A longitudinal study of the predictors of the adverse effects of alcohol and marijuana/hashish use among a cohort of high risk youths

Data gathered from a longitudinal study of juvenile detainees in a Southeastern state are used to examine the demographic and life experience factors relating to their reported adverse effects of the use of alcohol and other drugs. The results indicate: 1) marijuana/hashish use, (2) their use of these substances tends to be a vehicle for the expression of personal difficulties in the areas of self-esteem and emotional/psychological functioning, and 3) their use of these two substances needs to be seen in holistic terms. Research and policy implications of the results are drawn.

The factor structure of ADHD items in DSM-III-R: internal consistency and external validation

Previous research employing factor-analytic procedures to study the underlying dimensions of DSM-III attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH) symptoms have consistently supported a two-factor model. Revision of the structure of the ADHD diagnosis in DSM-III-R, as well as inclusion of new items, has raised the question of comparability of the two diagnoses. To explore the significance of these changes, teacher ratings of DSM-III ADDH items and DSM-III-R ADHD items of 85 nonreferred school children were factor-analyzed to determine their underlying factor structures. A similar two-factor solution was obtained for each diagnostic scale. The factors consisted of items believed to reflect inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity constructs. These factors were further evaluated against results of a cognitive test battery to ascertain whether objective, external validation could be demonstrated. The hyperactivity-impulsivity factor scores were related to continuous performance test measures of response inhibition, while inattention-disorganization factor scores were related to measures of attention and visual search. Implications for assessment and diagnosis of ADHD are discussed.

Functional decline in Alzheimer's disease: a longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the reliability of activities of daily living (ADL) measures and determine the rate and pattern of longitudinal ADL change in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD).

DESIGN

Longitudinal study with evaluations every 6 months.

SETTING

Alzheimer's Disease Research Center Clinics at Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, and the Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, New York.

PATIENTS

104 patients meeting NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for probable AD were followed an average of 31 months.

MEASUREMENTS

Physical Self-Maintenance Scale (PSMS) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale (IADLS) of Lawton and Brody and the Blessed Test of Information, Memory, and Concentration.

RESULTS

For men there was inconsistency over time in the decision about whether or not some IADLS items such as "Laundry" were appropriate for a given patient. Test-retest and inter-rater reliabilities were high for all PSMS items and for IADLS items that were judged to be appropriate. IADLS scores changed an average of 2.06 (+/- 3.27) points annually, and change scores were smaller for patients with severe dementia. PSMS scores changed an average of 2.44 (+/- 3.87) points annually with virtually all change occurring in severely demented patients. There was a marked ceiling effect for the IADLS and a curvilinear relationship of PSMS annual change with PSMS baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

Both PSMS and IADLS measures can be reliable in AD patients, but better IADLS items for males need to be developed. IADLS scores are sensitive to change in mild and moderately demented AD patients, while PSMS scores are sensitive to change in more severely demented patients.

Recidivism in a cohort of juvenile detainees: a 3 1/2-year follow-up

We report some results from a longitudinal study of juvenile detainees. In extending previous analyses, we sought to determine whether the youth's alcohol or other drug use and their emotional/psychological problems at entry into the detention center predicted subsequent arrests for new offenses during the 36 months and 42 months following their initial interviews. Statistically significant relationships were found between the youths' demographic characteristics (age, race, gender) and cocaine use at initial interview (as measured by urinalysis), and recidivism. The policy implications of these findings are discussed.

A pilot study of oral physostigmine plus yohimbine in patients with Alzheimer disease

Effective symptomatic treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) may require a combination of agents that augment cholinergic as well as noradrenergic neurotransmission. We conducted a pilot study of physostigmine plus oral yohimbine challenge in AD. Ten patients were enrolled in a 12-day double-blind protocol. Each patient received placebo q2h while awake for 5 days, followed by physostigmine 2 mg q2h while awake for 7 days. During each of these drug conditions, yohimbine challenges were administered at oral doses of 10 and 20 mg in a placebo-controlled manner. There was no significant improvement in Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale test performance for six patients for whom complete cognitive data were obtained for the 6 challenge days. Nine patients tolerated the protocol with no clinically significant changes in blood pressure, pulse, or electrocardiogram (ECG), and no cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, or autonomic toxicity. One patient complained of chest discomfort associated with tachycardia, a modest rise in blood pressure, and had t-wave inversion in a single precordial lead. These signs and symptoms resolved within a few hours. Serial ECG tracings and cardiac enzymes revealed no evidence of myocardial injury. This pilot study did not reveal major cognitive improvement with this regimen, but underscores the importance of careful cardiovascular monitoring during future combined cholinergic-noradrenergic therapies in AD.

Empirical assessment of the factorial structure of clinical symptoms in schizophrenia: negative symptoms

The factor structure of the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) was examined in a confirmatory factor analysis that used the LISREL procedure. Four models of negative symptom factors were tested in 130 hospitalized schizophrenic patients. A three-factor model of diminished expression, social dysfunction, and disorganization generated by the authors yielded a superior fit to the data relative to the two-factor model of Liddle (1987b) and a unifactorial severity model. A four-factor model based on the original subscale formulation of the SANS failed to fit the data.

Prevalence of mental disorders in newly admitted medical inpatients with AIDS

The authors evaluated 42 newly admitted medical inpatients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) using DSM-III-R criteria and obtained quantitative ratings of psychiatric morbidity using standard instruments. A current Axis I disorder was present in 61.9% of the patients. Organic mental disorders predominated (47.6% of all patients) and were more common in the most severely ill patients. Major depressive syndrome was rarer than expected (9.5%). Recent physical disability was correlated with repeated hospitalizations, and trends were found suggesting correlation of recent physical disability with increased anxiety and cognitive impairment. This study, using actual patient evaluations, suggests predictors of psychiatric morbidity in this setting and argues for routine psychiatric screening of medical inpatients with AIDS.

Deterioration on the Blessed test in Alzheimer's disease: longitudinal data and their implications for clinical trials and identification of subtypes

One hundred eleven patients with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) were given the Blessed test (BT) of information, memory, and concentration (scored 0-33) at 6-month intervals over periods of 6-96 months. For each patient, the change in the total BT score between pairs of visits at 6- and 12-month intervals was measured. Mean deterioration scores over 6 and 12 months were 2.2 (SD = 3.2) and 4.1 (SD = 4.1) points, respectively. There was no significant correlation between degree of dementia on the BT and the rate of deterioration. Gender, age of onset, and family history had no significant effect on the rate of deterioration. The implications of the results for treatment trials and investigations of clinical heterogeneity are discussed.

Juvenile crime and drug abuse: a prospective study of high risk youth

Results from an ongoing, longitudinal study of juvenile detainees focusing on the relationship between their drug use and delinquency/crime, are summarized. Three hundred and ninety-nine youths were first interviewed in 1986/87, and 41 percent were found to be urine positive for recent drug use at the time of detention. We reinterviewed 305 of the youths approximately one year later, and found their drug use and delinquency persisted, and in some cases increased, over time. Treatment intervention is needed for the drug involved youths in the study to reduce their cycle of drug use and crime.

The inpatient AIDS unit: a preliminary empirical investigation of access, economic, and outcome issues

An AIDS unit model ("cluster beds") and a general inpatient placement model ("scatter beds") in a major teaching hospital were compared to determine whether they differed on several dimensions of care. After controlling for severity of illness, (the major predictor of admission to the AIDS unit), length of stay, charges, and inpatient mortality rates did not differ between the two settings. Equal proportions of White, Hispanic, male, and privately insured patients were found in both settings. Nursing staff turnover rates were comparable to those of other sites. However, the data raise new issues regarding access to AIDS units for older, Black, and female patients.

Selective accumulation of aluminum and iron in the neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease: a laser microprobe (LAMMA) study

We report the results of an examination of the elemental content of neurofibrillary tangle-bearing and neurofibrillary tangle-free neurons identified within the hippocampus of 10 subjects with Alzheimer's disease and 4 neuropathologically intact age-matched control subjects. The study employed laser microprobe mass analysis (LAMMA), a technique that provides extremely sensitive multielement detection in plastic-embedded, semithin-sectioned tissues. Evidence for the selective accumulation of aluminum within the neurofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons was obtained in all 10 subjects with Alzheimer's disease. The site of aluminum deposition within these cells was the neurofibrillary tangle itself, and not the "nuclear region," as we previously reported. Iron accumulation was also detected within neurofibrillary tangles. Evaluation for the accumulation of other elements within the tangle-bearing neurons failed to reveal any other metallic element as being consistently present. In addition, probe sites directed to neurons identified in snap-frozen cryostat sections from 2 subjects with Alzheimer's disease revealed similar spectra with prominent aluminum-related peaks, confirming that our findings are not related to exogenous contamination through fixation, embedding, or other procedures prior to analysis. This study further confirms the association of aluminum and neurofibrillary tangle formation in Alzheimer's disease.

Recidivism among high risk youths: a 2 1/2-year follow-up of a cohort of juvenile detainees

We report some results from a longitudinal study of juvenile detainees. Analyses were directed toward determining whether the youths' alcohol or other drug use and their emotional/psychological problems at entry into the detention center predicted subsequent arrests for new offenses during the 24 and 30 months following their initial interviews. Statistically significant relationships were found between the youths' demographic characteristics (age, race, gender), referral history, reason for placement in the detention center, cocaine use (as measured by urinalysis), and recidivism. The magnitude of these relationships increased with the length of the follow-up period.

Time course and clinical predictors of treatment response in schizophrenia

The severity of schizophrenic symptoms was examined in 50 male chronic patients while neuroleptic free for at least 3 weeks and during 6 weeks of treatment with haloperidol. The results suggested that 50% of the improvement associated with haloperidol administration occurred by the end of the first treatment week and that early improvement, at both 1 and 4 weeks of treatment, was predictable from drug-free symptom severity. There was a negative correlation between week 1 improvement and improvement during the next 3 weeks of treatment, suggesting that medication response is not linear. Finally, dose increases after 4 weeks of treatment with 20 mg of haloperidol did not lead to any clinical improvement. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for selecting chronic schizophrenic patients who will and will not benefit from medication treatment.

Concentra of Delinquent Offending: Serious Drug Involvement and High Delinquency Rates

This paper reports annual rates of delinquency and drug use while controlling for the type of offenders/drug users. Secondary analysis was conducted from the National Youth Survey, when the subjects were ages 14–20. Youths were classified into drug user and delinquent typologies representing more serious involvements. Annual rates of delinquent offending increased directly with more serious drug involvements, even when controlling for delinquent type. Less than 2% of all youths self-reported two or more index offenses and used cocaine/heroin. These youths had such high delinquency rates that they accounted for 40–60% of various felony crimes (robbery, felony theft, drug sales) and a disproportionate share of all marijuana and other drugs used. Yet less than a quarter reported that their recent non-drug crimes were primarily motivated to obtain money for drugs. Even in a national probability sample, delinquency is highly concentrated among a very small proportion of substance-using delinquents.

A Longitudinal Study of the Relationships among Marijuana/Hashish Use, Cocaine Use and Delinquency in a Cohort of High Risk Youths

Study of the relationship between drug use and crime over time remains an important topic in the field. Data from a longitudinal study of detained juveniles are examined to address this issue. Results indicate that self-reported delinquent behavior and alcohol use prior to initial interview are key predictors of reported delinquent behavior during the 10- to 15-month follow-up period. However, self-reported drug use and urinalysis test results (measured at initial interview), and prior delinquent behavior are significant predictors of the use of marijuana/hashish and cocaine over time. The research and policy implications of these findings are drawn.

Recidivism among high-risk youths: study of a cohort of juvenile detainees

We report some results from an ongoing, longitudinal study of juvenile detainees. Analyses were directed toward determining whether the youth's alcohol or other drug use and their emotional/psychological problems at entry into the detention center predicted subsequent arrests for new offenses. Statistically significant relationships were found between the youths' demographic characteristics (age, race, gender), referral history, reason for placement in the detention center, and cocaine use (as measured by urinalysis) and recidivism. However, the magnitudes of these relationships were low to moderate in value, suggesting that a longer follow-up period is needed to more meaningfully study this issue.

Examination of the relationships among drug use, emotional/psychological problems, and crime among youths entering a juvenile detention center

Urine testing and confidential interviews of youths entering a juvenile detention center in a southeastern city produced some striking results in regard to their drug use, delinquent behavior, and emotional/psychological problems. Recent users of marijuana/hashish and cocaine had higher rates of referral to juvenile court for property and drug offenses than nonusers. The results suggest that interviewing and urine testing of youthful detainees for drug use at the point of entry into secure detention is a promising method for screening youngsters with histories of delinquent behavior. Implications of these findings are drawn.

A longitudinal study of the relationships among alcohol use, marijuana/hashish use, cocaine use, and emotional/psychological functioning problems in a cohort of high-risk youths

There is increasing recognition that children involved in the justice system often have serious, multiple problems in the areas of physical abuse, sexual exploitation, and alcohol/other drug use (ADM). Using data collected in a longitudinal study of detained juveniles, we test a model of the relationships of these problems. Significant over-time interrelationships are found among these problems. Research and policy implications of these important findings are drawn.

The relationship between physical and sexual abuse and illicit drug use: a replication among a new sample of youths entering a juvenile detention center

The relationship between child physical and sexual abuse and illicit drug use are little understood and underinvestigated. Our previous study of this association found that a sample of detained youths' physical and sexual abuse experiences were related significantly and positively to their use of illicit drugs. Data gathered from a new sample of detained juveniles, interviewed 3 years after our first study, relating to this issue were examined and our previous findings were replicated.

The relationship between physical and sexual abuse and tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use among youths in a juvenile detention center

The relationships between child physical and sexual abuse and tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use are little understood and underinvestigated. Data gathered from a study of youths in a regional detention center permitted an examination of this issue. The results indicate that the youths' physical and sexual abuse experiences are significantly and positively related to their use of illicit drugs. The implications of these findings for further research are drawn.

Physical abuse, sexual victimization and illicit drug use: a structural analysis among high risk adolescents

The relationships between child physical and sexual abuse and illicit drug use are relatively unexplored and obscure. Data gathered from a sample of youths in a juvenile detention center permitted an examination of this important issue. A structural model, specifying the influence of child physical and sexual abuse variables on the youths' illicit drug use, directly and as mediated by self-derogation, was estimated among male and female detainees. Results suggest that for both gender groups, sexual victimization had a primarily direct effect on drug use, whereas physical abuse had both a direct and an indirect effect on drug use. The indirect effect of physical abuse on drug use was mediated by self-derogation. Further analysis indicated race did not affect the results. The implications of these results for theory and research on the etiology of drug use and the identification of youths in high risk groups who are likely to become seriously involved in drug use are discussed.

Perceived environmental drug use risk and the correlates of early drug use or nonuse among inner-city youths: the motivated actor

The extent to which youth perceive their neighborhood to be at risk was found to be directly related to a series of life-style and drug use context variables. Further, the extent of drug use (nonuse, only alcohol, both alcohol and marijuana) was directly related to two of these variables, but inversely related to the extent their friends used "hard" drugs. These results indicate the critical importance of incorporating a measure of perceived risk into drug studies of adolescents, and highlight the need to view youth as motivated actors, guiding their own behavior in an attempt to actualize self-defined values. This is in direct contrast to most theoretical perspectives which regard this age group as merely responding to powerful external influences.

Substance use among females in New York State: catching up with the males

Epidemiologic surveys of the New York State population over the past several years show substance use rates for females that are approaching the higher use rates for males. Surveys of the secondary school population show similar rates of use for girls and boys over time as well as a similar intensity of involvement. Surveys of adults show a dramatic increase of use for females, ages 18 to 34 years, in recent years, and a more modest increase for females, ages 35 years and older. An analysis of substance use by sex, age, marital status and employment identifies disparate rates of use among subgroups. For instance, among younger adults, single full-time employed women have considerably higher rates of use than housewives for illicit substances as well as psychoactive prescription drugs used medically as well as nonmedically.

Methodological and Substantive Issues Involved in Using the Concept of Risk in Research into the Etiology of Drug Use among Adolescents

The present paper reviews the various sets of variables that have been found to relate to youths' drug use. It considers various experiences, deriving from our accumulated knowledge, which need to be incorporated into research into the etiology of drug use, and discusses methodological strategies and models of analysis which show promise of improving the state of the art in this field. Documentation is provided concerning the usefulness of screening subsets of cases on relevant risk variables prior to data analysis.

Scalogram Analysis of Substance Use: A Methodological Note

Scalogram analysis is a psychometric technique that can be used to infer the order of initiation of substance use, in a model that use of any substance implies use of all preceding substances. If responses follow a particular consistent pattern, scalogram analyses infers an underlying order of initiation. A counterexample is presented in which there is a consistent order of initiation and responses follow the prescribed pattern. However, the order inferred by scalogram analysis is the opposite of the actual order. Alternative models, which relax the assumption that order implies use of all preceding substances, are suggested.

A causal analysis of early drug involvement in three inner-city neighborhood settings

Building upon previous studies stressing the importance of contextual effects in psychosocial behavior, we test a model of drug involvement among inner-city youths living in neighborhoods varying in the perceived degree of toughness/drug use. The drug involvement of the youths is hypothesized to result from the availability of drugs, image of drug-using/gang-involved persons, friends' drug use, and participation in street culture activities. In each of the toughness/drug use settings, image of drug-using/gang-involved persons related positively to friends' use of alcohol and marijuana, friends' use of alcohol and marijuana related positively to participation in street culture spare-time activities and drug involvement, and participation in street culture pursuits related positively to drug involvement. Neighborhood-setting-specific relationships are also observed. The complexity of the model, as reflected in the number of path coefficients, and the ability of the variables in the model to predict the youths' drug involvement increase as we proceed from low toughness/drug use (R2 = .28) to medium toughness/drug use (R2 = .30) to high toughness/drug use (R2 = .38) neighborhoods. The importance of examining youths' environmental experiences in understanding their drug involvement, especially their relationship to neighborhood drug use subcultures, is emphasized.

Environmental setting and early drug involvement among inner-city junior high school youths

This study explores the drug use of a sample of inner-city junior high school youths by examining a hypothesized, interactive relationship between perceived toughness/drug use in their neighborhood and the youths' demographic, neighborhood orientation/involvement, and drug use context factors in regard to their involvement with drugs. The results dramatically showed that the youths' views of their environmental setting operate as a conditioning factor in understanding the correlates of their drug involvement. In supporting the hypothesis, prosocial correlates of drug use are stressed in settings characterized by high toughness/drug use settings. Our findings urge that serious consideration be given to examining social contextual effects on drug taking as a means to understanding this behavior among different sociocultural groups.

An overview of substance use among New York State's upper income householders

A 1981 survey of substance use among household residents in New York State found rates of use consistently higher among the upper income group ($50,000 and over) than among groups with lower incomes. In addition, measures of the seriousness of the problem also revealed higher rates among the upper income group than the other income groups. In terms of preferences for treatment, the upper income group substance user clearly opts for the private professional. The findings generally suggest that there are few qualitative differences in patterns of substance-taking among the income groups, and it might be hypothesized that the availability of disposable income in the upper income group and some situational factors may facilitate that group's substance-using behavior.

Survival orientation and the drug use experiences of a sample of inner city junior high school youths

This paper focuses on the association between a sample of inner city junior high school youths' survival orientation and their (1) environmental relationships and (2) drug use context and substance use experiences. A survival orientation index was developed based on the youths' feelings about the need to join a gang, the chances of making a "success" in life, the difficulty of getting oneself together growing up in their neighborhoods, and how hard it was to avoid getting into trouble in their neighborhoods. The findings indicate that the more the youths' feel neighborhood pressures to survive the: (1) more esteemed people who use drugs and are involved with gangs are perceived to be; (2) more often they claim to engage in street culture, gang-related spare time activities; (3) less frequently they use print media and engage in stay at home activities; (4) more frequently they indicate their friends use "hard" drugs; (5) more often they claim to being drunk or very, very high on alcohol; and (6) more often they claim to having trouble with family or friends as a result of alcohol or other drug use. In highlighting the influence of social stresses in the youth's neighborhoods on their drug-taking experiences, the findings point to the importance of developing socioculturally informed prevention thrusts to reduce the youths' drug abuse risk and to teach them how to counteract negative neighborhood pressures.

Life-style and drug involvement among youths in an inner city junior high school

Data gathered in a winter 1976 survey of youths attending a New York City junior high school were analyzed to learn how features of their life-styles related to their involvement with drugs. The results indicate that the youths' substance use is an environmentally related phenomenon. The factors of peer-held esteem of drug using, gang involved persons, friends' use of alcohol and marijuana, and participation in spare-time activities of a drug/street culture nature were found to provide important insights into the youths' drug taking.

Self-concept and drug involvement among urban junior high school youths

Relationships between self-concept and drug involvement were examined through a survey given to 1,100 urban junior high school youths from mixed socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. The students were presented with 14 descriptions of "types" of youth, which they rated in terms of similarity to themselves. Factor analyses produced three "self-image" factors each for both males and females. "Gang" and "drug culture" self-images were positively associated with self-reported drug use (r's for .35 to .46), while an "educational" self-image was negatively associated with drug involvement (r's from -.20 to -.30). Implications for further research and for drug abuse prevention planning are discussed.

Ethnicity and drug use among urban junior high school youths

Data from a survey of youths attending a New York City junior high school were used to examine three perspectives of their drug involvement: (1) ethnic subculture, (2) social class, and (3) social adjustment. The results support the social adjustment view, although important differences were found in the demographic, attitude, and value correlates of drug involvement for the Black, Puerto Rican, and White students who were studied.

A survey of students' awareness of and attitudes toward drug abuse prevention programs in New York State, winter 1974/75

The present paper reports some results from a winter 1974-1975, New York State survey of junior and senior public high school youths' awareness of and attitudes toward the drug prevention efforts their schools had undertaken. The findings indicate that most youths are not aware of community resources available for assistance with a drug problem. Substantial discrepancies were found between student ratings of the effectiveness of prevention programs and the programs which they were most frequently exposed. Finally, the data highlight the peer context and drug culture aspect of the youths' substance taking, emphasizing that the sociocultural backgrounds of students need to be taken into account in prevention program development.

The influence of perceived speaker characteristics on student assessments of a drug education talk

The relationship between student perceptions of the presenters of a drug talk and their assessments of its impact was examined with data gathered in a drug education experiment. In support of attribution theory, the results showed aspects of the speakers' appearance and demeanor to be associated with the youths' evaluation of the presentation.

Testing a causal model of environmental influences on the early drug involvement of inner city junior high school youths

The present study examines a causal model explaining inner city youths' drug involvement using environmental variables which previously have been investigated singly or in various combinations and shown to influence drug use: the availability of drugs in the neighborhood and at school, a view of the neighborhood as tough, the esteem given to drug using, gang-involved persons by peers, friends' substance use, and participation in drug/street culture spare-time activities. The results show friends' use of alcohol and marijuana and participation in drug/street culture out-of-school activities have strong direct effects on personal drug involvement for the Black and Puerto Rican junior high school males and females who were studied; further, friends' use of alcohol and marijuana and the status peers give to drug using, gang-involved persons have respectable indirect effects on drug involvement for the four groups. In addition to these common features, a number of differences in the factors relating to drug involvement are found in the four groups. Implications of the results for alternative methods of drug abuse prevention and treatment are discussed, as is the necessity of utilizing an environmental, sociocultural view of drug use to adequately explain youth drug taking.

Factors in the drug involvement of inner city junior high school youths: a discriminant analysis

Data from a survey of youths attending an inner city junior high school were examined to learn how their demographic characteristics, socio-cultural experiences and the drug use existing among their neighbourhood peers related to their involvement with substances. Discriminant analysis uncovered two important factors that were associated with the youths' drug taking: (1) a street scene, social/recreational drug use factor and (2) a cluster reflecting friends' use of alcohol/marijuana and other drugs. The implications of these results for drug abuse prevention programming are explored.

Seeking truth in heroin indicators: the case of New York City

An epidemiological investigation of New York City's indirect indicators of heroin activity from 1970 through 1976 yielded insights about New York City heroin trends. Indirect indicators were gathered from official data sources, such as law enforcement, health, and treatment agencies. Since each indicator had significant limitations inhibiting interpretation, a factor analysis of the indicators was performed, resulting in the reduction of a large number of variables to a small number of factors. The factor analysis demonstrated the way in which New York City indicators cluster or move together--a "street" component, including arrests, hepatitis, price and purity of retail heroin; a "new admissions to methadone treatment" component; and a "readmissions to methadone treatment" component. Furthermore, the analysis revealed the time-lag relationships between components--"new admissions to methadone treatment" lag 1--2 years behind the "street" component; "readmissions to methadone treatment" lag 1--3 years behind the "new admissions" component. Finally, the 1970--1976 factor scores were related to 1970--1974 estimates of narcotic addicts in New York City in regression analysis, and were also projected through 1978, yielding estimates of New York City's heroin addict population from 1975 through 1978.

The believability of the media as sources of information on drugs

Based on an analysis of data gathered by a school drug survey given to junior and senior high school students in a middle-class community in the spring 1974, important differences were found to exist in the believability of various sources of drug information. Overall, comparisons indicate that friend, expert (e.g., doctor, staff member of a drug program), and ex-user drug information sources are perceived to be more credible than pamphlets, newspapers/magazines, radio, and television. Among the media, pamphlets were felt to be most believable. Examination of the believability in the media as sources of drug information by youngsters with varying substance use behavior found that the more students are involved with substances, the less credible they percieve the media to be.

A survey of substances use among junior and senior high school students in New York state, Winter 1974-75

A survey designed to assess drug and alcohol use among the 1,600,000 students in Grades 7 through 12 who attend New York State public schools was administered in 10i schools during the winter of 1974-75. Findings indicate that over 80% of the students have used alcohol and that almost one-third of the students have used marijuana at least once. In addition, 60% of the marijuana users have used no other substance, with the possible exception of alcohol. Also, if a student has used a substance, he is likely to have used it within the last 6 months. Finally, multiple substance use is not predominant among marijuana users, but is predominant among users of other substances.

Assessing age-of-onset data on substance use among New York State public secondary school students

This study was designed to assess the quality of age-of-onset data obtained in a state-wide secondary school survey on substance use. A representative sample (8,553), consisting of New York State students in public secondary schools (Grades 7-12) responded to a questionnaire during winter 1974/75. For each of eight substances, a parallel comparison was performed. The ages of onset for students of different current ages (12-17) were compared. All substances except alcohol and tobacco displayed similar patterns of age-of-onset response. The apparent discrepancies for alcohol and tobacco may be due to either a real instability in the age-of-onset pattern or to a recall error. The results of the study suggest that retrospective questions may provide useful information, particularly when they relate to memorable events.

Drug information source credibility among junior and senior high school youths

Analysis was made of data gathered in a winter 1974/75 survey of 7th through 12the grade youngsters attending public schools in New York State to learn the credibility of various sources of information on drugs. The results showed important relationships to hold between the youth's involvement with substances and their belief in the media and nonmedia information sources that were probed.