Child, mother, and father evaluations of depression in psychiatric inpatient children

The agreement among children and their parents in evaluating the children's depression was examined in 48 families. Newly admitted inpatient children (ages 6-13) and their mothers and fathers independently completed self-report and interview measures to assess severity and duration of the children's depression. The results indicated that different measures of depression completed by the same rater (child, mother, or father) were highly intercorrelated. Yet there was little or no relationship between child-mother and child-father ratings of the children's depression for the same or related measures of depression. Children independently diagnosed (DSM III) as depressed rated themselves and were rated by their parents as more depressed than nondepressed children. Even so, children consistently rated themselves as less depressed across the measures than did their parents. Parent ratings of the children's depression and the correspondence of child-parent ratings varied as a function of several child and family variables, including child IQ, gender, race, and family welfare status.

Sex and race as factors on locus of control scores with an alcoholic population

In a study with 427 alcoholics, including 131 male and 99 female Native Americans and 161 male and 36 female Caucasians, the Rotter I-E Locus of Control scale yielded significant sex and race differences. The men tended more toward internality than the women and Caucasians tended more toward an internal social attribution than the Native Americans. There was no significant interaction of sex and race.

Comparison of discrepancies in reading by black and white educable mentally retarded students

Discrepancies in reading were calculated by comparing actual achievement with expected achievement for 224 black and 78 white educable mentally retarded students in Grades 1 to 12. Means for the total population and for black students and white students showed no statistically significant differences for the two groups.

A quantitative analysis of special needs with emphasis on speech and hearing in the Boston Public Schools

The purpose of the study was to develop a demographic profile and to analyze the patterns formed by the primary prototypes and educational goals used to educate public-school children with special needs. The emphasis was on communicative disorders. The study was initiated in order to supplement the limited research which examines the impact and effectiveness of service delivery for special needs (mainstreamed) children. The results indicated that (a) the special needs of the school children were not in close proportion to their racial distribution; (b) the speech and hearing needs were in alignment and in proportion to the racial distribution; (c) the number of children in the school population receiving services was higher than the number found in related studies; and (d) the analyses for goodness-of-fit revealed statistical significance for race and educational goals and prototypes and educational goals. It was also found that the need for special services decreased with age. The findings were discussed in terms of the limitations of the study and implications of the nonlabeling requirements of Massachusetts' Special Education Law.

Race, ethnicity, and depression: a confirmatory analysis

This study addresses two questions: (a) Are depressive-symptom scales equally indicative of depression in different racial/ethnic groups and (b) are there mean differences between the groups in the underlying depressive disorder assessed by these scales? The data consist of interviews obtained from a large community survey of depression in Los Angeles County. Four racial/ethnic groups were considered: Anglos, blacks, English-speaking Hispanics, and Spanish-speaking Hispanics. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test both one-factor and two-factor models of depression. An invariant factor pattern was demonstrated. No significant mean differences on a factor of Depression were found, but the groups were found to differ on a Well-Being factor. Implications for survey research on psychiatric impairment among different racial/ethnic groups are discussed.

An MMPI subscale (Gd): to identify males with gender identity conflicts

This study reported on the development and cross-validation of a 31-item MMPI Gender Dysphoria subscale (Gd) which accurately discriminates between gender identity patients and matched controls, and identifies males with gender dysphoria syndrome. Both the validity and reliability of the Gd scale has been demonstrated and there is every expectation that the scale has excellent potential for clinical usage. In the construction of the Gd scale, we have addressed the major methodological problems of previous studies which have used psychological tests to assess gender role and identity disturbances: small criterion groups, a lack of an appropriate control group, and prediction of too many false positives.

Accuracy of clinicians' expectancies for psychiatric rehospitalization

Rehospitalizations of 269 patients in a state community mental health center were compared to therapists' expectations at discharge for each patient's readmission within the next 2 years. Analysis of the residual variance (predicted minus observed rehospitalization) indicated that clinicians' prognostic judgments were biased in regard to patients' ethnicity: black patients were considered more likely to be rehospitalized than whites, although the opposite occurred. No evidence of gender-related bias was found. Clinicians' expectancies were influenced unduly by their perceptions of patients' severity of illness and cooperativeness. They apparently ignored the prognostic values of favorable factors such as lack of prior hospitalizations, youthfulness, lack of severe impairment, and living in a middle-class or residentially stable neighborhood. Therapists expected rehospitalization for two-thirds of their patients, but less than half actually returned. Predictors of rehospitalization were prior hospitalizations, age, and instability of the postdischarge neighborhood.

Social support, social influence, ethnicity and the breastfeeding decision

A survey was conducted of all mothers delivering infants at a university medical center hospital in the month of July, 1981. The survey was conducted within 48 hours of delivery and addressed factors related to the breastfeeding decision. The mother's response to the question concerning choice of infant feeding was verified against the feeding records. One set of questions concerned the perceived general supportiveness toward breastfeeding of six individuals significant to the mother. Another set of questions identified who was most influential in the mother's breast or bottle feeding decision. The pattern of significant bivariate relationships between a person's supportiveness and breastfeeding varied across ethnic and maritial status groups. Single and multiple logistic analyses were conducted within ethnic groups to identify from whom support was most important for initiating breastfeeding. Among Black-Americans, support from a close friend was most important. Among Mexican-Americans, support from the mother's mother was most important. Among Anglo-Americans, support from the male partner was important. A broad variety of ensuing research issues are raised. An implication is that social support may be an important interventive variable, but the potentially supportive individual to be reached by an interventive program varies by ethnic group.

Selected correlates of white nursing students' attitudes toward black American patients

Multivariate analyses were used to examine the relationships between white nursing students' attitudes toward black American patients and variables selected within a theoretical framework of prejudice which included socialization factors and personality-based factors. The variables selected were: authoritarianism and self-esteem (personality-based factors), parents' attitudes toward black Americans, peer attitudes toward black Americans, interracial contact and socioeconomic status (socialization factors). The study also examined the differences in the relationship among white nursing students enrolled in baccalaureate degree, associate degree and diploma nursing programs. Data were collected from 201 senior nursing students enrolled in the three types of nursing programs in Rhode Island during the late fall and winter of 1979-1980. Although baccalaureate degree, associate degree and diploma students were similar in terms of peer attitudes toward black Americans, fathers' attitudes toward black Americans, self-esteem and attitudes toward black American patients, they were significantly different in terms of age, socioeconomic status, mothers' attitudes toward black Americans, interracial contact and authoritarianism. The major findings of this study indicate that the socialization explanation of prejudice is more significant than the personality-based explanation. The variables socioeconomic status, interracial contact and peer attitudes toward black Americans (all socialization variables) accounted for 22.0% of the total variance in attitudes toward black American patients for the total sample of nursing students. However, this relationship was not generalizable across the three different types of nursing programs.

Determinants of life satisfaction: a note on a race-interaction hypothesis

A "race interaction" hypothesis would suggest that factors important to the life satisfaction of whites may not be important to the life satisfaction of blacks. In this paper we suggest that dummy variable regression with interaction terms allows an assessment of differential effects by race. Using data from 438 white and 219 black elderly respondents, it is shown that most factors influencing life satisfaction of elderly people have similar effects among blacks and whites. Although greater numbers of impairments lead to lower life satisfaction for both races, the negative effect is considerably stronger among black than among white respondents.

Mental health professionals' views of Afro-American family life and sexuality

The Survey of Afro-American Behavior (S.A.A.B.) is a scale devised for specific use with mental health professionals to assess the affective and cognitive components of attitudes toward positive (favorable), negative (unfavorable), factual and stereotypic statements regarding Afro-American behavior in seven areas, two of which are examined in this paper: 1) family life patterns and marital relationships, and 2) sexual values and behavior. Significant differences on the factual and stereotypic items emerged among six groups of therapists divided by age and sex. There were statistically significant differences on family life and marital relationship items between the means of Afro-Americans over 45 years of age, who agreed more with positive statements, and Anglo-Americans under 35 years of age; and on sexual issues each of the three groups of Afro-Americans agreed more with the factual statements than three groups of Anglo-American cohorts. Sexual values and belief statements were the most controversial area of knowledge both within and between the two ethnic groups. The implications of this study are discussed in terms of prevention and early intervention programs for Afro-American communities with particular emphasis on the necessary training of mental health professionals to work effectively with Afro-Americans.

Differences among black, Hispanic, and white people in knowledge about long-term care services

This article provides data obtained through telephone interviews with 1,608 white, black, Mexican American, or Puerto Rican respondents. The study was designed to measure differences among ethnic groups in knowledge and attitudes toward long-term care services and the extent to which knowledge and attitudes affect service use. Across all groups, there is less knowledge about long-term, community-based care than institutional services. The extent of knowledge about services is limited among all groups, but especially among Puerto Ricans. There are marked differences among groups in attitudes toward services. Minority groups are far more likely to perceive care of the elderly as a family responsibility and to stress the importance of ethnic factors in service delivery. Despite differences among groups, knowledge and attitudes are less directly related to use of services than is activity limitation. This may be because only a very small proportion of the respondents had any experience with service use.

Interpersonal tactics and communicative strategies of Anglo-American and Mexican-American mildly mentally retarded and nonretarded students

In this investigation, we compared the preferred interpersonal tactics of mildly mentally retarded Mexican-American and Anglo-American children in an experimental social problem-solving situation. Sixty subjects were divided into four equal groups based upon ethnicity (Mexican-American or Anglo-American) and educational status (mildly mentally retarded or nonretarded). Results indicated that although there were no ethnic group differences, differences in preferred problem solving strategies were demonstrated by mentally retarded and nonretarded children. Overall, nonretarded children tended to utilize strategies such as cooperation and temporary withdrawal more often than mentally retarded children.

Response tendencies, ethnicity, and depression scores

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale was given to a sample of whites, blacks, and Mexican-Americans residing in Alameda County, California, in 1978. Scores on the scale were analyzed to see whether or not a potentially important source of bias called response tendencies affected prevalence estimates and associations between symptom scores and demographic variables. Response tendencies were found to be differentially correlated with symptom scores by ethnic status; however, their effects were not of sufficient magnitude to alter most associations observed between symptom scores and demographic variables. The need for further methodological studies to clarify the definitions of concepts such as "depression" is discussed.

Adolescent marijuana use: a review

The adolescent marijuana literature is reviewed. Studies show that the prevalence of marijuana use is generally quite low in elementary schools. In junior and senior high samples, findings vary greatly from place to place. The prevalence of use increased dramatically during the 1970s although the use patterns may have peaked already in some areas. The use of marijuana increases with age, but some evidence suggests that a slight drop-off in use occurs near the end of high school. Female use seems to be increasing more than male use. Use seems to be somewhat more prevalent in middle- and upper-middle-class homes and in broken homes. Mixed support has been found for the hypothesis that marijuana users have parents that are more permissive. Parents of marijuana users are generally characterized as being less warm and supportive, and more inclined toward the use of drugs themselves. Peer and sibling use of marijuana seem to be particularly important predictors of adolescent marijuana use. Findings on personality characteristics of marijuana users are not extensive and are somewhat contradictory. There is some evidence that users tend to be somewhat alienated, external in their locus of control, and possibly higher on anxiety. Users are also characterized by a higher value on independence vs achievement and more positive attitudes toward marijuana use. Behavioral correlates of marijuana use include greater use of alcohol and other drugs, and poorer school performance.

Adolescent health in Alameda County

A cross-sectional study of 194 adolescents in Alameda County, California, was performed to investigate health care behavior, personal adjustment, substance abuse, and medical and dental morbidity. A multivariate analysis of this sample using age, sex, ethnic group, and family type as independent variables was carried out. Females were less likely than males to have a regular place for medical care, and youths belonging to single parent families were less likely than those from intact families. Older adolescents, blacks and Hispanics used hospitals and clinics more frequently, while whites used private physicians more frequently than did other ethnic groups. Also blacks and Hispanics were less likely to have received recent dental care than whites. Levels of substance abuse were comparable to national levels, and increased significantly with age. Though overall medical morbidity was low, the study confirms previous findings of significant levels of dental decay particularly in black youth. A significant relation exists between less dental care and dental decay, though no such relation exists between medical care and medical morbidity. The study has potential implications for better preventive approaches to adolescent health care.

Types and characteristics of addicts in the community

This study examines both the status and behavior while addicted of 230 White and 230 Black male narcotic addicts. Following a presentation of antecedent behaviors and characteristics, an addict typology is developed based on illicit income, perception of adequacy of income to meet needs, and employment. The resulting six types are then described in terms of treatment experiences, criminality, social activities, and psychopathology. The discussion includes suggestions of a treatment perspective for each type.

Father absence and cognitive performance in a large sample of six- to eleven-year-old children

The effects of father absence on educational achievement and intellectual development of 6-11-year-old children were investigated by employing a nationally representative sample of 5,493 father-present and 616 father-absent children from the Health Examination Survey of the National Center for Health Statistics. Scores on the WISC and the WRAT were significantly depressed for father-absent white children. Father-absent black children evidenced a decreased test performance only on measures of achievement. All decrements were small and accounted for approximately 1% of the variance. Following statistical control for SES, we associated no decrements with the father's absence/presence, and in some instances, small but significant increments were found to be associated with children from fatherless families. The role of SES in father absence is discussed, and the request for a paradigmatic shift in research in the area of father absence is reiterated.

Personality characteristics of heroin addicts: review of empirical research 1976-1979

Reviewed are 47 empirical studies. The paper contains sections on results from studies using specific psychometric instruments and measuring specific traits, personality differences in subgroups of heroin addicts, personality changes following treatment, and suggestions for future research. Measuring the presence or absence of a particular trait or characteristic is no longer sufficient. Rather, we need typologies within an interactional framework that systematically relates traits to other variables of interest (i.e., recidivism, treatment retention, and etiology).

Validation of a measure of type A behavior pattern in children: Bogalusa heart study

A self-administered rating scale was developed to assess type A behavior in children. It contains 24 items (7-point scale) thought to reflect the major components of type A behavior. The scale was judged to be reliable and yielded the following factors: eagergy (eagerness-energy), restlessness-aggression, leadership, and alienation. 6 tasks were designed (reading, eating, walking, competition, time estimation, and crossing out number) to validate this new measure. A total of 160 predominantly middle-class public school fifth- and sixth-grade children participated in the following factorial design: 2 (classification-type A and type B) X 2 (condition-control and experimental) X 2 (sex-male and female) X 2 (race-white and black). Type A children performed in a more accelerated or intense manner than did type B children on 5 of the 6 tasks (only females exhibited rapid time estimation) as predicted. Also, children performed in a more accelerated or intense manner if they task instructions emphasized speed or intensity for 3 of the tasks (reading, crossing out number, and walking measures). Sex and race differences are also reported. Partial support is provided for the validity and reliability of this new measure.

Symptomatology of depression in black and white patients

This study compares the symptoms of public mental health patients diagnosed as having a depressive disorder, and then relates its findings to the previous literature concerning black-white differences in mental illness. Results of this study corroborate previous observations that a somewhat smaller proportion of black admissions than white admissions are diagnosed with a depressive disorder and that a higher proportion of black admissions are diagnosed with a schizophrenic disorder. Some black-white differences in depressive symptoms were corroborated-notably, slightly higher percentages of hostility, dangerousness, and somatic complaints in blacks-and these appeared to be independent of socio-economic status.

Recidivism among opioid addicts after drug treatment: an analysis by race and tenure in treatment

Recidivism rates and recidivism proportions for return to a state of daily opioid use following discharge from drug abuse treatment were studied for a sample of Black and White male daily opioid users. The rates and proportions were analyzed by treatment type and time in treatment. Significantly higher recidivism proportions were found for shorter tenure clients.

Similarity of clients and treatment outcome in outpatient drug-free programs

Client peer groups in drug abuse treatment programs can be expected to impact on the treatment of drug abusers. This ex post facto study explored whether similarity in demographic characteristics and drug use history within client peer groups influences treatment outcome. Subjects were 455 clients in outpatient drug-free treatment. Four aspects of similarity were assessed-age, drug use history, race/ethnicity, and sex. Follow-up data on levels of criminality, nonopiate drug use, and opiate drug use during the first year posttreatment were analyzed using multiple regression analysis. Client similarity was found to influence treatment outcome. While the findings do not warrant substantial changes in the delivery of drug abuse treatment, they suggest that peer relationships and the influence of similarity among clients should be considered in the formulation of treatment plans for individual clients.

Social influences on alcohol consumption by black and white males

Thirty-two black and 32 white male normal drinkers participated in a beer taste test either simultaneously (co-action condition) with a heavy drinking black or white experimental accomplice or while the accomplice completed an art rating task (control observer condition). Subjects in the co-action condition drank significantly more beer (p less than .001) than subjects in the control observer condition, regardless of their race or the race of the accomplice. Subjects' post-experimental questionnaire answers indicated they did not perceive themselves to be in competition with the accomplice. The mechanism underlying the robust co-action facilitation effect on drinking, now demonstrated in several studies and extended to black males in the present study, remains unexplained.

Changing patterns in methods of suicide by race and sex

Suicide rates vary greatly by sex and race but the methods employed by these groups and changes in those methods have been studied neither closely nor systematically across time. In the present study annual official national statistics for specific methods of suicide by sex and racial group from 1923 to 1978 were examined. During this time period shifts were found among groups in the proportions of various suicide methods employed, most notably for women and Asian-Americans. Generally, firearm use increased among nearly all ethnic/racial-sex groups while the use of poisons declined. Although women continue to be more likely than men to kill themselves with solid and liquid poisons, in very recent years firearms have become a more common method. Among Japanese- and Chinese-Americans of both sexes the most frequently employed method has been hanging. Although this is still the case, the proportions have declined over time while the use of firearms has increased. Explanations are offered for the noted changes in method choice with particular attention being given to acculturation and changing societal roles.

The impact of kin, friend and neighbor networks on infant feeding practices. Cuban, Puerto Rican and Anglo families in Florida

This paper uses social networks as the major conceptual device to examine the impact of relatives, friends and neighbors on infant practices, Kim, friend and neighbor networks of Cuban, Puerto Rican and Anglo families in Dade County, Florida are described, noting inter-ethnic differences in network members who provide respondents with infant feeding advice and assistance. The geographical proximity of influential network members is shown to effect the impact that health care professionals have on mothers' decisions about feeding practices. Network influences on specific feeding practices also are discussed. Kin, friend and neighbor networks are shown to have a significant impact on decisions surrounding breastfeeding, bottle-feeding, use of sucrose supplements and the time to introduce solid foods into the baby's diet. Network member's advice and encouragement appears to contribute to a successful lactation experience. Applying the Fisher's exact test to a small subsample, however, does not yield a significant association between presence or absence of network support and lactation outcome.

Addict careers. III. Trends across time

A study of Baltimore narcotic addicts who have come to the attention of authorities during a 25-year period provides the basis for an analysis of changes across time in the personal characteristics and life-style attributes of the addict population. Trends are presented wih respect to (1) racial composition, (2) social status, (3) residential stability, (4) educational attainment, (5) occupational stability, (6) juvenile delinquency, (7) criminality, (8) age at onset of addiction, and (9) drug of choice. Also examined are changes in the distributional composition of a typology of addict careers based on concepts of opportunity and motivation to use narcotics.

Addict careers. I. A new typology

The notion that narcotic addicts constitute a homogeneous class has little utility for research on etiology, prevention, and intervention. Historically, various classification schemes have been suggested, tailored to particular applications. In this paper a new typology of addict careers is developed, based on the concepts of opportunity and motivation to use narcotics. The question addressed is: During the first decade of addiction, how much time is occupied by (1) narcotic addiction, (2) incarceration, (3) nonaddiction in the community? Preaddiction correlates of the typology are examined in a sample of addicts who became known to police during the past quarter century.

Women clients in special women's demonstration drug abuse treatment programs compared with women entering selected co-sex programs

A study comparing characteristics of women in special women's demonstration drug abuse treatment programs with those in selected co-sex programs. Black and White women in women's programs differ from those entering more traditional programs in their referral sources, types and degree of social and financial support, use of community resources, living arrangements, and patterns of criminal involvement and drug use. The need for women's programs, and treatment, policy, and research implications are discussed.

Retention in ambulatory detoxification

The background characteristics and mean levels of neuroticism were compared for three groups of 20 male addicts, each, who (1) completed 21 d of ambulatory detoxification, (2) transferred to methadone maintenance before completing detoxification, and (3) dropped out of detoxification. The patients who completed treatment or dropped out were more likely to be Black and less neurotic than those who transferred to methadone maintenance. In addition, it was found that patients dropped out near the time of the first methadone dose reduction, whereas those who transferred to methadone maintenance did so near the final dose reduction in the 21-d detoxification schedule. The clinical implications for retaining patients until completion of ambulatory detoxification treatment are discussed.

Mellowing with age: factors influencing the nonwhite suicide rate

The age patterning of white and nonwhite suicide rates reveals a marked and consistent divergence: white suicide rates increase with age; however, nonwhite suicide rates peak in youthful years and decline during middle and older ages. Six explanatory hypotheses are proposed to account for the divergence: 1) differential life expectancy; 2) deviant burnout; 3) screening out of the violence-prone; 4) role and status of the elderly; 5) traditional values; and 6) age-specific motives. Discussion and analysis of the proposed hypotheses indicate that they do operate in the direction of reducing the suicide rates of elderly nonwhites, thereby contributing to the observed age discrepancy in white and nonwhite suicide rates.

Age of initial drug experimentation among white and non-white ethnics

Students in four cities completed a questionnaire regarding their ethnic background and drug use patterns. From this information, comparisons in age of initial drug experimentation among ethnic groups and races were made. The results indicated significant differences in actual age of experimentation among ethnic groups, as well as differences in other general pattern relating to age of first drug use. A comparison of Whites to non-Whites showed little difference in ages of initial drug experimentation. It was concluded that ethnicity, more so than mere race, was related to age of first use of drugs.

Addict careers. II. The first ten years

The varying life-styles of narcotic addicts in Baltimore during the first decade of their addictive careers are examined with respect to the following: (1) periods of addiction, (2) transitions from addiction, (3) periods of nonaddiction. Emphasis is upon the relationship between aspects of the life-styles and the characterization of addicts according to a typology based on the concepts of opportunity and motivation to use narcotics. What emerges is a general hypothesis linking social class, associated competencies, and pattern of addiction.

On being seen as a "Chinese therapist" by a Caucasian child

Reactions of ten-year-old Caucasian boy to his Chinese therapist, and his use of this racial difference to express his acute alienation, are described. Stages include the boy's initial projection of aggression and evil onto the "Chinks," subsequent ambivalence and anxiety as attachment to the therapist increased, and eventual trust and alleviation of his loneliness. Aspects of the therapist's countertransference are explored.

Ethnic and cultural determinants of the perceptions of female dental students

A survey of women dental students enrolled in all American and Canadian dental schools during the 1977-78 academic year was conducted to determine their backgrounds, current status, motivation regarding dentistry as a career, perception of the dental school environment, preferences in dental education, and future plans. The data were analyzed on the basis of ethnic or racial derivation to delineate differences in the perceptions of female dental students of various ethnic groups. Recognizing the nature of such differences may prove beneficial to dental educators, who must determine the specific problems faced by female students of various ethnic groups.

A comparison of interpersonal distancing behavior in young and elderly adults

Differences in cortical activation (arousal), age, and race were used to test several hypotheses on interpersonal distancing behaviors which have implications for intergenerational and cross-cultural interaction. The investigation centered on the relationship of sensory deficits in the elderly to their use of personal space in peer interactions. A comparison of young, white female college students and elderly white females indicated no significant differences in arousal level, but the younger adults used significantly closer distancing behaviors with their peers. However, a similar comparison of elderly white and black females revealed no differences in either arousal level or interpersonal distancing. The findings suggest that interpersonal distancing behaviors may be less influenced by the need for cortical stimulation than by the prevalence of cultural norms. It also suggests that the proxemic behavior of adult college students may be more adolescent than adult in its personal space scheme.

Ethnic differences in death anxiety among the elderly

The Dickstein Death Concern Scale was used to examine the death anxieties of a sample of elderly people in north and central Florida consisting of whites and blacks, males and females. Analysis of the data revealed that black elderly males display the greatest death anxiety, followed in decreasing order by black females, white females, and white males. Analysis of variance yielded a statistically significant main effect attributable to race. The overall effects attributed to sex were not significant, nor were there any significant interactions. The implications of these findings for practicing counselors were considered.