforming growth factor β-1 (TGF-β-1) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) were examined by immunohistochemistry and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Wound contraction was accelerated significantly by Av on days 6 and 12 after wounding. Furthermore, the inflammatory cell infiltration, fibroblast proliferation, collagen deposition, angiogenesis, and the expression levels of TGF-β-1 and bFGF were significantly higher in the radiation plus Av group compared with the radiation-only group.

CONCLUSIONS

These data showed the potential application of Av to improve the acute radiation-delayed wound healing by increasing TGF-β-1 and bFGF production.

Stimulation of bone growth factor synthesis in human osteoblasts and fibroblasts after extracorporeal shock wave application

BACKGROUND

Nonunion is a common problem in Orthopedic Surgery. In the recent years alternatives to the standard surgical procedures were tested clinically and in vitro. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) showed promising results in both settings. We hypothesized that in target tissue cells from nonunions like fibroblasts and osteoblasts ESWT increases the release of bone growth factors.

METHODS

Fibroblasts and osteoblasts were suspended in 3 ml cryotubes and subjected to 250/500 shock waves at 25 kV using an experimental electrohydraulic lithotripter. After ESWT, cell viability was determined and cells were seeded at 1 × 10(5) cells in 12 well plates. After 24, 48, and 72 h cell number was determined and supernatant was frozen. The levels of growth factors FGF-2 and TGF-β(1) were examined using ELISA. A control group was treated equally without receiving ESWT.

RESULTS

After 24 h there was a significant increase in FGF-2 levels (p < 0.05) with significant correlation to the number of impulses (p < 0.05) observed. TGF-β(1) showed a time-dependent increase with a peak at 48 h which was not significantly different from the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

FGF-2, an important growth factor in new bone formation, was shown to be produced by human fibroblasts and osteoblasts after treatment with ESWT. These findings demonstrate that ESWT is able to cause bone healing through a molecular way by inducing growth factor synthesis.

Proteomics analysis reveals diabetic kidney as a ketogenic organ in type 2 diabetes

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. To date, the molecular mechanisms of DN remain largely unclear. The present study aimed to identify and characterize novel proteins involved in the development of DN by a proteomic approach. Proteomic analysis revealed that 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) synthase 2 (HMGCS2), the key enzyme in ketogenesis, was increased fourfold in the kidneys of type 2 diabetic db/db mice. Consistently, the activity of HMGCS2 in kidneys and 24-h urinary excretion of the ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate (β-HB) were significantly increased in db/db mice. Immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and real-time PCR studies further demonstrated that HMGCS2 was highly expressed in renal glomeruli of db/db mice, with weak expression in the kidneys of control mice. Because filtered ketone bodies are mainly reabsorbed in the proximal tubules, we used RPTC cells, a rat proximal tubule cell line, to examine the effect of the increased level of ketone bodies. Treating cultured RPTC cells with 1 mM β-HB significantly induced transforming growth factor-β1 expression, with a marked increase in collagen I expression. β-HB treatment also resulted in a marked increase in vimentin protein expression and a significant reduction in E-cadherin protein levels, suggesting an enhanced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in RPTCs. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that diabetic kidneys exhibit excess ketogenic activity resulting from increased HMGCS2 expression. Enhanced ketone body production in the diabetic kidney may represent a novel mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of DN.

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 plays a critical role in glomerulosclerosis after subtotal nephrectomy

BACKGROUND

Hyperfiltration in the glomeruli have been considered to be an important cause of glomerular injury; however, the role of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 in the pathogenesis of glomerulosclerosis is not known.

METHODS

To elucidate the effects of ICAM-1 depletion on hyperfiltration-induced glomerular disorder, we used subtotally nephrectomized ICAM-1(+/+) and ICAM-1(-/-) mice. We evaluated macrophage infiltration, mesangial matrix expansion, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and type IV collagen accumulation in glomeruli.

RESULTS

Macrophage infiltration into the glomeruli and mesangial matrix expansion coincident with increased expression of both ICAM-1 and TGF-β, and accumulation of type IV collagen were ameliorated in subtotally nephrectomized ICAM-1(-/-) mice compared to ICAM-1(+/+) mice. ICAM-1 depletion significantly reduced hyperfiltration-induced glomerular injury after renal ablation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our present findings suggest that glomerular hyperfiltration is the leading cause of glomerulosclerosis, and it is mediated, at least in part, by ICAM-1 expression and macrophage infiltration.

Immunotolerance reaction for allograft-limb in rats induced by gene-modified cell transfusion

The therapeutic value of the transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-b) in transplantation has been reported; However, cell-mediated gene therapy using TGF-b is not applied to the organ transplantation widely. This study was to evaluate whether TGF-b-modified donor spleen cell specific transfusion in rat heterotopic allo-limb transplantation could induce tolerance tolerogenicity and prolong allograft's survival time. The Splenic T-cell in Wistar rats responsing to donor spleen cells which received TGF-b-transduced were severely impaired.The Survival time of Sprague-Dawley Allograft-limb in Wistar rats given TGF-b-modified donor spleen cells (5¥106 cells/well, administration of donor TGF-b-transduced donor spleen cells 7 days before transplantation) was extended modestly but significantly.

Regulation of epithelial cell proliferation by bronchial fibroblasts obtained from mild asthmatic subjects

BACKGROUND

Bronchial epithelium is considered a key player in coordinating airway wall remodelling. The function of epithelial cells can be modulated by the underlying fibroblasts through autocrine and paracrine mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of phenotypic changes in bronchial fibroblasts from asthmatic subjects on epithelial cell proliferation.

METHODS

Epithelial cells and fibroblasts derived from bronchial biopsies of asthmatic and healthy controls were cultured in an engineered model. Proliferation was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium-bromid (MTT). Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27 were measured by western blots. Total and active forms of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β₁ were measured using ELISA and bioassay. TGF-β was inhibited using a recombinant TGF-β soluble receptor II protein.

RESULTS

Proliferation of epithelial cells from asthmatics (AE) is increased when cells were cultured with fibroblasts from normal controls (NF). Fibroblasts from asthmatics (AF) significantly decreased the proliferation of epithelial cells from healthy subjects (NE). Activation of p21, p27, EGFR and TGF-β₁ reflects the proliferation data by decreasing in AE cultured with NF and increasing in NE cultured with AF. Neutralization of TGF-β increased proliferation of epithelial cells cultured in the asthmatic model.

CONCLUSION

Fibroblasts from asthmatic subjects regulate epithelial cell prolifearation, and TGF-β signalling may represent one of the pathway involved in these interactions.

[Molecular biological features of ectopic and eutopic endometrium in genital endometriosis]

The molecular biological features of the eutopic and ectopic endometrium were studied in 46 patients with adenomyosis, 44 with endometrioid cysts in the ovaries, and 34 with disseminated mixed forms of genital endometriosis. Reproductive-aged patients with the eutopic endometrium in a proliferation phase with hyperplastic or inflammatory changes were selected. Ten samples of the endometrium in a phase proliferation, which had been obtained at medicolegal autopsy of women without reproductive disorders, were studied as a control group. Both the glandular and stromal components of the ectopic and eutopic endometrium in different forms of endometriosis were shown to differ from the intact endometrium in their molecular biological features (the expression of Ki-67, Bcl-2, Bax, vascular endothelial growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta1, matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 10, matrix metalloproteinase-2 inhibitor, the enzyme cytochrome P450 aromatase.