Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor knockout mice show distinct synaptic plasticity impairments in the visual cortex

In the present report, we focused our attention on the role played by the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) in different forms of long-term synaptic plasticity. Specifically, we investigated long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) expression elicited by theta-burst stimulation (TBS) and low-frequency stimulation (LFS), respectively, in visual cortical slices obtained from different mAChR knockout (KO) mice. A normal LTP was evoked in M(1)/M(3) double KO mice, while LTP was impaired in the M(2)/M(4) double KO animals. On the other hand, LFS induced LTD in M(2)/M(4) double KO mice, but failed to do so in M(1)/M(3) KO mice. Interestingly, LFS produced LTP instead of LTD in M(1)/M(3) KO mice. Analysis of mAChR single KO mice revealed that LTP was affected only by the simultaneous absence of both M(2) and M(4) receptors. A LFS-dependent shift from LTD to LTP was also observed in slices from M(1) KO mice, while LTD was simply abolished in slices from M(3) KO mice. Using pharmacological tools, we showed that LTP in control mice was blocked by pertussis toxin, an inhibitor of G(i/o) proteins, but not by raising intracellular cAMP levels. In addition, the inhibition of phospholipase C by U73122 induced the same shift from LTD to LTP after LFS observed in M(1) single KO and M(1)/M(3) double KO mice. Our results indicate that different mAChR subtypes regulate different forms of long-term synaptic plasticity in the mouse visual cortex, activating specific G proteins and downstream intracellular mechanisms.

Loss of M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leads to cerebrovascular and neuronal abnormalities and cognitive deficits in mice

The M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M5R) has been shown to play a crucial role in mediating acetylcholine-dependent dilation of cerebral blood vessels. We show that male M5R-/- mice displayed constitutive constriction of cerebral arteries using magnetic resonance angiography in vivo. Male M5R-/- mice exhibited a significantly reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and thalamus. Cortical and hippocampal pyramidal neurons from M5R-/- mice showed neuronal atrophy. Hippocampus-dependent spatial and nonspatial memory was also impaired in M5R-/- mice. In M5R-/- mice, CA3 pyramidal cells displayed a significantly attenuated frequency of the spontaneous postsynaptic current and long-term potentiation was significantly impaired at the mossy fiber-CA3 synapse. Our findings suggest that impaired M5R signaling may play a role in the pathophysiology of cerebrovascular deficits. The M5 receptor may represent an attractive novel therapeutic target to ameliorate memory deficits caused by impaired cerebrovascular function.

A critical role for beta cell M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in regulating insulin release and blood glucose homeostasis in vivo

One of the hallmarks of type 2 diabetes is that pancreatic beta cells fail to release sufficient amounts of insulin in the presence of elevated blood glucose levels. Insulin secretion is modulated by many hormones and neurotransmitters including acetylcholine, the major neurotransmitter of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system. The physiological role of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors expressed by pancreatic beta cells remains unclear at present. Here, we demonstrate that mutant mice selectively lacking the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype in pancreatic beta cells display impaired glucose tolerance and greatly reduced insulin release. In contrast, transgenic mice selectively overexpressing M3 receptors in pancreatic beta cells show a profound increase in glucose tolerance and insulin release. Moreover, these mutant mice are resistant to diet-induced glucose intolerance and hyperglycemia. These findings indicate that beta cell M3 muscarinic receptors play a key role in maintaining proper insulin release and glucose homeostasis.

Role of acetylcholine and polyspecific cation transporters in serotonin-induced bronchoconstriction in the mouse

BACKGROUND

It has been proposed that serotonin (5-HT)-mediated constriction of the murine trachea is largely dependent on acetylcholine (ACh) released from the epithelium. We recently demonstrated that ACh can be released from non-neuronal cells by corticosteroid-sensitive polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCTs), which are also expressed by airway epithelial cells. Hence, the hypothesis emerged that 5-HT evokes bronchoconstriction by inducing release of ACh from epithelial cells via OCTs.

METHODS

We tested this hypothesis by analysing bronchoconstriction in precision-cut murine lung slices using OCT and muscarinic ACh receptor knockout mouse strains. Epithelial ACh content was measured by HPLC, and the tissue distribution of OCT isoforms was determined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Epithelial ACh content was significantly higher in OCT1/2 double-knockout mice (42 +/- 10 % of the content of the epithelium-denuded trachea, n = 9) than in wild-type mice (16.8 +/- 3.6 %, n = 11). In wild-type mice, 5-HT (1 microM) caused a bronchoconstriction that slightly exceeded that evoked by muscarine (1 microM) in intact bronchi but amounted to only 66% of the response to muscarine after epithelium removal. 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction was undiminished in M2/M3 muscarinic ACh receptor double-knockout mice which were entirely unresponsive to muscarine. Corticosterone (1 microM) significantly reduced 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction in wild-type and OCT1/2 double-knockout mice, but not in OCT3 knockout mice. This effect persisted after removal of the bronchial epithelium. Immunohistochemistry localized OCT3 to the bronchial smooth muscle.

CONCLUSION

The doubling of airway epithelial ACh content in OCT1/2-/- mice is consistent with the concept that OCT1 and/or 2 mediate ACh release from the respiratory epithelium. This effect, however, does not contribute to 5-HT-induced constriction of murine intrapulmonary bronchi. Instead, this activity involves 1) a non-cholinergic epithelium-dependent component, and 2) direct stimulation of bronchial smooth muscle cells, a response which is partly sensitive to acutely administered corticosterone acting on OCT3. These data provide new insights into the mechanisms involved in 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction, including novel information about non-genomic, acute effects of corticosteroids on bronchoconstriction.

Reduced cocaine self-administration in muscarinic M5 acetylcholine receptor-deficient mice

The reinforcing effects of cocaine have been related to increased extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the ventral striatum. Several studies suggest that M5 muscarinic receptors facilitate striatal dopamine release. We tested the hypothesis that the reinforcing effects of cocaine are decreased in M5 receptor-deficient mice using chronic intravenous cocaine self-administration in extensively backcrossed mice. We also assessed whether operant performance generally, rather than cocaine self-administration specifically, was altered in the mutant mice. To this end, we evaluated both food-maintained operant behavior and cocaine self-administration under a fixed ratio 1 and a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. We also evaluated acquisition of self-administration in experimentally naive mice using several doses of cocaine. M5 receptor deletion decreased self-administration of low to moderate doses of cocaine under a PR schedule of reinforcement and diminished acquisition of self-administration of a low dose in experimentally naive mice. We found no differences between genotypes in food-maintained behavior. The present study extends our previous findings using backcrossed mice and covering various experimental conditions. Our results indicate that M5 receptor deletion diminished the reinforcing effects of low doses of cocaine and identified specific conditions under which this may be observed.

M1-M3 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor-Deficient Mice: Novel Phenotypes

The five muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1-M5 mAChRs) mediate a very large number of important physiological functions (Caulfield, 1993; Caulfield and Birdsall, 1998; Wess, 2004). Because of the lack of small molecule ligands endowed with a high degree of receptor subtype selectivity and the fact that most tissues or cell types express two or more mAChR subtypes, identification of the physiological and pathophysiological roles of the individual mAChR subtypes has proved to be a challenging task. To overcome these difficulties, we recently generated mutant mouse lines deficient in each of the five mAChR genes (M1R-/- mice, M2R-/- mice, M3R-/- mice, etc. [Wess, 2004]). Phenotyping studies showed that each of the five mutant mouse lines displayed characteristic physiological, pharmacological, behavioral, biochemical, or neurochemical deficits (Wess, 2004). This chapter summarizes recent findings dealing with the importance of the M2mAChR for cognitive processes and the roles of the M1 and M3 mAChRs in mediating stimulation of glandular secretion.

Role of Acetylcholine and Muscarinic Receptors in Serotonin-Induced Bronchoconstriction in the Mouse

For the murine trachea, it has been reported that constriction evoked by serotonin (5-HT) is largely dependent on acetylcholine (ACh) released from the epithelium, owing to the sensitivity of the 5-HT response to epithelium removal, sensitivity to atropine, and insensitivity to tetrodotoxin (Moffatt et al., 2003). Consistent with this assumption, the respiratory epithelium contains ACh, its synthesizing enzyme, and the high-affinity choline transporter CHT1 (Reinheimer et al., 1996; Pfeil et al., 2003; Proskocil et al., 2004). Recently, we demonstrated that ACh can be released from non-neuronal cells by corticosteroid-sensitive polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCTs), which are also expressed by airway epithelial cells (Lips et al., 2005). Hence, we proposed that 5-HT evokes release of ACh from epithelial cells via OCTs and that this epithelial-derived ACh induces bronchoconstriction. We tested this hypothesis in a well-established model of videomorphometric analysis of bronchial diameter in precision-cut murine lung slices utilizing epithelium removal to assess the role of the epithelium, OCT mouse knockout (KO) strains to assess the role of OCT isoforms, and muscarinic receptor M2/M3 double-KO mice to assess the cholinergic component of 5-HT induced bronchoconstriction, as bronchi of this strain are entirely unresponsive to cholinergic stimulation(Struckmann et al., 2003).

Use of an in Situ Disulfide Cross-Linking Strategy To Study the Dynamic Properties of the Cytoplasmic End of Transmembrane Domain VI of the M3Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor†

The ligand-induced activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is predicted to involve pronounced conformational changes on the intracellular surface or the receptor proteins. A reorientation of the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane domain VI (TM VI) is thought to play a key role in GPCR activation and productive receptor/G protein coupling. Disulfide cross-linking studies with solubilized, Cys-substituted mutant versions of bovine rhodopsin and the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor suggested that the cytoplasmic end of TM VI is conformationally highly flexible, even in the absence of activating ligands (Farrens, D. L., et al. (1996) Science 274, 768-770; Zeng, F. Y., et al. (1999) J. Biol. Chem. 274, 16629-16640). To test the hypothesis that the promiscuous disulfide cross-linking pattern observed in these studies was caused by the use of solubilized receptor proteins endowed with increased conformational flexibility, we employed a recently developed in situ disulfide cross-linking strategy that allows the detection of disulfide bonds in Cys-substituted mutant M3 muscarinic receptors present in their native membrane environment. Specifically, we used membranes prepared from transfected COS-7 cells to analyze a series of double Cys mutant M3 receptors containing one Cys residue within the sequence K484(6.29) to S493(6.38) at the cytoplasmic end of TM VI and a second Cys residue at the cytoplasmic end of TM III (I169C(3.54)). This analysis revealed a disulfide cross-linking pattern that was strikingly more restricted than that observed previously with solubilized receptor proteins, both in the absence and in the presence of the muscarinic agonist, carbachol. Carbachol stimulated the formation of disulfide bonds in only two of the 10 analyzed mutant muscarinic receptors, I169C(3.54)/K484C(6.29) and I169C(3.54)/A488C(6.33), consistent with an agonist-induced rotation of the cytoplasmic end of TM VI. These findings underline the usefulness of analyzing the structural and dynamic properties of GPCRs in their native lipid environment.

Opposing functions of spinal M2, M3, and M4 receptor subtypes in regulation of GABAergic inputs to dorsal horn neurons revealed by muscarinic receptor knockout mice

Spinal muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) play an important role in the regulation of nociception. To determine the role of individual mAChR subtypes in control of synaptic GABA release, spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) and miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) were recorded in lamina II neurons using whole-cell recordings in spinal cord slices of wild-type and mAChR subtype knockout (KO) mice. The mAChR agonist oxotremorine-M (3-10 microM) dose-dependently decreased the frequency of GABAergic sIPSCs and mIPSCs in wild-type mice. However, in the presence of the M2 and M4 subtype-preferring antagonist himbacine, oxotremorine-M caused a large increase in the sIPSC frequency. In M3 KO and M1/M3 double-KO mice, oxotremorine-M produced a consistent decrease in the frequency of sIPSCs, and this effect was abolished by himbacine. We were surprised to find that in M2/M4 double-KO mice, oxotremorine-M consistently increased the frequency of sIPSCs and mIPSCs in all neurons tested, and this effect was completely abolished by 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methiodide, an M3 subtype-preferring antagonist. In M2 or M4 single-KO mice, oxotremorine-M produced a variable effect on sIPSCs; it increased the frequency of sIPSCs in some cells but decreased the sIPSC frequency in other neurons. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that activation of the M3 subtype increases synaptic GABA release in the spinal dorsal horn of mice. In contrast, stimulation of presynaptic M2 and M4 subtypes predominantly attenuates GABAergic inputs to dorsal horn neurons in mice, an action that is opposite to the role of M2 and M4 subtypes in the spinal cord of rats.

M(2) and M(3) muscarinic receptor-mediated contractions in longitudinal smooth muscle of the ileum studied with receptor knockout mice

Isometric contractile responses to carbachol were studied in ileal longitudinal smooth muscle strips from wild-type mice and mice genetically lacking M(2) or M(3) muscarinic receptors, in order to characterize the mechanisms involved in M(2) and M(3) receptor-mediated contractile responses. Single applications of carbachol (0.1-100 microM) produced concentration-dependent contractions in preparations from M(2)-knockout (KO) and M(3)-KO mice, mediated via M(3) and M(2) receptors, respectively, as judged by the sensitivity of contractile responses to blockade by the M(2)-preferring antagonist methoctramine (300 nM) or the M(3)-preferring antagonist 4-DAMP (30 nM). The M(2)-mediated contractions were mimicked in shape by submaximal stimulation with high K(+) concentrations (up to 35 mM), almost abolished by voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel (VDCC) antagonists or depolarization with 140 mM K(+) medium, and greatly reduced by pertussis toxin (PTX) treatment. The M(3)-mediated contractions were only partially inhibited by VDCC antagonists or 140 mM K(+)-depolarization medium, and remained unaffected by PTX treatment. The contractions observed during high K(+) depolarization consisted of different components, either sensitive or insensitive to extracellular Ca(2+). The carbachol contractions observed with wild-type preparations consisted of PTX-sensitive and -insensitive components. The PTX-sensitive component was functionally significant only at low carbachol concentrations. The results suggest that the M(2) receptor, through PTX-sensitive mechanisms, induces ileal contractions that depend on voltage-dependent Ca(2+) entry, especially associated with action potential discharge, and that the M(3) receptor, through PTX-insensitive mechanisms, induces contractions that depend on voltage-dependent and -independent Ca(2+) entry and intracellular Ca(2+) release. In intact tissues coexpressing M(2) and M(3) receptors, M(2) receptor activity appears functionally relevant only when fractional receptor occupation is relatively small.

Distinct mixtures of muscarinic receptor subtypes mediate inhibition of noradrenaline release in different mouse peripheral tissues, as studied with receptor knockout mice

The muscarinic heteroreceptors modulating noradrenaline release in atria, urinary bladder and vas deferens were previously studied in mice in which the M(2) or the M(4) muscarinic receptor genes had been disrupted. These experiments showed that these tissues possessed both M(2) and non-M(2) heteroreceptors. The analysis was now extended to mice in which either the M(3), both the M(2) and the M(3), or both the M(2) and the M(4) genes had been disrupted (M(3)-knockout, M(2/3)-knockout and M(2/4)-knockout). Tissues were preincubated with (3)H-noradrenaline and then stimulated electrically (20 pulses per 50 Hz). In wild-type atria, carbachol (0.01-100 microM) decreased the electrically evoked tritium overflow by maximally 60-78%. The maximum inhibition of carbachol was reduced to 57% in M(3)-knockout and to 23% in M(2/4)-knockout atria. Strikingly, the effect of carbachol was abolished in M(2/3)-knockout atria. In wild-type bladder, carbachol (0.01-100 microM) reduced the evoked tritium overflow by maximally 57-71%. This effect remained unchanged in the M(3)-knockout, but was abolished in the M(2/4)-knockout bladder. In wild-type vas deferens, carbachol (0.01-100 microM) reduced the evoked tritium overflow by maximally 34-48%. The maximum inhibition of carbachol was reduced to 40% in the M(3)-knockout and to 18% in the M(2/4)-knockout vas deferens. We conclude that the postganglionic sympathetic axons of mouse atria possess M(2) and M(3), those of the urinary bladder M(2) and M(4), and those of the vas deferens M(2), M(3) and M(4) release-inhibiting muscarinic receptors.

Thromboxane A2 induces airway constriction through an M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-dependent mechanism

Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) is a potent lipid mediator released by platelets and inflammatory cells and is capable of inducing vasoconstriction and bronchoconstriction. In the airways, it has been postulated that TXA2 causes airway constriction by direct activation of thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptors on airway smooth muscle cells. Here we demonstrate that although TXA2 can mediate a dramatic increase in airway smooth muscle constriction and lung resistance, this response is largely dependent on vagal innervation of the airways and is highly sensitive to muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) antagonists. Further analyses employing pharmacological and genetic strategies demonstrate that TP-dependent changes in lung resistance and airway smooth muscle tension require expression of the M2 mAChR subtype. These results raise the possibility that some of the beneficial actions of anticholinergic agents used in the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease result from limiting physiological changes mediated through the TP receptor. Furthermore, these findings demonstrate a unique pathway for TP regulation of homeostatic mechanisms in the airway and suggest a paradigm for the role of TXA2 in other organ systems.

Paradoxical sleep in mice lacking M3 and M2/M4 muscarinic receptors

Acetylcholine is crucial for the regulation of paradoxical sleep (PS) and EEG theta activity. To determine the contribution of individual muscarinic receptors to these events, we analyzed the sleep-waking cycle and EEG activities of mice lacking functional M(3) or M(2)/M(4 )receptors. Daily PS amounts were significantly decreased in M3-/- (-22%) but not in M2/M4-/- mice. Further, the theta peak frequency for PS was significantly increased in both M2/M4-/- and M3-/- mice. This study supports the potential role of M(3) rather than M(2) and M(4) muscarinic receptors in the modulation of PS in mice and strengthens the idea that multiple muscarinic receptors contribute to the regulation of the EEG theta activity during PS.

Allosteric binding sites on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

In this issue of Molecular Pharmacology, Tränkle et al. (p. 1597) present new findings regarding the existence of a second allosteric site on the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M2 mAChR). The M2 mAChR is a prototypic class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that has proven to be a very useful model system to study the molecular mechanisms involved in the binding of allosteric GPCR ligands. Previous studies have identified several allosteric muscarinic ligands, including the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor tacrine and the bis-pyridinium derivative 4,4'-bis-[(2,6-dichloro-benzyloxy-imino)-methyl]-1,1'-propane-1,3-diyl-bis-pyridinium dibromide (Duo3), which, in contrast to conventional allosteric muscarinic ligands, display concentration-effect curves with slope factors >1. By analyzing the interactions of tacrine and Duo3 with other allosteric muscarinic agents predicted to bind to the previously identified ;common' allosteric binding site, Tränkle et al. provide evidence suggesting that two allosteric agents and one orthosteric ligand may be able to bind to the M2 mAChR simultaneously. Moreover, studies with mutant mAChRs indicated that the M2 receptor epitopes involved in the binding of tacrine and Duo3 may not be identical. Molecular modeling and ligand docking studies suggested that the additional allosteric site probably represents a subdomain of the receptor's allosteric binding cleft. Because allosteric binding sites have been found on many other GPCRs and drugs interacting with these sites are thought to have great therapeutic potential, the study by Tränkle et al. should be of considerable general interest.

Cholinergic agonist-induced pepsinogen secretion from murine gastric chief cells is mediated by M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors

Muscarinic cholinergic mechanisms play a key role in stimulating gastric pepsinogen secretion. Studies using antagonists suggested that the M3 receptor subtype (M3R) plays a prominent role in mediating pepsinogen secretion, but in situ hybridization indicated expression of M1 receptor (M1R) in rat chief cells. We used mice that were deficient in either the M1 (M1R-/-) or M3 (M3R-/-) receptor or that lacked both receptors (M(1/3)R-/-) to determine the role of M1R and M3R in mediating cholinergic agonist-induced pepsinogen secretion. Pepsinogen secretion from murine gastric glands was determined by adapting methods used for rabbit and rat stomach. In wild-type (WT) mice, maximal concentrations of carbachol and CCK caused a 3.0- and 2.5-fold increase in pepsinogen secretion, respectively. Maximal carbachol-induced secretion from M1R-/- mouse gastric glands was decreased by 25%. In contrast, there was only a slight decrease in carbachol potency and no change in efficacy when comparing M3R-/- with WT glands. To explore the possibility that both M1R and M3R are involved in carbachol-mediated pepsinogen secretion, we examined secretion from glands prepared from M(1/3)R-/- double-knockout mice. Strikingly, carbachol-induced pepsinogen secretion was nearly abolished in glands from M(1/3)R-/- mice, whereas CCK-induced secretion was not altered. In situ hybridization for murine M1R and M3R mRNA in gastric mucosa from WT mice revealed abundant signals for both receptor subtypes in the cytoplasm of chief cells. These data clearly indicate that, in gastric chief cells, a mixture of M1 and M3 receptors mediates cholinergic stimulation of pepsinogen secretion and that no other muscarinic receptor subtypes are involved in this activity. The development of a murine secretory model facilitates use of transgenic mice to investigate the regulation of pepsinogen secretion.

Regulation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte differentiation by a cholinergic pathway

In this report, we provide evidence that muscarinic receptors play a role in the generation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes. Analysis of mice with targeted deletions of each of the known muscarinic receptors (M1-M5) showed that CD8+ T cells from M1 receptor-deficient mice had a defect in the ability to differentiate into cytolytic T lymphocytes. Additional pharmacological experiments support the role of muscarinic receptors in wild type mice and suggest that acetylcholine may be involved. Together, these findings suggest that the M1 muscarinic receptor is involved in CTL development, thus providing novel insights into CD8+ T cell biology and the potential role of cholinergic signaling in immune regulation.

Identification of an agonist-induced conformational change occurring adjacent to the ligand-binding pocket of the M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

To study the conformational changes that convert G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) from their resting to their active state, we used the M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, a prototypical class A GPCR, as a model system. Specifically, we employed a recently developed in situ disulfide cross-linking strategy that allows the formation of disulfide bonds in Cys-substituted mutant M(3) muscarinic receptors present in their native membrane environment. At present, little is known about the conformational changes that GPCR ligands induce in the immediate vicinity of the ligand-binding pocket. To address this issue, we generated 11 Cys-substituted mutant M(3) muscarinic receptors and characterized these receptors in transfected COS-7 cells. All analyzed mutant receptors contained an endogenous Cys residue (Cys-532(7.42)) located within the exofacial segment of transmembrane domain (TM) VII, close to the agonist-binding site. In addition, all mutant receptors harbored a second Cys residue that was introduced into the exofacial segment of TM III, within the sequence Leu-142(3.27)-Asn-152(3.37). Disulfide cross-linking studies showed that muscarinic agonists, but not antagonists, promoted the formation of a disulfide bond between S151(3.36)C and Cys-532. A three-dimensional model of the inactive state of the M(3) muscarinic receptor indicated that Cys-532 and Ser-151 face each other in the center of the TM receptor core. Our cross-linking data therefore support the concept that agonist activation pulls the exofacial segments of TMs VII and III closer to each other. This structural change may represent one of the early conformational events triggering the more pronounced structural reorganization of the intracellular receptor surface. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first direct demonstration of a conformational change occurring in the immediate vicinity of the binding site of a GPCR activated by a diffusible ligand.

Deoxycholyltaurine-induced vasodilation of rodent aorta is nitric oxide- and muscarinic M3 receptor-dependent

Emerging evidence indicates that some secondary bile acids interact functionally with muscarinic cholinergic receptors. Using thoracic aortic rings prepared from rats and mice, we examined the mechanism of deoxycholyltaurine-induced vasorelaxation. Increasing concentrations of both acetylcholine (1 nM to 0.1 mM) and deoxycholyltaurine (0.1 microM to 1 mM) stimulated relaxation of phenylephrine-constricted rings prepared from rat thoracic aortae. These effects were reduced by endothelial denudation and by treatment with an inhibitor of nitric oxide formation and with a synthetic acetylcholine:bile acid hybrid that acts as a muscarinic receptor antagonist. Likewise, both acetylcholine (1 nM to 0.1 mM) and deoxycholyltaurine (0.1 microM to 0.1 mM) stimulated relaxation of phenylephrine-constricted rings prepared from mouse thoracic aortae. These effects were reduced by endothelial denudation, addition of an inhibitor of nitric oxide formation, and by muscarinic M(3) receptor knockout. We conclude that the systemic vasodilatory actions of deoxycholyltaurine are mediated in part by a nitric oxide-, muscarinic M(3) receptor-dependent mechanism. In advanced liver disease, interaction of serum bile acids with endothelial muscarinic receptors may explain nitric oxide overproduction in the systemic circulation and resulting peripheral arterial vasodilation.

Pronounced Conformational Changes following Agonist Activation of the M3 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor

The conformational changes that convert G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activated by diffusible ligands from their resting into their active states are not well understood at present. To address this issue, we used the M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, a prototypical class A GPCR, as a model system, employing a recently developed disulfide cross-linking strategy that allows the formation of disulfide bonds using Cys-substituted mutant M(3) muscarinic receptors present in their native membrane environment. In the present study, we generated and analyzed 30 double Cys mutant M(3) receptors, all of which contained one Cys substitution within the C-terminal portion of transmembrane domain (TM) VII (Val-541 to Ser-546) and another one within the C-terminal segment of TM I (Val-88 to Phe-92). Following their transient expression in COS-7 cells, all mutant receptors were initially characterized in radioligand binding and second messenger assays (carbachol-induced stimulation of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis). This analysis showed that all 30 double Cys mutant M(3) receptors were able to bind muscarinic ligands with high affinity and retained the ability to stimulate G proteins with high efficacy. In situ disulfide cross-linking experiments revealed that the muscarinic agonist, carbachol, promoted the formation of cross-links between specific Cys pairs. The observed pattern of disulfide cross-links, together with receptor modeling studies, strongly suggested that M(3) receptor activation induces a major rotational movement of the C-terminal portion of TM VII and increases the proximity of the cytoplasmic ends of TM I and VII. These findings should be of relevance for other family A GPCRs.

M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor knock-out mice show deficits in behavioral flexibility, working memory, and hippocampal plasticity

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are known to play key roles in facilitating cognitive processes. However, the specific roles of the individual muscarinic receptor subtypes (M1-M5) in learning and memory are not well understood at present. In the present study, we used wild-type (M2+/+) and M2 receptor-deficient (M2-/-) mice to examine the potential role of M2 receptors in learning and memory and hippocampal synaptic plasticity. M2-/- mice showed significant deficits in behavioral flexibility and working memory in the Barnes circular maze and the T-maze delayed alternation tests, respectively. The behavioral deficits of M2-/- mice were associated with profound changes in neuronal plasticity studied at the Schaffer-CA1 synapse of hippocampal slices. Strikingly, short-term potentiation (STP) was abolished, and long-term potentiation (LTP) was drastically reduced after high-frequency stimulation of M2-/- hippocampi. Treatment of M2-/- hippocampal slices with the GABA(A) receptor antagonist, bicuculline, restored STP and significantly increased LTP. Whole-cell recordings from CA1 pyramidal cells demonstrated a much stronger disinhibition of GABAergic than glutamatergic transmission in M2-/- hippocampi, which was particularly prominent during stimulus trains. Increased strength of GABAergic inhibition is thus a likely mechanism underlying the impaired synaptic plasticity observed with M2-/- hippocampi. Moreover, the persistent enhancement of excitatory synaptic transmission in CA1 pyramidal cells induced by the transient application of a low concentration of a muscarinic agonist (referred to as LTP(m)) was totally abolished in M2-/- mice. Because impaired muscarinic cholinergic neurotransmission is associated with Alzheimer's disease and normal aging processes, these findings should be of considerable therapeutic relevance.

Activation of the SPHK/S1P signalling pathway is coupled to muscarinic receptor-dependent regulation of peripheral airways

Background

In peripheral airways, acetylcholine induces contraction via activation of muscarinic M2-and M3-receptor subtypes (M₂R and M₃R). Cholinergic hypersensitivity is associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, and therefore the identification of muscarinic signaling pathways are of great therapeutic interest. A pathway that has been shown to be activated via MR and to increase [Ca²⁺]_i includes the activation of sphingosine kinases (SPHK) and the generation of the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P). Whether the SPHK/S1P signaling pathway is integrated in the muscarinic control of peripheral airways is not known.

Methods

To address this issue, we studied precision cut lung slices derived from FVB and M₂R-KO and M₃R-KO mice.

Results

In peripheral airways of FVB, wild-type, and MR-deficient mice, SPHK1 was mainly localized to smooth muscle. Muscarine induced a constriction in all investigated mouse strains which was reduced by inhibition of SPHK using D, L-threo-dihydrosphingosine (DHS) and N, N-dimethyl-sphingosine (DMS) but not by N-acetylsphingosine (N-AcS), a structurally related agent that does not affect SPHK function. The initial phase of constriction was nearly absent in peripheral airways of M₃R-KO mice when SPHK was inhibited by DHS and DMS but was unaffected in M₂R-KO mice. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that the disruption of the M₂R and M₃R genes had no significant effect on the expression levels of the SPHK1-isoform in peripheral airways.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate that the SPHK/S1P signaling pathway contributes to cholinergic constriction of murine peripheral airways. In addition, our data strongly suggest that SPHK is activated via the M₂R. Given the important role of muscarinic mechanisms in pulmonary disease, these findings should be of considerable therapeutic relevance.

Acetylcholine modulates cortical synaptic transmission via different muscarinic receptors, as studied with receptor knockout mice

The central cholinergic system plays a crucial role in synaptic plasticity and spatial attention; however, the roles of the individual cholinergic receptors involved in these activities are not well understood at present. In the present study, we show that acetylcholine (ACh) can facilitate or depress synaptic transmission in occipital slices of mouse visual cortex. The precise nature of the ACh effects depends on the ACh concentration, and is input specific, as shown by stimulating different synaptic pathways. Pharmacological blockade of muscarinic receptor (mAChR) subtypes and the use of M1-M5 mAChR-deficient mice showed that specific mAChR subtypes, together with the activity of the cholinesterases (ChEs), mediate facilitation or depression of synaptic transmission. The present data suggest that local ACh, acting through mAChRs, regulates the cortical dynamics making cortical circuits respond to specific stimuli.

Cholinergic Stimulation of Amylase Secretion from Pancreatic Acinar Cells Studied with Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Mutant Mice

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) expressed by pancreatic acinar cells play an important role in mediating acetylcholine-dependent stimulation of digestive enzyme secretion. To examine the potential roles of M(1) and M(3) mAChRs in this activity, we used M(1) and M(3) receptor single knockout (KO) and M(1)/M(3) receptor double KO mice as novel experimental tools. Specifically, we examined the ability of the muscarinic agonist carbachol to stimulate amylase secretion in vitro, using dispersed pancreatic acini prepared from wild-type and mAChR mutant mice. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction studies using RNA prepared from mouse pancreatic acini showed that deletion of the M(1) or M(3) mAChR genes did not lead to significantly altered mRNA levels of the remaining mAChR subtypes. Moreover, immunoprecipitation studies with M(1) and M(3) mAChR-selective antisera demonstrated that both mAChR subtypes are expressed by mouse pancreatic acini. Strikingly, carbachol-induced stimulation of amylase secretion was significantly impaired in acinar preparations from both M(1) and M(3) receptor single KO mice and abolished in acinar preparations from M(1)/M(3) receptor double KO mice. However, another pancreatic secretagogue, bombesin, retained its ability to fully stimulate amylase secretion in acinar preparations from M(1)/M(3) receptor double KO mice. Together, these studies support the concept that cholinergic stimulation of pancreatic amylase secretion is mediated by a mixture of M(1) and M(3) mAChRs and that other mAChR subtypes do not make a significant contribution to this activity. These findings clarify the long-standing question regarding the molecular nature of the mAChR subtypes mediating the secretion of digestive enzymes from the exocrine pancreas.

Depolarization initiates phasic acetylcholine release by relief of a tonic block imposed by presynaptic M2 muscarinic receptors

The role of presynaptic muscarinic autoreceptors in the initiation of phasic acetylcholine (ACh) release at frog and mouse neuromuscular junctions was studied by measuring the dependency of the amount (m) of ACh release on the level of presynaptic depolarization. Addition of methoctramine (a blocker of M2 muscarinic receptors), or of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), increased release in a voltage-dependent manner; enhancement of release declined as the depolarizing pulse amplitude increased. In frogs and wild-type mice the slope of log m/log pulse amplitude (PA) was reduced from about 7 in the control to about 4 in the presence of methoctramine or AChE. In M2 muscarinic receptor knockout mice, the slope of log m/log PA was much smaller (about 4) and was not further reduced by addition of either methoctramine or AChE. The effect of a brief (0.1 ms), but strong (-1.2 microA) depolarizing prepulse on the dependency of m on PA was also studied. The depolarizing prepulse had effects similar to those of methoctramine and AChE. In particular, it enhanced release of test pulses in a voltage-dependent manner and reduced the slope of log m/log PA from about 7 to about 4. Methoctramine + AChE occluded the prepulse effects. In knockout mice, the depolarizing prepulse had no effects. The cumulative results suggest that initiation of phasic ACh release is achieved by depolarization-mediated relief of a tonic block imposed by presynaptic M2 muscarinic receptors.

Functional Activity of the M2 and M4 Receptor Subtypes in the Spinal Cord Studied with Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Knockout Mice

Stimulation of spinal muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) produces potent analgesia. Both M(2) and M(4) mAChRs are coupled to similar G proteins (G(i/o) family) and play a critical role in the analgesic action of mAChR agonists. To determine the relative contribution of M(2) and M(4) subtypes to activation of G(i/o) proteins in the spinal cord, we examined the receptor-mediated guanosine 5'-O-(3-[(35)S]thio)triphosphate ([(35)S]GTPgammaS) binding in M(2) and M(4) subtype knockout (KO) mice. Basal [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding in the spinal cord was similar in the wild-type controls, M(2) and M(4) single-KO, and M(2)/M(4) double-KO mice. The spinal [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding stimulated by either muscarine or oxotremorine-M was not significantly different among three groups of wild-type mouse strains. In M(2) single-KO and M(2)/M(4) double-KO mice, the agonist-stimulated [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding was completely abolished in the spinal cord. Furthermore, the agonist-stimulated [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding in the spinal cord of M(4) single-KO mice was significantly reduced ( approximately 15%), compared with that in wild-type controls. On the other hand, the spinal [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding stimulated by a mu-opioid agonist was not significantly different between wild-type and M(2) and M(4) KO mice. This study provides complementary new evidence that M(2) is the most predominant mAChR subtype coupled to the G(i/o) proteins in the spinal cord. Furthermore, these data suggest that a small but functionally significant population of M(4) receptors exists in the mouse spinal cord. The functional activity of these M(4) receptors seems to require the presence of M(2) receptors.