A GTPase-activating protein for the G protein Galphaz. Identification, purification, and mechanism of action

A GTPase-activating protein (GAP) specific for Galphaz was identified in brain, spleen, retina, platelet, C6 glioma cells, and several other tissues and cells. Gz GAP from bovine brain is a membrane protein that is refractory to solubilization with most detergents but was solubilized with warm Triton X-100 and purified up to 50,000-fold. Activity is associated with at least two separate proteins of Mr approximately 22,000 and 28,000, both of which have similar specific activities. In an assay that measures the rate of hydrolysis of GTP pre-bound to detergent-soluble Galphaz, the GAP accelerates hydrolysis over 200-fold, from 0.014 to 3 min -1 at 15 degrees C, or to >/=20 min-1 at 30 degrees C. It does not alter rates of nucleotide association or dissociation. When co-reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles with trimeric Gz and m2 muscarinic receptor, Gz GAP accelerates agonist-stimulated steady-state GTP hydrolysis as predicted by its effect on the hydrolytic reaction. In the single turnover assay, the Km of the GAP for Galphaz-GTP is 2 nM. Its activity is inhibited by Galphaz-guanosine 5'-O-thiotriphosphate (Galphaz-GTPgammaS) or by Galphaz-GDP/AlF4 with Ki approximately 1.5 nM for both species; Galphaz-GDP does not inhibit. G protein betagamma subunits inhibit Gz GAP activity, apparently by forming a GTP-Galphazbetagamma complex that is a poor GAP substrate. Gz GAP displays little GAP activity toward Galphai1 or Galphao, but its activity with Galphaz is competitively inhibited by both Galphai1 and Galphao at nanomolar concentrations when they are bound to GTPgammaS but not to GDP. Neither phospholipase C-beta1 (a Gq GAP) nor several adenylyl cyclase isoforms display Gz GAP activity.

The G beta gamma complex of the yeast pheromone response pathway. Subcellular fractionation and protein-protein interactions

Genetic evidence suggests that the yeast STE4 and STE18 genes encode G beta and G gamma subunits, respectively, that the G betagamma complex plays a positive role in the pheromone response pathway, and that its activity is subject to negative regulation by the G alpha subunit (product of the GPA1 gene) and to positive regulation by cell-surface pheromone receptors. However, as yet there is no direct biochemical evidence for a G betagamma protein complex associated with the plasma membrane. We found that the products of the STE4 and STE18 genes are stably associated with plasma membrane as well as with internal membranes and that 30% of the protein pool is not tightly associated with either membrane fraction. A slower-migrating, presumably phosphorylated, form of Ste4p is enriched in the non-membrane fraction. The Ste4p and Ste18p proteins that had been extracted from plasma membranes with detergent were found to co-sediment as an 8 S particle under low salt conditions and as a 6 S particle in the presence of 0.25 M NaCl; the Ste18p in these fractions was precipitated with anti-Ste4p antiserum. Under the conditions of our assay, Gpa1p was not associated with either particle. The levels of Ste4p and Ste18p accumulation in mutant cells provided additional evidence for a G betagamma complex. Ste18p failed to accumulate in ste4 mutant cells, and Ste4p showed reduced levels of accumulation and an increased rate of turnover in ste18 mutant cells. The gpa1 mutant blocked stable association of Ste4p with the plasma membrane, and the ste18 mutant blocked stable association of Ste4p with both plasma membranes and internal membranes. The membrane distribution of Ste4p was unaffected by the ste2 mutation or by down-regulation of the cell-surface receptors. These results indicate that at least 40% of Ste4p and Ste18p are part of a G betagamma complex at the plasma membrane and that stable association of this complex with the plasma membrane requires the presence of G alpha.

Investigation of growth hormone releasing hormone receptor structure and activity using yeast expression technologies

Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) is the positive regulator of growth hormone synthesis and secretion in the anterior pituitary. The peptide confers activity by binding to a seven transmembrane domain G protein-coupled receptor. Signal transduction proceeds through subsequent G alpha s stimulation of adenylyl cyclase. To investigate ligand/receptor and receptor/G protein associations, the human GHRH receptor was expressed in a modified S. cerevisiae strain which allows for facile measurement of receptor activity by cell prototrophy mediated by a reporter gene coupled to the yeast pheromone response pathway. GHRH-dependent signal activation in this system required the substitution of yeast G alpha protein with proteins containing C-terminal regions of G alpha s. A D60G variant (analogous to the little mouse mutation) of the receptor failed to respond to agonist. In parallel studies, GHRH29 and the N-terminal extracellular region of the receptor were expressed as Gal4 fusion proteins in a 2-hybrid assay. A specific interaction between these proteins was readily observed. The D60G mutation was engineered into the receptor fusion protein. This protein failed to interact with the ligand fusion, confirming the specificity of the association between unmodified proteins. These two yeast expression technologies should prove invaluable in additional structure/activity analyses of this ligand/receptor pair as well as other peptide ligands and receptors.

Partial constitutive activation of pheromone responses by a palmitoylation-site mutant of a G protein alpha subunit in yeast

G protein alpha subunits are often myristoylated and/or palmitoylated near their amino terminus. The G protein alpha subunit in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (GPA1 gene product, Gpa1p) is known to be myristoylated, and this modification is essential for G protein activity in vivo. Here we examined whether Gpa1p is palmitoylated and determined the functional consequences of this modification. [3H]-Palmitic acid was incorporated into Gpa1p in cells expressing myc-tagged Gpa1p or Gpa1p-Gst. The label was released upon hydroxylamine treatment. Substitution of the conserved Cys 3 for Ser blocked incorporation of the label (Gpa1pC3S). Palmitoylation was also blocked by a mutation that prevents myristoylation (Gly2Ala), whereas the palmitoylation-site mutation had no effect on myristoylation of Gpa1p. Gpa1pC3S complemented the gpa1 delta mutation in vivo and formed a complex with G beta gamma that was able to undergo nucleotide exchange in vitro. However, basal and pheromone-induced FUSl-lacZ transcription were 2-5-fold higher in the C3S mutant. Pheromone-induced growth arrest was also enhanced by the mutation, but recovery from arrest was not affected. Like wild-type Gpa1p, the C3S mutant was predominantly membrane-associated. Upon Triton X-114 partitioning or high pH treatment, no difference in the membrane-binding properties of the wild-type Gpa1p and the C3S mutant was detected. By sucrose density gradient centrifugation of membranes, however, most of the mutant protein was mislocalized to a non-plasma membrane compartment, whereas G beta gamma localization was unaltered. Taken together, our data suggest that Gpa1p is palmitoylated via a thioester bond at Cys 3 and that palmitoylation plays a role in modulating Gpa1p signaling and membrane localization.

The mating-specific G(alpha) protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae downregulates the mating signal by a mechanism that is dependent on pheromone and independent of G(beta)(gamma) sequestration

It has been inferred from compelling genetic evidence that the pheromone-responsive G(alpha) protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Gpa1, directly inhibits the mating signal by binding to its own beta(gamma) subunit. Gpa1 has also been implicated in a distinct but as yet uncharacterized negative regulatory mechanism. We have used three mutant alleles of GPA1, each of which confers resistance to otherwise lethal doses of pheromone, to explore this possibility. Our results indicate that although the G322E allele of GPA1 completely blocks the pheromone response, the E364K allele promotes recovery from pheromone treatment rather than insensitivity to it. This observation suggests that Gpa1, like other G(alpha) proteins, interacts with an effector molecule and stimulates a positive signal--in this case, an adaptive signal. Moreover, the Gpa1-mediated adaptive signal is itself induced by pheromone, is delayed relative to the mating signal, and does not involve sequestration of G(beta)(gamma). The behavior of N388D, a mutant form of Gpa1 predicted to be activated, strongly supports these conclusions. Although N388D cannot sequester beta(gamma), as evidenced by two-hybrid analysis and its inability to complement a Gpa1 null allele under normal growth conditions, it can stimulate adaptation and rescue a gpa1(delta) strain when cells are exposed to pheromone. Considered as a whole, our data suggest that the pheromone-responsive heterotrimeric G protein of S. cerevisiae has a self-regulatory signaling function. Upon activation, the heterotrimer dissociates into its two subunits, one of which stimulates the pheromone response, while the other slowly induces a negative regulatory mechanism that ultimately shuts off the mating signal downstream of the receptor.

Sst2, a negative regulator of pheromone signaling in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae: expression, localization, and genetic interaction and physical association with Gpa1 (the G-protein alpha subunit)

Sst2 is the prototype for the newly recognized RGS (for regulators of G-protein signaling) family. Cells lacking the pheromone-inducible SST2 gene product fail to resume growth after exposure to pheromone. Conversely, overproduction of Sst2 markedly enhanced the rate of recovery from pheromone-induced arrest in the long-term halo bioassay and detectably dampened signaling in a short-term assay of pheromone response (phosphorylation of Ste4, Gbeta subunit). When the GPA1 gene product (Galpha subunit) is absent, the pheromone response pathway is constitutively active and, consequently, growth ceases. Despite sustained induction of Sst2 (observed with specific anti-Sst2 antibodies), gpa1delta mutants remain growth arrested, indicating that the action of Sst2 requires the presence of Gpa1. The N-terminal domain (residues 3 to 307) of Sst2 (698 residues) has sequence similarity to the catalytic regions of bovine GTPase-activating protein and human neurofibromatosis tumor suppressor protein; segments in the C-terminal domain of Sst2 (between residues 417 and 685) are homologous to other RGS proteins. Both the N- and C-terminal domains were required for Sst2 function in vivo. Consistent with a role for Sst2 in binding to and affecting the activity of Gpa1, the majority of Sst2 was membrane associated and colocalized with Gpa1 at the plasma membrane, as judged by sucrose density gradient fractionation. Moreover, from cell extracts, Sst2 could be isolated in a complex with Gpa1 (expressed as a glutathione S-transferase fusion); this association withstood the detergent and salt conditions required for extraction of these proteins from cell membranes. Also, SST2+ cells expressing a GTPase-defective GPA1 mutant displayed an increased sensitivity to pheromone, whereas sst2 cells did not. These results demonstrate that Sst2 and Gpa1 interact physically and suggest that Sst2 is a direct negative regulator of Gpa1.

Regulation of membrane and subunit interactions by N-myristoylation of a G protein alpha subunit in yeast

Initiation of the mating process in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae requires the action of secreted pheromones and G protein-coupled receptors. As in other eukaryotes, the yeast G protein alpha subunit undergoes N-myristoylation (GPA1 gene product, Gpa1p). This modification appears to be essential for function, since a myristoylation site mutation exhibits the null phenotype in vivo (gpa1(G2A)). Here we examine how myristoylation affects Gpa1p activity in vitro. We show that the G2A mutant of Gpa1p, when fused with glutathione S-transferase, can still form a complex with the G protein betagamma subunits. The complex is stabilized by GDP and is dissociated upon treatment with guanosine 5'-O-(thiotriphosphate). In addition, there is no apparent difference in the relative binding affinity of Gbetagamma for mutant and wild-type Gpa1p. Using sucrose density gradient fractionation of cell membranes, Gpa1p associates normally with the plasma membrane whereas Gpa1pG2A is mislocalized to a microsomal membrane fraction. A portion of Gbetagamma is also mislocalized in these cells, as it is in a gpa1Delta strain. In contrast, wild-type Gpa1p reaches the plasma membrane in cells that do not express Gbetagamma or cell surface receptors. These findings indicate that mislocalization of Gpa1pG2A is not caused by a redistribution of Gbetagamma, nor is it the result of any difference in Gbetagamma binding affinity. These data suggest that myristoylation is required for specific targeting of Gpa1p to the plasma membrane, where it is needed to interact with the receptor and to regulate the release of Gbetagamma.

Enhancement of TNF-alpha synthesis by overexpression of G alpha z in a mast cell line

Ag stimulation of mast cells via the IgE receptor (Fc epsilon RI) elicits production and release of numerous cytokines. This activation of Fc epsilon RI initiates various tyrosine kinase-dependent signaling cascades, which ultimately result in the de novo synthesis of cytokines. To date, no heterotrimeric G proteins have been implicated in this process. Here we report that the alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein, Gz, can regulate production of the cytokine, TNF-alpha. The alpha subunit was overexpressed in a cultured mast cell line (RBL-2H3) known to contain G alpha z. In stimulated cells, overexpression of G alpha z significantly enhanced the production of TNF-alpha. This effect of G alpha z appeared to be restricted in that constitutive synthesis of the cytokine, TGF-beta, and Ag-stimulation of the phosphoinositide-dependent secretory pathway were not significantly affected. Thus, G alpha z, a heterotrimeric G protein, appeared to modulate the stimulatory pathways for induction of TNF-alpha synthesis in RBL-2H3 cells.

Mutations in the Dictyostelium heterotrimeric G protein alpha subunit G alpha5 alter the kinetics of tip morphogenesis

Tip morphogenesis during the Dictyostelium developmental life cycle is a process by which prestalk cells sort to form the anterior region of the multicellular organism. We show that the temporal regulation of this morphological process is dependent on the copy number of the Dictyostelium G alpha5 gene. Tip formation is delayed in aggregates of g alpha5 null mutant cells and accelerated in aggregates overexpressing the G alpha5 gene compared to tip formation in wild-type cells. The onset of cell-type-specific gene expression associated with mound formation and tip morphogenesis is also temporally altered in G alpha5 mutants. Tip morphogenesis in chimeric organisms of G alpha5 mutants and wild-type cells is dependent on the copy number of the G alpha5 gene, indicating that G alpha5 function plays an integral role in the intercellular signaling of this stage of development. The G alpha5 gene encodes a G alpha subunit that has 51% identity to the Dictyostelium G alpha4 subunit. Like the G alpha4 gene, the G alpha5 gene is expressed in a subset of cells distributed throughout the multicellular organism, with a distribution that is similar to the anterior-like cell population. Amino acid substitutions in the G alpha5 subunit analogous to substitutions altering guanine nucleotide binding and hydrolysis in other G alpha subunits had no apparent effect on the rate of tip formation when a single copy of the mutant gene was used to replace the wild-type gene. Overexpression of these mutant G alpha5 genes by increased gene dosage resulted in cell death, suggesting that high levels of the altered subunits have detrimental effects during vegetative growth.

Interactions between the ankyrin repeat-containing protein Akr1p and the pheromone response pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Akr1p, which contains six ankyrin repeats, was identified during a screen for mutations that displayed synthetic lethality with a mutant allele of the bud emergence gene BEM1. Cells from which AKR1 had been deleted were alive but misshapen at 30 degrees C and inviable at 37 degrees C. During a screen for mutants that required one or more copies of wild-type AKR1 for survival at 30 degrees C, we isolated mutations in GPA1, which encodes the G alpha subunit of the pheromone receptor-coupled G protein. (The active subunit of this G protein is G beta gamma, and G alpha plays an inhibitory role in G beta gamma-mediated signal transduction.) AKR1 could serve as a multicopy suppressor of the lethality caused by either loss of GPA1 or overexpression of STE4, which encodes the G beta subunit of this G protein, suggesting that pheromone signaling is inhibited by overexpression of Akr1p. Mutations in AKR1 displayed synthetic lethality with a weak allele of GPA1 and led to increased expression of the pheromone-inducible gene FUS1, suggesting that Akr1p normally (and not just when overexpressed) inhibits signaling. In contrast, deletion of BEM1 resulted in decreased expression of FUS1, suggesting that Bem1p normally facilitates pheromone signaling. During a screen for proteins that displayed two-hybrid interactions with Akr1p, we identified Ste4p, raising the possibility that an interaction between Akr1p and Ste4p contributes to proper regulation of the pheromone response pathway.

Retrograde axonal transport of the alpha subunit of the GTP-binding protein Gz to the nucleus of sensory neurons

Nerve cells are exquisitely sensitive to target tissue derived factors and the discovery that nerve growth factor could be retrogradely transported in axons suggested that the physical translocation of proteins along the axon could be a mechanism to convey this signal. This message is not due to the neurotrophic factor itself but rather due to second messengers generated by interaction with receptors. We have previously demonstrated the retrograde axonal transport of the alpha subunits of two putative second messenger molecules Gi and Gz. We have investigated more thoroughly the transport of the alpha subunit of Gz (Gz alpha) and in order to be more certain that the immunoreactivity seen is due to Gz alpha, we have made antibodies to peptides from both the N- and C-terminal regions of Gz alpha, which recognise the same 41 kDa band on Western blots of brain and sciatic nerve extracts. This band is eliminated when the antibodies are previously incubated with the specific peptide to which they were made. Using these antibodies for immunohistochemical localisation for Gz alpha, we now report that the GTP-binding protein Gz, is not only retrogradely transported in axons but that it translocates to the neuronal nucleus. Furthermore, the levels seen in the nuclear compartment decline after axotomy or ligation of the mice under ether anaesthetic, suggesting it is the retrogradely transported Gz alpha that is accumulating in the nucleus after activation at the nerve terminal.

Truncated forms of a novel yeast protein suppress the lethality of a G protein alpha subunit deficiency by interacting with the beta subunit

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the mating pheromone-initiated signal is transduced by a heterotrimeric G protein and normally results in transient cell cycle arrest and differentiation. A null allele of the G alpha (GPA1/SCG1) subunit results in cell death due to unchecked signaling from the G beta gamma (STE4, STE18, respectively) heterodimer. We have identified three high copy suppressors of gpa1 lethality. Two of these genes encode known transcription factors. Mat alpha 2p and Mcm1p. The third is a truncated form of a novel gene, SYG1. Overexpressed wild type SYG1 is a weak suppressor of gpa1. In contrast, the isolated mutant allele SYG1-1 is a strong suppressor that completely blocks the cell cycle arrest and differentiation phenotypes of gpa1 cells of both mating types. One deletion mutant (SYG1 delta 340) can suppress the cell cycle arrest associated with gpa1, but the cells retain a differentiated morphology. SYG1-1 can suppress the effects of overexpressed wild type G beta but is not able to suppress the lethality of an activated G beta mutant (STE4Hpl). Consistent with these genetic observations, the suppressing form of Syg1p can interact with the STE4 gene product, as determined by a two-hybrid assay. SYG1-1 is also capable of promoting pheromone recovery in wild type cells, as judged by halo assay. The sequence of SYG1 predicts eight membrane-spanning domains. Deletion mutants of SYG1 indicate that complete gpa1 suppression requires removal of all of these hydrophobic regions. Interestingly, this truncated protein localizes to the same plasma membrane-enriched subcellular fraction as does full-length Syg1p. Three hypothetical yeast proteins, identified by their similarity to the SYG1 primary sequence within the gpa1 suppression domain, also appear to have related structures. The properties of Syg1p are consistent with those of a transmembrane signaling component that can respond to, or transduce signals through, G beta or G beta gamma.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe zfs1+ encoding a zinc-finger protein functions in the mating pheromone recognition pathway

We isolated the Schizosaccharomyces pombe zfs1 gene as a multicopy suppressor of the sterility caused by overexpression of a double-stranded RNase. The deduced zfs1 gene product of 404 amino acids showed similarity to a mouse growth factor-inducible nuclear protein Nup475. Its C-terminal region carried two putative zinc-fingers, both of which should be intact for the protein to be functional as the suppressor. This protein appeared to localize in nuclei. Disruption of zfs1 was not lethal but conferred deficiency in mating and sporulation. Activation of transcription in response to the mating pheromone signaling was greatly reduced in the zfs1-disrupted cells. The mating deficiency of the zfs1-disruptant was suppressed partially by overexpression of either gpa1, ras1, byr1, or byr2, which are involved in the transmission of the pheromone signal. Disruption of zfs1 reduced both hypersensitivity of the ras1Val17 mutant to the mating pheromone and uncontrolled mating response caused by mutational activation of Gpa1, the G protein alpha subunit coupled to the mating pheromone receptors. However, overexpression of zfs1 could not bypass complete loss of function of either gpa1, ras1, byr1, or byr2. These observations indicate that the function of zfs1 is involved in the mating pheromone signaling pathway, and are consistent with its function being required to fully activate a factor in this pathway, either directly or indirectly.

Inhibition of G-protein signaling by dominant gain-of-function mutations in Sst2p, a pheromone desensitization factor in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Genetic analysis of cell-cell signaling in Saccharomyces cerevisiae has led to the identification of a novel factor, known as Sst2p, that promotes recovery after pheromone-induced growth arrest (R. K. Chan and C. A. Otte, Mol. Cell. Biol. 2:11-20, 1982). Loss-of-function mutations lead to increased pheromone sensitivity, but this phenotype is partially suppressed by overexpression of the G protein alpha subunit gene (GPA1). Suppression is allele specific, however, suggesting that there is direct interaction between the two gene products. To test this model directly, we isolated and characterized several dominant gain-of-function mutants of SST2. These mutations block the normal pheromone response, including a loss of pheromone-stimulated gene transcription, cell cycle growth arrest, and G protein myristoylation. Although the SST2 mutations confer a pheromone-resistant phenotype, they do not prevent downstream activation by overexpression of G beta (STE4), a constitutively active G beta mutation (STE4Hpl), or a disruption of GPA1. None of the SST2 alleles affects the expression or stability of G alpha. These results point to the G protein alpha subunit as being the direct target of Sst2p action and underscore the importance of this novel desensitization factor in G-protein-mediated signaling.

STE2/SCG1-dependent inhibition of STE4-induced growth arrest by mutant STE4 delta C6 in the yeast pheromone response pathway

The yeast pheromone response pathway involves the activation of a heterotrimeric G protein composed by SCG1 (alpha) (also GPA1), STE4 (beta), and STE18 (gamma) subunits by the pheromone-activated receptors STE2 and STE3 in a and alpha cells, respectively. Upon exchange of bound GDP for GTP in the SCG1 subunit, the release of STE4/STE18 dimer occurs which, in turn causes activation of downstream effectors leading growth arrest and mating competence. Over-expression of STE4 also leads to growth arrest in a STE18 dependent manner. Removal of 6 amino acids from the C-terminus of STE4 rendered a subunit incapable of downstream signalling but still able to interact with STE18. This delta C6 mutant acts as a dominant negative because it blocks the growth arresting effect obtained by over-expression of STE4. The inhibitory effect of STE4 delta C6 is dependent on the presence of the SCG1 subunit in a STE2 but not ste2 background. Inhibition of the growth arresting effect of STE4 by the delta C6 mutant is not due to competition at the effector site, but rather involves an intrinsic activity of STE2 that is dependent on SCG1.

Site-directed mutations altering the CAAX box of Ste18, the yeast pheromone-response pathway G gamma subunit

The STE18 gene encodes the gamma subunit of the G protein which functions in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae pheromone-response pathway. The STE18 gene product undergoes a post-translational processing at the carboxyl terminus directed by the CCAAX box motif CCTLM110. A variety of site-directed mutations of this sequence have been constructed to test the role of this motif on Ste18 function. Mutations which change or eliminate the cysteine at position 107 abolish Ste18-dependent mating, and thus the cysteine (C107) is essential for Ste18 function. However, inactivation of the prenyltransferase by disruption of DPR1 has only a minor effect on Ste18-dependent mating. Mutation of cysteine 106 to serine significantly reduces but does not eliminate Ste18 function. Deletion of the C-terminal TLM sequence or modification of the ultimate methionine to lysine, arginine or leucine, all changes which do not affect the CAAX box cysteines, have only minor effects on Ste18-dependent mating. Intriguingly, these latter mutations dramatically compromise Ste18 function in cells which are deleted for Gpa1, the alpha subunit of the G protein. In addition, overexpression of these mutant versions of STE18 causes a dominant negative phenotype and inhibits the constitutive mating response generated by GPA1 deletion in cells which contain a functional STE18 gene. These results suggest that the C terminus of Ste18 and the Gpa1 protein have overlapping roles in some aspect of yeast G protein function such as membrane targeting.

Cloning of a Cryptococcus neoformans gene, GPA1, encoding a G-protein alpha-subunit homolog

We have isolated a gene, GPA1, from Cryptococcus neoformans by the PCR technique. DNA sequencing of the GPA1 clone suggested that it encodes a protein homologous to the G-protein alpha-subunit family. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence of the GPA1-encoded protein revealed that it is about 45% identical to several mammalian Gi alpha subunits and 48% identical to the G alpha protein Gpa2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. G alpha proteins are known to be involved in mating of other yeasts, such as S. cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Southern analysis demonstrated that GPA1 is present in a single copy within the Cryptococcus genome. Isolation of the cDNA for GPA1 confirmed that the gene contains six introns within the coding region. The GPA1 transcript was identified by Northern (RNA) analysis as a 1.6-kb RNA present in exponentially growing cells of both the alpha and a mating types. Moreover, the abundance of this transcript increased in cells shifted to starvation medium. Coincubation of alpha and a cells on starvation medium is required for mating of cryptococcal cells. Thus, our results are consistent with the involvement of C. neoformans GPA1 in mating.

Genetic identification of residues involved in association of alpha and beta G-protein subunits

The GPA1, STE4, and STE18 genes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae encode the alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, respectively, of a G protein involved in the mating response pathway. We have found that mutations G124D, W136G, W136R, and delta L138 and double mutations W136R L138F and W136G S151C of the Ste4 protein cause constitutive activation of the signaling pathway. The W136R L138F and W136G S151C mutant Ste4 proteins were tested in the two-hybrid protein association assay and found to be defective in association with the Gpa1 protein. A mutation at position E307 of the Gpa1 protein both suppresses the constitutive signaling phenotype of some mutant Ste4 proteins and allows the mutant alpha subunit to physically associate with a specific mutant G beta subunit. The mutation in the Gpa1 protein is adjacent to the hinge, or switch, region that is required for the conformational change which triggers subunit dissociation, but the mutation does not affect the interaction of the alpha subunit with the wild-type beta subunit. Yeast cells constructed to contain only the mutant alpha and beta subunits mate and respond to pheromones, although they exhibit partial induction of the pheromone response pathway. Because the ability of the modified G alpha subunit to suppress the Ste4 mutations is allele specific, it is likely that the residues defined by this analysis play a direct role in G-protein subunit association.

G1 cyclins CLN1 and CLN2 repress the mating factor response pathway at Start in the yeast cell cycle

Transcriptional induction by the mating pheromone alpha-factor was monitored at different stages of the yeast cell cycle. G2/M-phase and pre-Start cells showed strong FUS1 mRNA induction, whereas in post-Start cells the signaling was reduced significantly. This reduction in signaling activity in post-Start cells was correlated with the presence of CLN1 or CLN2 transcripts and was not observed in synchronized cells lacking functional CLN1 and CLN2 genes. Activation of the Cln-Cdc28p kinase by overexpression of CLN2 from the GAL1 promoter strongly reduced FUS1 mRNA induction. CLN1 overexpression had a similar effect when the FAR1 gene, encoding a negative regulator of CLN1/2 function, was deleted. This reduction of pheromone signaling was specific for CLN1 and CLN2, as it was not observed when CLN3 was overexpressed. Inactivation of the Cln-Cdc28p kinase complex by thermal inactivation of temperature-sensitive Cdc28p prevented repression of FUS1 signaling. CLN2 overexpression suppressed the constitutive signaling and division-arrest phenotypes of cells with a disrupted gpa1 gene, indicating that the site of action for repression is downstream of the alpha-subunit (Gpa1p) of the heterotrimeric G protein. The repression at Start of pheromone signaling by Cln1-Cdc28p or Cln2-Cdc28p kinase complexes may contribute to the acquisition of pheromone resistance as cells execute Start.

Concerted action of RAS and G proteins in the sexual response pathways of Schizosaccharomyces pombe

We have shown that the expression of mam2, the gene encoding the Schizosaccharomyces pombe P-factor pheromone receptor, is dependent upon components of the pheromone signal transduction pathway, including Ras1, Gpa1, Byr1 and Byr2, each of which is required for both conjugation and sporulation. Studies of the expression of mam2 in mutant S. pombe cells confirm previous conclusions, based on the ability of cells to sporulate, that the Byr1 protein kinase acts downstream of the Byr2 protein kinase and that both act downstream of Ras1, the S. pombe RAS homolog, and Gpa1, the G alpha component that mediates the occupancy of the mam2 receptor. In addition, our present studies show that Ras1 and Gpa1 each act downstream from the other and hence act in concert. The Spk1 kinase, which is required for conjugation and sporulation and which is a structural and functional homolog of the vertebrate MAP kinases, is not required for mam2 expression.

Human G(olf) alpha: complementary deoxyribonucleic acid structure and expression in pancreatic islets and other tissues outside the olfactory neuroepithelium and central nervous system

G(olf) alpha is a G-protein originally believed to mediate signal transduction exclusively within the olfactory neuroepithelium and subsequently found to be a major stimulatory G-protein in the basal ganglia. Here we present evidence that G(olf) alpha is expressed in several other tissues. The human isoform of G(olf) alpha was isolated from two human insulinoma cDNA libraries. Comparison of the human sequence with rat G(olf) alpha shows 91% nucleotide identity (within the coding region) and 99% identity at the amino acid level. Northern and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that G(olf) alpha is expressed in all human insulinomas examined thus far as well as in normal pancreatic islets. G(olf) alpha mRNA was also detected in testis, retina, brain, and liver. Western blot analysis of various mouse tissues demonstrated that the level of G(olf) alpha protein in islets is lower than that in the olfactory neuroepithelium and other parts of the brain; its expression in retina, lung, and spleen was moderately higher than that in islets, and its expression in testis approached that in olfactory neuroepithelium. G(olf) alpha was also detected by immunohistochemistry in mouse islets, human insulinomas, the epithelial lining of mouse epididymis, photoreceptor cells of mouse retina, and mouse lung alveoli. These findings suggest a role for G(olf) alpha in a diverse population of cells located outside the olfactory neuroepithelium and central nervous system.

The pheromone receptors inhibit the pheromone response pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by a process that is independent of their associated G alpha protein

Dominant mutations at the DAF2 locus confer resistance to the cell-cycle arrest that normally occurs in MATa cells exposed to alpha-factor. One of these alleles, DAF2-2, has also been shown to suppress the constitutive signaling phenotype of null alleles of the gene encoding the alpha subunit of the G protein involved in pheromone signaling. These observations indicate that DAF2-2 inhibits transmission of the pheromone response signal. The DAF2-2 mutation has two effects on the expression of a pheromone inducible gene, FUS1. In DAF2-2 cells, FUS1 RNA is present at an increased basal level but is no longer fully inducible by pheromone. Cloning of DAF2-2 revealed that it is an allele of STE3, the gene encoding the a-factor receptor. STE3 is normally an alpha-specific gene, but is inappropriately expressed in a cells carrying a STE3DAF2-2 allele. The two effects of STE3DAF2-2 alleles on the pheromone response pathway are the result of different functions of the receptor. The increased basal level of FUS1 RNA is probably due to stimulation of the pathway by an autocrine mechanism, because it required at least one of the genes encoding a-factor. Suppression of a null allele of the G alpha subunit gene, the phenotype associated with the inhibitory function of STE3, was independent of a-factor. This suppression was also observed when the wild-type STE3 gene was expressed in a cells under the control of an inducible promoter. Inappropriate expression of STE2 in alpha cells was able to suppress a point mutation, but not a null allele, of the G alpha subunit gene. The ability of the pheromone receptors to block the pheromone response signal in the absence of the G alpha subunit indicates that these receptors interact with another component of the signal transduction pathway.

Suppression of a dominant G-protein beta-subunit mutation in yeast by G alpha protein expression

SCG1/GPA1, STE4 and STE18 encode the alpha, beta and gamma components of the G protein involved in mating pheromone signal transduction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Responses, including G1 arrest and expression of genes such as FUS1, are activated by beta gamma, which is negatively controlled by alpha(GDP). We previously demonstrated that overexpression of Scg1 suppresses responses to alpha factor and that expression of certain hybrids between Scg1 and mammalian G alpha proteins has the same effect and also suppresses growth arrest in an scg1-null mutant. Effects were attributed to sequestration of beta gamma. We now show that effects on growth rate, morphology and FUS1 expression are consistent with this model. The STE4HPL allele causes dominant activation of the response pathway, and is presumed to encode a beta subunit insensitive to control by alpha(GDP). Scg1 overexpression suppresses the growth arrest due to STE4HPL; normal alpha-factor responses and fertility are restored. A model based on sequestration of beta gamma reconciles this result with the apparent paradox that the same level of Scg1 overexpression inhibits responses and mating in wild-type cells. A G alpha i hybrid also restores growth and allows inefficient mating in the STE4HPL strain.

Characterization of a fission yeast gene, gpa2, that encodes a G alpha subunit involved in the monitoring of nutrition

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe gpa2 gene was cloned by hybridization with a cDNA for Dictyostelium discoideum G alpha 1. It encodes a homolog of G-protein alpha-subunits with 354 amino acids and a predicted molecular mass of 40,522. Disruption of gpa2 slows cell growth but is not lethal. Cells defective in gpa2 mate and sporulate readily in the presence of plentiful nutrition, bypassing the requirement of nitrogen starvation for the initiation of sexual development. These phenotypes mimic those of cells defective in cyr1 encoding adenylyl cyclase. The level of cAMP in gpa2 null mutants is only one-third of the wild-type level. Mutations in gpa2 that are likely to inhibit the GTPase activity of the gene product cause a slight increase in intracellular cAMP levels and result in leaky sterility. The cAMP level reaches 20 times as high as the wild-type level if a cell carries both this type of gpa2 mutation and a null mutation in pde1 encoding phosphodiesterase. Cells defective in gpa2 fail to produce cAMP in response to glucose stimulation. These results suggest that Gpa2 is involved in the determination of the cAMP level according to nutritional conditions, most likely as a positive regulator of adenylyl cyclase.

Gz, a guanine nucleotide-binding protein with unique biochemical properties

Cloning of a complementary DNA (cDNA) for Gz alpha, a newly appreciated member of the family of guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G proteins), has allowed preparation of specific antisera to identify the protein in tissues and to assay it during purification from bovine brain. Additionally, expression of the cDNA in Escherichia coli has resulted in the production and purification of the recombinant protein. Purification of Gz from bovine brain is tedious, and only small quantities of protein have been obtained. The protein copurifies with the beta gamma subunit complex common to other G proteins; another 26-kDa GTP-binding protein is also present in these preparations. The purified protein could not serve as a substrate for NAD-dependent ADP-ribosylation catalyzed by either pertussis toxin or cholera toxin. Purification of recombinant Gz alpha (rGz alpha) from E. coli is simple, and quantities of homogeneous protein sufficient for biochemical analysis are obtained. Purified rGz alpha has several properties that distinguish it from other G protein alpha subunit polypeptides. These include a very slow rate of guanine nucleotide exchange (k = 0.02 min-1), which is reduced greater than 20-fold in the presence of mM concentrations of Mg2+. In addition, the rate of the intrinsic GTPase activity of Gz alpha is extremely slow. The hydrolysis rate (kcat) for rGz alpha at 30 degrees C is 0.05 min-1, or 200-fold slower than that determined for other G protein alpha subunits. rGz alpha can interact with bovine brain beta gamma but does not serve as a substrate for ADP-ribosylation catalyzed by either pertussis toxin or cholera toxin. These studies suggest that Gz may play a role in signal transduction pathways that are mechanistically distinct from those controlled by the other members of the G protein family.