Comparison of two different temperature maintenance strategies during open abdominal surgery: upper body forced-air warming versus whole body water garment

BACKGROUND

A new system has been developed that circulates warm water through a whole body garment worn by the patient during surgery. In this study the authors compared two different strategies for the maintenance of intraoperative normothermia. One strategy used a new water garment warming system that permitted active warming of both the upper and lower extremities and the back. The other strategy used a single (upper body) forced-air warming system.

METHODS

In this prospective, randomized study, 53 adult patients were enrolled in one of two intraoperative temperature management groups during open abdominal surgery with general anesthesia. The water-garment group (n = 25) received warming with a body temperature (rectal) set point of 36.8 degrees C. The forced-air-warmer group (n = 28) received routine warming therapy using upper body forced-air warming system (set on high). The ambient temperature in the operating room was maintained constant at approximately 20 degrees C. Rectal, distal esophageal, tympanic, forearm, and fingertip temperatures were recorded perioperatively and during 2 h after surgery. Extubated patients in both groups were assessed postoperatively for shivering, use of additional warming devices, and subjective thermal comfort.

RESULTS

The mean rectal and esophageal temperatures at incision, 1 h after incision, at skin closure, and immediately postoperatively were significantly higher (0.4-0.6 degrees C) in the group that received water-garment warming when compared with the group that received upper body forced-air warming. The calculated 95% confidence intervals for the above differences in core temperatures were 0.7-0.1, 0.8-0.2, 0.8-0.2, and 0.9-0.1, retrospectively. In addition, 14 and 7% of patients in the control upper body forced-air group remained hypothermic (< 35.5 degrees C) 1 and 2 h after surgery, respectively. No core temperature less than 35.5 degrees C was observed perioperatively in any of the patients from the water-garment group. A similar frequency of the thermal stress events (shivering, use of additional warming devices, subjective thermal discomfort) was observed after extubation in both groups during the 2 h after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

The investigated water warming system, by virtue of its ability to deliver heat to a greater percentage of the body, results in better maintenance of intraoperative normothermia that does forced-air warming applied only to the upper extremities, as is common practice.

Effects of shivering prevention on haemodynamic and metabolic demands in hypothermic postoperative neurosurgical patients

We evaluated the haemodynamic and metabolic effects of prevention of shivering after prophylactic nefopam administration in neurosurgical patients undergoing craniotomy and mild systemic hypothermia (33-35 degrees C). Forty patients were enrolled in a randomised, double-blind study. Before extubation, patients received intravenously either nefopam 0.12 mg.kg-1 or an equal volume of saline 0.9%. Left ventricular systolic work index, oxygen consumption index and systemic lactate concentration were recorded before, immediately after and every 20 min for 2 h after extubation. Shivering appeared in two patients treated with nefopam and in all control patients (p < 0.001). Both left ventricular systolic work index and oxygen consumption index were similar in the two groups before extubation, increased after extubation, and further increased in control patients showing a statistical difference compared to patients treated with nefopam. Our results suggest that nefopam is effective in preventing postoperative shivering in patients undergoing neurosurgery and mild hypothermia and attenuates the haemodynamic effects of shivering during rewarming.

When nonshivering thermogenesis equals maximum metabolic rate: thermal acclimation and phenotypic plasticity of fossorial Spalacopus cyanus (Rodentia)

Many small mammals inhabiting fluctuating and cold environments display enhanced capacity for seasonal changes in nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) and thermoregulatory maximum metabolic rate (MMR). However, it is not known how this plasticity remains in a mammal that rarely experiences extreme thermal fluctuations. In order to answer this question, we determined body mass (m(b)), basal metabolic rate (BMR), NST, MMR, and minimum thermal conductance (C) on a Chilean fossorial caviomorph (Spalacopus cyanus) from a coastal population, acclimated to cold (15 degrees C) and warm (30 degrees C) conditions. NST was measured as the maximum response of metabolic rate (NST(max)) after injection of norepinephrine (NE) in thermoneutrality minus BMR. Maximum metabolic rate was assessed in animals exposed to enhanced heat-loss atmosphere (He-O2) connected with an open-flow respirometer. Body mass and metabolic variables increased significantly after cold acclimation with respect to warm acclimation but to a low extent (BMR, 26%; NST, 10%; and MMR, 12%). However, aerobic scope (MMR/BMR), calculated shivering thermogenesis (ST), and C did not change with acclimation regime. Our data suggest that physiological plasticity of S. cyanus is relatively low, which is in accordance with a fossorial mode of life. Although little is known about MMR and NST in fossorial mammals, S. cyanus has remarkably high NST; low MMR; and surprisingly, a nil capacity of ST when compared with other rodents.

Physiological responses and manual performance in humans following repeated exposure to severe cold at night

We evaluated human physiological responses and the performance of manual tasks during exposure to severe cold (-25 degrees C) at night (0300-0500 hours) and in the afternoon (1500-1700 hours). Thirteen male students wearing standard cold protective clothing occupied a severely cold room (-25 degrees C) for 20 min, and were then transferred to a cool room (10 degrees C) for 20 min. This pattern of exposure was repeated three times, for a total time of exposure to extreme cold of 60 min. The experiments were started either at 1500 hours or 0300 hours and measurements of rectal temperature, skin temperature, blood pressure, performance in a counting task, hand tremor, and subjective responses were made in each condition. At the end of the experiment at night the mean decrease in rectal temperature [0.68 (SEM 0.04) degree C] was significantly greater than that at the end of the experiment in the afternoon [0.55 (SEM 0.08) degree C, P < 0.01]. After the second cold exposure at night the mean increase in diastolic blood pressure [90 (SEM 2.0) mmHg] was significantly greater than that at the end of the second cold exposure in the afternoon [82 (SEM 2.8) mmHg, P < 0.01]. At the end of the second cold exposure at night, mean finger skin temperature [11.8 (SEM 0.8) degrees C] was significantly higher than that at the comparable time in the afternoon [9.0 (SEM 0.7) degrees C, P < 0.01]. Similarly for the toe, mean skin temperature at the start of the second cold exposure at night [25.6 (SEM 1.5) degrees C] was significantly higher than in the afternoon [20.1 (SEM 0.8) degrees C, P < 0.01]. The increased skin temperatures in the periphery resulted in increased heat loss. Since peripheral skin temperatures were highest at night, the subjects noted diminished sensations of thermal cold and pain at that time. Manual dexterity at the end of the first cold exposure at night [mean 83.7 (SEM 3.6) times.min-1] had decreased significantly more than at the end of the first cold exposure in the afternoon [mean 89.4 (SEM 3.5) times.min-1, P < 0.01]. These findings of a lowered rectal temperature and diminished manual dexterity suggest that there is an increased risk of both hypothermia and accidents for those who work at night.

Emergency treatment of hypothermia

This review considers several recent concepts regarding aetiology and treatment of accidental hypothermia. The importance and effectiveness of shivering heat production in the attenuation and reversal of hypothermia is described. Immediately following removal from cold stress, the patient is in danger of a deteriorating condition that may be due to collapse of arterial pressure and/or continued decrease of core temperature. Several controversies are discussed. It is advised that, when possible, patients should be actively but gently warmed as soon as possible (especially if arrival at the emergency department will take greater than 45 min). Extra time should be taken to check for life signs before cardiopulmonary resuscitation is initiated. Chest compressions should proceed at regular normothermic rates and care should be taken to not overventilate the patient. In the emergency department, several factors should be considered before deciding on a treatment regimen. These factors include level of consciousness, cardiovascular stability, core temperature and the direction of change of core temperature. It may be advantageous to transport the more severely hypothermic patient to a more advanced care facility even though transport time may be greater.

Postpartum chills phenomenon: is it a feto-maternal transfusion reaction?

OBJECTIVE

To examine the theory that the postpartum shivering phenomenon is related to feto-maternal bleed during the third stage of labor.

METHODS

One hundred laboring low-risk women who had a normal vaginal delivery were observed for the presence of postpartum chills. The duration of the first and second stages of labor changes in body temperature, maternal and fetal blood types and the use of epidural anesthesia were recorded. Following the delivery maternal blood was examined for the presence of fetal red blood cells using the Kleihauer-Betke stain.

RESULTS

Complete data was available in 97 patients. Post-partum chills occurred in 31 of them (32%). Women with and without chills were similar in their maternal and gestational age, the use of epidural anesthesia, and length of second stage of labor. Women with chills delivered smaller babies but the difference did not reach significance. Maternal-fetal blood group incompatibility was significantly more common among shivering than non-shivering women (48% vs. 20% respectively, p=0.006). Kleihauer-Betke test was positive in 11 women. The only two women in this group who experienced chills had maternal-fetal blood group incompatibility.

CONCLUSION

Post-partum chills are a common phenomenon. It may be the clinical presentation of feto-maternal transfusion reaction. The small number of positive Kleihauer-Betke tests may reflect its low sensitivity in the detection of small feto-maternal bleeds.

Cold exposure increases running VO(2max) and cost of transport in goats

We inadvertently subjected a group of goats to 5 mo of cold exposure (mean minimum temperature less than -13 degrees C) during an experiment designed to examine the effects of training by daily running on one member of each sibling pair. During the three coldest months, the sedentary but cold-exposed goats experienced a 34% increase in maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2 max), P < 0.01) and a 29% increase in running speed at maximal (P < 0.05). When temperatures increased in the spring, both oxygen uptake and running speed decreased. We interpret these findings as evidence that cold is a sufficient stimulus to invoke the development of aerobic structures in muscle and that these structures subsequently can be utilized for the novel task of running. When the experiment was subsequently repeated without the cold exposure, running speed and VO(2 max) of trained animals increased less than in either group of cold-exposed animals. However, the cost of transport of these warm runners was lower than either group of cold-exposed animals (from 13-19%, P < 0. 0001). Thus, although aerobic capacity was increased with acclimation to severe winter weather, cold-acclimated goats operated with lower efficiency during locomotion.

Measurement and prediction of peak shivering intensity in humans

Prediction equations of shivering metabolism are critical to the development of models of thermoregulation during cold exposure. Although the intensity of maximal shivering has not yet been predicted, a peak shivering metabolic rate (Shivpeak) of five times the resting metabolic rate has been reported. A group of 15 subjects (including 4 women) [mean age 24.7 (SD 6) years, mean body mass 72.1 (SD 12) kg, mean height 1.76 (SD 0.1) m, mean body fat 22.3 (SD 7)% and mean maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) 53.2 (SD 9) ml O2.kg-1.min-1] participated in the present study to measure and predict Shivpeak. The subjects were initially immersed in water at 8 degrees C for up to 70 min. Water temperature was then gradually increased at 0.8 degree C.min-1 to a value of 20 degrees C, which it was expected would increase shivering heat production based on the knowledge that peripheral cold receptors fire maximally at approximately this temperature. This, in combination with the relatively low core temperature at the time this water temperature was reached, was hypothesized would stimulate Shivpeak. Prior to warming the water from 8 to 20 degrees C, the oxygen consumption was 15.1 (SD 5.5) ml.kg-1.min-1 at core temperatures of approximately 35 degrees C. After the water temperature had risen to 20 degrees C, the observed Shivpeak was 22.1 (SD 4.2) ml O2.kg-1.min-1 at core and mean skin temperatures of 35.2 (SD 0.9) and 22.1 (SD 2.2) degrees C, respectively. The Shivpeak corresponded to 4.9 (SD 0.8) times the resting metabolism and 41.7 (SD 5.1)% of VO2max. The best fit equation predicting Shivpeak was Shivpeak (ml O2.kg-1.min-1) = 30.5 + 0.348 x VO2max (ml O2.kg-1.min-1) - 0.909 x body mass index (kg.m-2) - 0.233 x age (years); (P = 0.0001; r2 = 0.872).

Elevated thermostatic setpoint in postoperative patients

BACKGROUND

The mechanism and clinical relevance of increased core temperature (Tc) after surgery are poorly understood. Because fever is used as a diagnostic sign of infection, it is important to recognize what constitutes the normal postoperative thermoregulatory response. In the current study the authors tested the hypothesis that a regulated increase in Tc setpoint occurs after surgery.

METHODS

The authors prospectively studied 271 patients in the first 24 h after a variety of vascular, abdominal, and thoracic surgical procedures. Tc measured in the urinary bladder, skin-surface temperatures, thermoregulatory responses (vasoconstriction and shivering), and total leukocyte counts were assessed. In a subset of 34 patients, plasma concentrations of tumor necrosis factor, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-8 were measured before and after surgery.

RESULTS

In the early postoperative period, the maximum increase in Tc above the preoperative baseline averaged 1.4 +/- 0.8 degrees C (2.5 +/- 1.4 degrees F), with the Tc peak occurring 11.1 /- 5.8 h after surgery. Fifty percent of patients had a maximum Tc greater than or equal to 38.0 degrees C (100.4 degrees F) and 25% had a maximum Tc greater than or equal to 38.5 degrees C (101.3 degrees F). The progressive postoperative increase in Tc was clearly associated with cutaneous vasoconstriction and shivering, indicating a regulated elevation in Tc setpoint. The elevated Tc was associated with an increased IL-6 response but not with leukocytosis. Maximum postoperative Tc was positively correlated with duration and extent of the surgical procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

A regulated elevation in Tc setpoint (fever) occurs normally after surgery. The association between Tc elevation, extent and duration of surgery, and the cytokine response suggests that early postoperative fever is a manifestation of perioperative stress.

Does cold acclimation induce nonshivering thermogenesis in juvenile birds? Experiments with Pekin ducklings and Japanese quail chicks

The capability to produce heat in cold by nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) was studied in Pekin ducklings and Japanese quail chicks acclimated to cold for 3 weeks using indirect calorimetry (oxygen consumption) and electromyography from breast (M. pectoralis) and leg muscles (quails: M. gastrocnemius; ducklings: M. gastrocnemius, M. iliofibularis). Respiration of muscles in vitro was studied by measuring cytochrome c oxidase activity. In both species, cold acclimation induced clear morphometric and physiological changes, but no clear evidence of nonshivering thermogenesis. This was evident because increased shivering at least in one muscle coincided with increased oxygen consumption. In ducklings, however, amplitudes of shivering EMGs were low (<30 microV) in all muscles studied in both the control and cold-acclimated groups. Ducklings reacted to cold mainly by means of increasing body weight (1796 g in control, 2095 g in cold-acclimated) and circulatory changes. Acclimation did not change oxygen consumption either in vivo or in vitro. In quails, in addition to increased body weight (78.1 g control, 89.9 g cold-acclimated), improved insulation and metabolic adaptation to cold (increased respiration in vivo and in M. pectoralis in vitro) was also utilized. In Japanese quail chicks, 3 weeks of cold acclimation does not seem to induce NST, while in Pekin ducklings the existence of NST could not be totally excluded because of weak overall shivering activity.

Age-related thermoregulatory differences during core cooling in humans

The current study assessed sympathetic neuronal and vasomotor responses, total body oxygen consumption, and sensory thermal perception to identify thermoregulatory differences in younger and older human subjects during core cooling. Cold fluid (40 ml/kg, 4 degrees C) was given intravenously over 30 min to decrease core temperature (Tc) in eight younger (age 18-23) and eight older (age 55-71) individuals. Compared with younger subjects, the older subjects had significantly lower Tc thresholds for vasoconstriction (35.5 +/- 0.3 vs. 36.2 +/- 0.2 degrees C, P = 0.03), heat production (35.2 +/- 0.4 vs. 35.9 +/- 0.1 degrees C, P = 0.04), and plasma norepinephrine (NE) responses (35.0 vs. 36.0 degrees C, P < 0.05). Despite a lower Tc nadir during cooling, the maximum intensities of the vasoconstriction (P = 0.03) and heat production (P = 0.006) responses were less in the older compared with the younger subjects, whereas subjective thermal comfort scores were similar. Plasma NE concentrations increased fourfold in the younger but only twofold in the older subjects at maximal Tc cooling. The vasomotor response for a given change in plasma NE concentration was decreased in the older group (P = 0.01). In summary, aging is associated with 1) a decreased Tc threshold and maximum response intensity for vasoconstriction, total body oxygen consumption, and NE release, 2) decreased vasomotor responsiveness to NE, and 3) decreased subjective sensory thermal perception.

Shivering and digestion-related thermogenesis in pigeons during dark phase

The pigeon's main source of regulated heat production, shivering, is especially likely to be used for thermoregulation during the dark phase of the day when there is little heat from locomotor activity. However, food stored in the pigeon's crop is digested during the night, and digestion-related thermogenesis (DRT) will provide heat that should decrease the need for shivering to maintain body temperature (Tb). We investigated the conditions under which DRT alters the occurrence of nocturnal shivering thermogenesis in pigeons. In fasting experiments, in which DRT was minimal, variations in pectoral shivering were closely related to the kinetics of nocturnal Tb when the ambient temperature (Ta) was moderate (21 degrees C). In that case, shivering was low while Tb fell at the beginning of the night, moderate during the nocturnal plateau in Tb, and strong during the prelight increase in Tb. Similar kinetics of nocturnal Tb occurred when Ta = 28 degrees C, but shivering was negligible throughout the dark phase. In restricted feeding experiments, nocturnal DRT was varied by providing different amounts of food late in the light phase. When Ta = 21 degrees C, 11 degrees C, and 1 degrees C, nocturnal Tb and O2 consumption were directly related to the amount of food ingested. However, nocturnal shivering tended to decrease as the food load increased and was significantly reduced at the higher loads. Because nocturnal shivering did not become more efficient in producing heat as the size of the food load increased, we conclude that nocturnal DRT decreased the need for shivering thermogenesis.

Immersion of distal arms and legs in warm water (AVA rewarming) effectively rewarms mildly hypothermic humans

INTRODUCTION

Active rewarming of hypothermic victims for field use, and where transport to medical facilities is impossible, might be the only way to restore deep body temperature. In active rewarming in warm water, there has been a controversy concerning whether arms and legs should be immersed in the water or left out. Further, it has been suggested in the Royal Danish Navy treatment regime, that immersion of hands, forearms, feet, and lower legs alone might accomplish rapid rates of rewarming (AVA rewarming).

METHODS

On three occasions, six subjects (one female) were cooled in 8 degrees C water, to an esophageal temperature of 34.3+/-0.8 (+/-SD) degrees C. After cooling the subjects were warmed by shivering heat production alone, or by immersing the distal extremities (hands, forearms, feet and lower legs) in either 42 degrees C or 45 degrees C water.

RESULTS

The post cooling afterdrop in esophageal temperature was decreased by both 42 degrees C and 45 degrees C water immersion (0.4+/-0.2 degrees C) compared with the shivering alone procedure (0.6+/-0.4 degrees C; p < 0.05). The subsequent rate of rewarming was significantly greater with 45 degrees C water immersion (9.9+/-3.2 degrees C x h(-1)) than both 42 degrees C water immersion (6.1+/-1.2 degrees C x h(-1)) and shivering alone (3.4+/-1.5 degrees C x h(-1); p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The extremity rewarming procedure was experienced by the subjects as the most comfortable as the rapid rise in deep body temperature shortened the period of shivering. During the extremity rewarming procedures the rectal temperature lagged considerably behind the esophageal and aural canal (via indwelling thermocouple) temperatures. Thus large gradients may still exist between body compartments even though the heart is warmed.

The influence of acute hypoxia and carotid body denervation on thermoregulation during non-rapid eye movement sleep in the developing lamb

We investigated the influence of ambient temperature on the thermoregulatory response to hypoxia in developing lambs before (at 4 and 14 days of age) and after (17 and 30 days of age) carotid body denervation (CBD). Lambs were studied during non-rapid eye movement sleep at thermoneutral (23-15 C) and cool (10-5 C) ambient temperatures, during normoxia and acute hypoxia (inspired oxygen content of 13 %). Measurements of oxygen consumption, arterial partial pressures of O2 and CO2, colonic temperature, incidence of shivering and plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones, cortisol, insulin and glucose were made under each condition. Oxygen consumption was higher at cool compared with thermoneutral ambient temperatures and decreased during hypoxia during cooling at all stages. At 4 days of age, only one lamb shivered during cooling in normoxia, but 4 out of 12 lambs shivered during hypoxia and colonic temperature fell, significantly, by 0.2 C. At 14 days, 8 out of 12 lambs shivered during cooling, of which 6 continued to shiver during hypoxia but colonic temperature did not change significantly. Plasma triiodothyronine concentrations increased on cooling at 4 and 14 days, an affect that was inhibited by hypoxia at 4, but not 14 days of age. At 17 days of age, i.e. post-CBD, plasma thyroid hormone concentrations and oxygen consumption were lower during cold exposure compared with intact lambs at 14 days of age. In CBD lambs, imposing further hypoxia resulted in colonic temperature falling 0. 6 C during cooling, with only 2 out of 10 lambs shivering. Plasma glucose and insulin, but not cortisol, concentrations decreased during hypoxia, irrespective of age or CBD. It is concluded that hypoxia has an important influence on metabolism and thermoregulation, which is modulated by age and environmental conditions. Compromised carotid body function, in lambs older than 2 weeks of age, can result in severe hypoxia and thermoregulatory dysfunction even with modest environmental cooling.

Facial warming increases the threshold for shivering

A decrease of 1-2 degrees C core temperature provides protection against cerebral ischemia. However, shivering usually prevents reduction in core temperature in unanesthetized patients. Therefore, it was tested whether facial and airway heating increases the shivering threshold and enables core cooling in unanesthetized patients. Nine trials were performed on seven healthy male volunteers. Each subject was positioned supine on a circulating-water mattress (8-15 degrees C) with a convective-air coverlet (15-18 degrees C) extending from the neck to the feet. A dynamic study protocol governed by individualized physiological responses was used. Focal facial (and airway) warming was employed to suppress involuntary motor activity (muscle tensing, shivering) and, thereby, enabling noninvasive cooling to lower the core temperature. The following parameters were monitored: 1) heart rate, 2) blood pressure, 3) core temperature (tympanic, axilla, and rectal), 4) cutaneous temperatures, and 5) a subjective shiver index (scale 1-10). In three, electromyograms and infrared thermographs were also obtained. Upon cooling without facial and airway warming, involuntary motor activity increased until it was widespread. This vigorous motor activity prevented any significant lowering of core temperature or caused it to slightly increase. Subsequently, in all subjects, within seconds after the application of facial focal warming, motor activity was suppressed almost completely, and within minutes core temperatures significantly decreased. Preliminary studies described here indicate that focal facial warming applied during active whole body cooling to initiate mild hypothermia might minimize the need to pharmacologically suppress involuntary motor activity. Such a procedure might be useful for initiating as soon as possible (such as during emergency transport), cerebral mild hypothermia in order to maximize protection and thus improve outcome in neurologically injured patients (head trauma, stroke).

Thermoregulatory responses of the inbred heat-tolerant FOK rat to cold

The responses of inbred heat-tolerant FOK rats to cold were compared with those of Wistar King A/H (WKAH) and Std:Wistar (WSTR) strains. The fall of colonic temperature during cold exposure was unexpectedly smaller in FOK than in other groups, but the onset of shivering was delayed in FOK. Norepinephrine (NE)-induced in vivo oxygen consumption and the mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 level of brown adipose tissue (BAT) were not different among the groups, but the cold-induced increases in in vivo oxygen consumption as well as plasma glycerol and free fatty acids were higher in FOK than in other groups. In vitro NE-induced oxygen consumption of BAT was less in FOK than WSTR, but not WKAH. The magnitude of the NE-induced increase in blood flow through BAT was higher in FOK than in other groups. These results suggest that FOK paradoxically have a high capacity for nonshivering thermogenesis in spite of their high capacity for heat tolerance, probably due to an increased lipid utilization and improved circulation of BAT.

Disinhibition of lower midbrain neurons enhances non-shivering thermogenesis in anesthetized rats

The hypothesis that the lower midbrain, specifically in and around the retrorubral field (RRF) and/or rubrospinal tract (rs), contains a tonic inhibitory mechanism on non-shivering thermogenesis (NST) was examined in urethane-anesthetized rats. It has been proposed that removal of the tonic inhibitory mechanism in the lower midbrain causes body temperature increase through disinhibition-induced activation of the central sympathetic nervous system. The present experiments were carried out to examine whether and where the proposed midbrain region contains cell bodies that tonically inhibit the NST, and if so, whether they receive any influence from the hypothalamus. Male Wistar rats were anesthetized with urethane (1. 0-1.2 g/kg, i.p.), and various agents were microinjected into the RRF and rs areas of one side before and after knife-cut in the other side of the lower midbrain or isolation of the hypothalamus from the midbrain. Changes in interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT), rectum, and tail skin temperatures were monitored.

RESULTS

(1) unilateral midbrain procaine increased IBAT and rectal temperatures only after un-injected side of the midbrain had been pre-transected. (2) Effective midbrain sites for procaine to increase IBAT and rectal temperatures was laterally extended. (3) Tetrodotoxin microinjected into the midbrain site where procaine increased IBAT and rectal temperatures also raised both temperatures. (4) l-glutamate decreased IBAT and rectal temperatures when microinjected into one of the most inner midbrain area of procaine-sensitive sites without affecting tail skin temperature. (5) Isolation of the hypothalamus from the lower midbrain did not affect midbrain procaine-induced IBAT and rectal temperature increases. These results suggest that neurons that tonically inhibit the NST are located in the area close to the midline adjacent to the RRF and rs, and that the integrity of the neurons to tonically inhibit the NST is not affected by disconnecting the hypothalamus from the midbrain.

Shivering thermogenesis in leg and breast muscles of galliform chicks and nestlings of the domestic pigeon

We studied the ontogeny of shivering thermogenesis in breast and leg muscles of precocial galliforms (domestic fowl, grey partridge, and Japanese quail) and the altricial domestic pigeon using electromyography (EMG) and indirect calorimetry. Galliforms were able to increase heat production by shivering in leg muscles at the youngest age studied (1-2 d). Pectorals contributed to heat production from days 7-10 onward, but in the partridge and especially in the fowl, shivering by the pectorals was weaker than in the quail. In the pigeon, shivering began in pectorals and legs at 2 and 4 d of age, respectively, and pectorals had clearly the predominant role in thermogenesis. Despite the early beginning of electrical signs of shivering, significant thermogenesis did not appear in the pigeon before the age of 6 d. All galliforms shivered in bursts, like pigeons aged 2-4 d. From the age of 6 d onward, continuous shivering became predominant in the pigeon. In pectorals of 2-6-d-old pigeons, shivering did not increase linearly during decreasing ambient temperature, as in other muscles and species, but started abruptly, at full intensity. Furthermore, in 2-4-d-old pigeons, cooling induced movement activity in legs. The median frequency of shivering EMGs varied (1) with maturation of the muscle, (2) with size of the adult bird, and (3) between altricials and precocials.

Thermoregulation during cold exposure: effects of prior exercise

This study examined whether acute exercise would impair the body's capability to maintain thermal balance during a subsequent cold exposure. Ten men rested for 2 h during a standardized cold-air test (4.6 degrees C) after two treatments: 1) 60 min of cycle exercise (Ex) at 55% peak O(2) uptake and 2) passive heating (Heat). Ex was performed during a 35 degrees C water immersion (WI), and Heat was conducted during a 38.2 degrees C WI. The duration of Heat was individually adjusted (mean = 53 min) so that rectal temperature was similar at the end of WI in both Ex (38.2 degrees C) and Heat (38.1 degrees C). During the cold-air test after Ex, relative to Heat 1) rectal temperature was lower (P < 0.05) from minutes 40-120, 2) mean weighted heat flow was higher (P < 0.05), 3) insulation was lower (P < 0.05), and 4) metabolic heat production was not different. These results suggest that prior physical exercise may predispose a person to greater heat loss and to experience a larger decline in core temperature when subsequently exposed to cold air. The combination of exercise intensity and duration studied in these experiments did not fatigue the shivering response to cold exposure.

Thermoregulatory responses to cold water at different times of day

This study examined how time of day affects thermoregulation during cold-water immersion (CWI). It was hypothesized that the shivering and vasoconstrictor responses to CWI would differ at 0700 vs. 1500 because of lower initial core temperatures (T(core)) at 0700. Nine men were immersed (20 degrees C, 2 h) at 0700 and 1500 on 2 days. No differences (P > 0.05) between times were observed for metabolic heat production (M, 150 W. m(-2)), heat flow (250 W. m(-2)), mean skin temperature (T(sk), 21 degrees C), and the mean body temperature-change in M (DeltaM) relationship. Rectal temperature (T(re)) was higher (P < 0.05) before (Delta = 0.4 degrees C) and throughout CWI during 1500. The change in T(re) was greater (P < 0. 05) at 1500 (-1.4 degrees C) vs. 0700 (-1.2 degrees C), likely because of the higher T(re)-T(sk) gradient (0.3 degrees C) at 1500. These data indicate that shivering and vasoconstriction are not affected by time of day. These observations raise the possibility that CWI may increase the risk of hypothermia in the early morning because of a lower initial T(core).

Postnatal changes in regional blood flow during cold-induced shivering in sow-reared piglets

To determine whether newborn pigs are able to display adequate cardiovascular adjustments favouring shivering thermogenesis in skeletal muscles soon after birth, regional blood flow and fractional distribution of cardiac output were determined in 1-day-old (n = 6) and 5-day-old (n = 6) conscious piglets at thermal neutrality and during cold exposure, using coloured microspheres. Five-day-old piglets stayed with the sow before the experiment. The cold challenge was designed to induce a similar increase (approximately +90%) in heat production at both ages. Skeletal muscle blood flow increased with both age (p < 0.05) and cold exposure (p < 0.001), with the effect of cold being more pronounced in 5-day-old piglets than in 1-day-old piglets (+60%, p < 0.05). The difference between individual muscles increased with age, with fractional blood flow being 41% higher in rhomboideus than in longissimus thoracis muscle during cold exposure in 5-day-old piglets (p < 0.05). Cardiac output was similar at both ages and increased by 23% in the cold (p < 0.001). At 1 day of age, there was no redistribution of cardiac output among the internal organs during the cold challenge, while at 5 days of age, the increase in muscle fractional blood flow was associated with a reduction (p < 0.05) in the fraction of cardiac output reaching the skin (-24%), the small intestine (-21%), and the liver (-20%). In conclusion, these results suggest that there is a rapid postnatal improvement of cardiovascular adjustments favouring blood perfusion and probably heat production during cold-induced shivering in the most oxidative muscles studied. This cardiovascular response may play a role in the postnatal enhancement of thermoregulation in piglets.

The effect of dynamic exercise on resting cold thermoregulatory responses measured during water immersion

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of exercise on the subsequent post-exercise thresholds for vasoconstriction and shivering measured during water immersion. On 2 separate days, seven subjects (six males and one female) were immersed in water (37.5 degrees C) that was subsequently cooled at a constant rate of approximately 6.5 degrees C x h(-1) until the thresholds for vasoconstriction and shivering were clearly established. Water temperature was then increased to 37.5 degrees C. Subjects remained immersed for approximately 20 min, after which they exited the water, were towel-dried and sat in room air (22 degrees C) until both esophageal temperature and mean skin temperature (Tsk) returned to near-baseline values. Subjects then either performed 15 min of cycle ergometry (at 65% maximal oxygen consumption) followed by 30 min of recovery (Exercise), or remained seated with no exercise for 45 min (Control). Subjects were then cooled again. The core temperature thresholds for both vasoconstriction and shivering increased significantly by 0.2 degrees C Post-Exercise (P < 0.05). Because the Tsk at the onset of vasoconstriction and shivering was different during Pre- and Post-Exercise Cooling, we compensated mathematically for changes in skin temperatures using the established linear cutaneous contribution of skin to the control of vasoconstriction and shivering (20%). The calculated core temperature threshold (at a designated skin temperature of 32.0 degrees C) for vasoconstriction increased significantly from 37.1 (0.3) degrees C to 37.5 ( 0.3) degrees C post-exercise (P < 0.05). Likewise, the shivering threshold increased from 36.2 (0.3) degrees C to 36.5 (0.3) degrees C post-exercise (P < 0.05). In contrast to the post-exercise increase in cold thermal response thresholds, sequential measurements demonstrated a time-dependent similarity in the Pre- and Post-Control thresholds for vasoconstriction and shivering. These data indicate that exercise has a prolonged effect on the post-exercise thresholds for both cold thermoregulatory responses.