Influence of mass transfer on the ozonation of wastewater from the glass fiber industry

The mass transfer rate (kLa) is one of the most important parameters in the ozonation of wastewater, because it frequently constitutes the rate-determining step. This study investigated the influence of kLa on the ozonation of glass fiber wastewater using a high-performance jet loop reactor (HJLR), which is well known for its high mass transfer property, and compared the results of this investigation with those obtained using the bubble column reactor. It was found that the higher kLa achieved by increasing the energy input did not lead to higher ozonation efficiency, since the reaction involving the OH radical was greatly hindered at the low pH produced as a result of ozonation. By maintaining the pH at a value greater than 8.0, the higher kLa in the HJLR reactor contributed to increasing not only the TOC removal of wastewater, but also the ozone consumption efficiency, as expressed by the specific ozone consumption. The specific ozone consumption in the HJLR reactor (7.1 g ozone/ g TOC) was 20% better than that in the bubble column reactor.

Microencapsulation of lipid nanoparticles containing lipophilic drug

A polymeric emulsion bead, which consists of core and capsule, was prepared. The core is composed of lipid nanoparticles containing lipophilic drug and semi-interpenetrating networks (semi-IPNs) are prepared to provide the capsule composed of sodium alginate and hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC). The lipid nanoparticles were encapsulated into the polymeric emulsion bead with high drug loading efficiency, and lovastatin was used as a model drug. For the application as an oral drug delivery system, the enteric coating was performed with polymeric emulsion bead. The drug release pattern was controlled by the composition of capsule materials and environmental pH.

High prevalence of current asthma and active smoking effect among the elderly

BACKGROUND

Although asthma is a common cause of morbidity in adults, relatively few objectively measured population studies of asthma prevalence in adult populations have been conducted.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence of asthma, based on both a questionnaire and methacholine bronchial provocation test, and to determine the risk factors of asthma prevalence in an adult population.

METHODS

A total of 2,467 adults, who were randomly selected from metropolitan urban, non-metropolitan urban and rural areas, responded to the modified ISAAC questionnaire, and underwent methacholine bronchial provocation tests and skin prick tests to locally common aeroallergens.

RESULTS

The prevalence of current asthma based on the questionnaire and the methacholine challenge was 2.0% in adults younger than 40, 3.8% in 40- to 54-year-olds, 7.7% in 55- to 64-year-olds and 12.7% in those aged 65 or higher. For subjects of 55-64 years, active smoking was found to be significantly related with the prevalence of current asthma and bronchial hyper-responsiveness, although smoking was positively associated with percentage predictive value of forced expiratory volume of 1 s (FEV1).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of current asthma is common among the elderly, and active smoking may play an important role in the development of asthma and bronchial hyper-responsiveness among the elderly.

Expression of cysteine proteinase of Clonorchis sinensis and its use in serodiagnosis of clonorchiasis

A gene encoding cysteine proteinase from Clonorchis sinensis has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The cysteine proteinase cDNA fragment was amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction using degenerate oligonucleotide primers derived from conserved active site of cysteine proteinases. The 5' and 3' regions of the gene were amplified using rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The cloned gene has an open reading frame of 696 bp and deduced amino acid sequence of 232. Sequence analysis and alignment showed significant homologies with the eukaryotic cysteine proteinases and conservation of the Cys, His, and Asp residues that form the catalytic triad. Analysis of the expressed protein on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the molecular weight of the protein was approximately 28.5 kDa. Proteolytic activity of the expressed protein was inhibited by cysteine proteinase inhibitors such as L-trans-epoxysuccinyl-leucylamide-(4-guanidino)-butane, iodoacetic acid, and leupeptin. The expressed protein showed biochemical properties similar to those of cysteine proteinases of other parasites. The expressed protein strongly reacted with the sera from patients with clonorchiasis but not with the sera from patients with paragonimiasis, fascioliasis, cysticercosis, and sparganosis, or with sera from normal human controls. These results suggest that the expressed protein may be valuable as a specific diagnostic material for the immunodiagnosis of clonorchiasis.

A mark-release-recapture experiment with Anopheles sinensis in the northern part of Gyeonggi-do, Korea

In order to study the range of flight and feeding activity of Anopheles sinensis, the dispersal experiment was conducted in Paju city, located in the northern part of Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea, during the period of 7th to 28th September 1998. Unfed females An. sinensis were collected in cowshed and released after being marked with fluorescent dye at 23:00 hours on the same day. Released female mosquitoes were recaptured everyday during 21 days using light traps, which were set at 10 sites in the cowsheds located 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 km north-northwest and north-northeast and at 3 sites located 1, 6 and 9 km toward south-west from the release point. In addition, to study the longest flight distance in one night, we set the light traps at 16 and 20 km toward north-northeast from the release site. All the collected mosquitoes were placed on filter papers and observed on UV transilluminator after treatment with one drop of 100% ethanol. Out of 12,773 females of An. sinensis released, 194 marked females mosquitoes were recaptured, giving 1.52% recapture rate. Of 194, 72 mosquitoes (37.1%) were recaptured in light traps from three places set at 1 km from the release point, 57 mosquitoes (29.4%) from two places at 1-3 km, 41 mosquitoes (21.1%) from three places at 3-6 km, 20 mosquitoes (10.3%) from three places at 6-9 km, and 4 mosquitoes (2.1%) from two places at 9-12 km. Since 170 female mosquitoes (87.6%) out of 194 marked mosquitoes were captured within 6 km from the release point, this flight radius represents the main activity area. An sinensis was found to be able to fly at least 12 km during one night.

Tumor removal enhances immunity induced by B7.1

Costimulation of tumor T cells by B7.1 has been shown to be important for eliciting cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity. We constructed a stable B7.1 gene transfectant of a poorly immunogenic murine sarcoma, Moloney murine sarcoma virus-induced tumor cell line (MMSV). This transfectant, MMSV-B7.1, failed to produce any tumor development in syngeneic mouse models. When MMSV-B7.1 was simultaneously injected with wild-type MMSV, about half of the coinjected mice remained tumor free and displayed an increase in T cell population, upregulation of the mRNA level of various cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, IL-15 and IFN-gamma, and complete rejection of reinjected MMSV. To investigate whether MMSV-B7.1 demonstrates any vaccinal effect, the transfectant was injected following the surgical removal of the primary tumor mass. Following a re-challenge with wild-type MMSV, all vaccinated mice maintained their tumor free status and displayed a rapid recovery of down-regulated cytokine levels. The results suggest that B7.1 vaccination after tumor removal might be useful for the prevention of tumor recurrence.

Bone-protecting effect of safflower seeds in ovariectomized rats

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) seeds have long been clinically used in Korea to promote bone formation and prevent osteoporosis. However, the beneficial effect has not been scientifically evaluated. Thus, in the present study we investigated whether phytoestrogen rich safflower seeds reduce bone loss in ovariectomized rats. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to bilateral ovariectomy or sham surgery. One week after the operation, ovariectomized rats were either fed a diet containing defatted safflower seeds or injected with 17b-estradiol (E2) for 4 weeks. As expected, ovariectomy resulted in a dramatic reduction in trabecular bone mass of the proximal tibia, increase in deposition of marrow fat, and in uterine atrophy. E2 treatment almost completely prevented bone loss as well as marrow adiposity, as examined by scanning electron microscopy and histomorphometry. Safflower seeds partially prevented ovariectomy-induced bone loss and slightly reduced marrow adiposity. Safflower seeds, in contrast to E2, exerted very weak uterotrophic action. In an attempt to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, effect of polyphenolic compounds extracted from safflower seeds on proliferation of osteoblast-like cells was also assessed in vitro. The mixed polyphenolic compounds stimulated growth of ROS 17/2.8 osteoblast-like cells in a dose-dependent manner (5-100 mg/ml), as potently as E2 and genistein. The present data provide the first direct in vivo evidence that safflower seeds have a protecting effect on bone loss caused by estrogen deficiency, without substantial effect on the uterus. The beneficial effect of safflower seeds may be mediated, at least in part, by the stimulating effect of polyphenolic compounds on proliferation of osteoblasts.

Identification of newly isolated Babesia parasites from cattle in Korea by using the Bo-RBC-SCID mice

Attempts were made to isolate and identify Korean bovine Babesia parasite. Blood samples were collected from Holstein cows in Korea, and Babesia parasites were propagated in SCID mice with circulating bovine red blood cells for isolation. The isolate was then antigenically and genotypically compared with several Japanese isolates. The Korean parasite was found to be nearly identical to the Oshima strain isolated from Japanese cattle, which was recently designated as Babesia ovata oshimensis n. var. Haemaphysalis longicornis was the most probable tick species that transmitted the parasite.

Molecular cloning and characterization of Mycobacterium bovis BCG pcp gene encoding pyrrolidone carboxyl peptidase

The Mycobacterium bovis bacilli Calmette-Guerin (BCG) pcp gene that encodes the pyrrolidone carboxyl peptidase (Pcp) was cloned from a lambdagtll genomic library and sequenced. The nucleotide sequence contains a 669 bp open reading frame coding for a protein of 222 amino acid residues with a calculated molecular mass of 23,209 Da. The deduced amino acid sequence is highly homologous to the Pcps from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. A multiple sequence alignment revealed highly conserved domains. The BCG pcp gene was overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The Pcp was purified to homogeneity. The recombinant protein was further confirmed by an enzymatic assay.

A case of hereditary angioedema associated with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism

Hereditary angioedema is a rare autosomal dominant disease characterized by the edema of subcutaneous tissues, respiratory tract and bowel. It is caused by the deficiency of C1 esterase inhibitor. Hereditary angioedema may be associated with autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune thyroiditis and glomerulonephritis. We report a 34-year-old male patient with hereditary angioedema who developed idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. Autoimmunity seems to be an important basis of this association and it might be caused by the immune dysfunction due to decreased level of complements; nevertheless, a casual association could not be excluded. To our knowledge, this is the first report of hereditary angioedema in association with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism in the medical literature.

Preoperative uterine artery embolization and evacuation in the management of cervical pregnancy: report of two cases

Preoperative uterine artery embolization and cervical evacuation as conservative management of cervical pregnancy has been tried in recent years. However, cervical suturing, vasoconstrictor injection, or cervical ballooning was frequently used as an ancillary measures in those procedures in most of the previous studies. We report two cases of cervical pregnancy that were successfully treated with preoperative uterine artery embolization and removal of gestational material without ancillary procedures. Our therapeutic modality seems to be safe and effective for conservative management of cervical pregnancy.

The enhanced effect of a hexameric deoxyriboguanosine run conjugation to CpG oligodeoxynucleotides on protection against allergic asthma

BACKGROUND

Oligodeoxynucleotides containing a CpG motif (CpG ODNs), as potent inducers of T(H)1 immunity, are considered promising candidates for immune modulation in asthma. We have previously demonstrated that conjugation of a hexameric deoxyriboguanosine run to the 3' terminus (3' dG(6)-run) of phosphodiester (PE) CpG ODNs enhanced their immuno-stimulatory activities in vitro.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a 3' dG(6)-run conjugation to PE or phosphorothioate (PS) CpG ODNs on protection against murine allergic asthma in vivo.

METHODS

Balb/c mice were sensitized to ovalbumin by intraperitoneal injection with or without CpG ODNs (PS CpG ODNs, PE CpG ODNs, and those with 3' dG(6)-run) and subsequently challenged with ovalbumin. We evaluated airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophil proportion in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, airway inflammation, and ovalbumin-specific antibody responses.

RESULTS

The conjugation of a 3' dG(6)-run to PE CpG ODNs enhanced the production of IFN-gamma from ovalbumin-specific T(H) cells and prevented the development of asthma in terms of airway hyperresponsiveness, airway eosinophilia, and ovalbumin-specific IgE responses; these effects were comparable to those of PS CpG ODNs. Enhanced effects of the 3' dG(6)-run were also observed in PS CpG ODNs, though they were lower than those in PE CpG ODNs.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that conjugation of a 3' dG(6)-run to CpG ODNs might provide an effective method for immune modulation of allergic asthma.

Impregnation of vancomycin, gentamicin, and cefotaxime in a cement spacer for two-stage cementless reconstruction in infected total hip arthroplasty

Twenty-two patients with infected total hip arthroplasty were treated with 2-stage arthroplasty, using a cement spacer impregnated with a combination of 3 thermostable antibiotics (vancomycin, gentamicin, and cefotaxime). Initially, implants were removed, and a spacer was inserted. Six to 12 weeks later, the spacer was removed, and the patients underwent reconstruction using cementless components. The patients were followed for an average of 41 months. One patient had a recurrence of infection and was treated with resection arthroplasty. The remaining 21 patients (95%) had no evidence of infection at the final follow-up. We recommend using the combination of these 3 antibiotics in the cement spacer for 2-stage reconstruction in infected hip arthroplasty when the causative organism is not identified in the culture of preoperative aspiration.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the cornea

In this paper, a case of corneal squamous cell carcinoma is reported. Invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the cornea is a rare disorder and has not been previously described in the Korean literature. In this case, the invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the cornea was treated by complete excision and cryotherapy. No evidence of metastasis or recurrence has been found since the procedure. Complete excision and adjunctive cryotherapy has become the treatment of choice because of the higher recurrence rate following a simple excision.

Subcapital fractures associated with extensive osteonecrosis of the femoral head

The authors reviewed 10 patients with subcapital fractures associated with extensive osteonecrosis of the femoral head and distinguished these fractures from traumatic femoral neck fractures The mean age of the patients was 52 years (range, 36-68 years). Nine patients were younger than 60 years. Eight patients had risk factors for osteonecrosis. Necrosis was extensive and involved nearly the whole femoral head. Fracture occurred at the junction between a necrotic bone and reparative bone and extended downward through the reparative interface to the healthy inferior cortex of the femoral neck. Patients experienced hip pain that was aggravated gradually during a period of 1 to 24 weeks before diagnosis of the fracture. In all patients, the opposite femoral head was involved with osteonecrosis. In two femoral heads, slight collapse or subchondral fracture (crescent sign) also was observed. No patient had a history of precipitating trauma. In patients younger than 60 years with a subcapital fracture, fracture associated with extensive osteonecrosis of the femoral head should be suspected when a history of trauma is not obvious, when the opposite hip shows findings of osteonecrosis, and when the patient has a risk factor of osteonecrosis. In these fractures, osteosynthesis rarely should be considered because of the high failure rate caused by additional progression of extensive osteonecrosis and the probability of nonunion.

Polymeric microspheres composed of pH/temperature-sensitive polymer complex

A new pH/temperature-sensitive polymer system with transitions resulting both from polymer-water and polymer-polymer interactions has been demonstrated using the mixture of poly(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and polyethyl acrylamide (EAAm). Based on the pH/temperature sensitivity of polymer mixture, the microsphere for pH/temperature-sensitive drug release have been designed and characterized. Hydrocortisone was used as a model drug. This gave the control of hydrocortisone release in an on-off manner without considerable lag time.

IgE binding components in Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus ulmi-derived crude extracts and their cross-reactivity with domestic mites

BACKGROUND

Recent investigation has revealed that spider mites such as Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus ulmi are important allergens in the development of occupational asthma among apple farmers.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate IgE binding components in T. urticae and P. ulmi-derived crude extracts and their cross-reactivity with Panonychus citri, Tyrophagus putrescentiae and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in apple cultivating farmers.

METHODS

Thirty-one apple farmers with positive skin responses to T. urticae or P. ulmi were randomly recruited, and specific IgE levels in their sera were measured using ELISA. Cross-reactivity was evaluated by ELISA inhibition. IgE binding components were evaluated by IgE immunoblotting.

RESULTS

A total of 11 IgE binding components in T. urticae and 10 in P. ulmi were found. Among them, the 17 kDa, 27 kDa, 33 kDa, 37 kDa, 41 kDa, 56 kDa, and 75 kDa allergens in T. urticae, and the 33 kDa, 41 kDa, and 51 kDa allergens in P. ulmi were identified as dominant allergens. T. urticae-specific IgE binding was completely inhibited by 100 microg/mL of T. urticae (99.7%), but only partially inhibited by P. citri (83.0%), P. ulmi (71.6%), T. putrescentiae (69.7%), and D. pternonyssinus (60.1%). P. ulmi-specific IgE binding was completely inhibited by additions of P. citri (92.3%) and P. ulmi (91.2%), but only partially inhibited by the addition of T. urticae (61.5%), T. putrescentiae (57.7%), and D. pteronyssinus (54.4%).

CONCLUSION

There were seven dominant allergens found in T. urticae and three in P. ulmi. T. urticae- and P. ulmi-specific IgE bindings were partially inhibited by crude extracts derived from D. pteronyssinus and T. putrescentiae.

Citrus red mite (Panonychus citri) may be an important allergen in the development of asthma among exposed children

BACKGROUND

Recent investigations have demonstrated that spider mites are important allergens in the development of asthma in fruit-cultivating farmers.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the sensitization rate to the citrus red mite (Panonychus citri) in children living in rural areas, and to determine the allergenic cross-reactivity with other mites.

METHODS

A total of 7254 children (ages 7-15 years) living in rural areas were enrolled, and each subject was evaluated by a questionnaire and a skin prick test. Allergenic cross-reactivity was evaluated by ELISA inhibition tests.

RESULTS

The most common sensitizing allergens were house dust mites, followed by citrus red mite and cockroach. High serum-specific IgE bindings to the citrus red mite were detected in 21 of 100 randomly selected subjects. The prevalence of asthma was higher among those with positive skin responses to the citrus red mite than with negative skin responses to this mite. ELISA inhibition tests showed that IgE bindings to this mite were minimally inhibited with additions of domestic mites.

CONCLUSION

Spider mites such as the citrus red mite may be important outdoor allergens among children living in rural areas, and spider mite-derived allergens have unique allergenic determinants compared with domestic mites.

Fibronectin and fibrinogen contribute to the enhanced binding of Staphylococcus aureus to atopic skin

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the skin lesions of more than 90% of patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). The mechanism for increased S aureus colonization in AD is unknown. However, the initial event in colonization requires adherence of S aureus to the skin.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the roles of various bacterial adhesins on S aureus binding to AD skin.

METHODS

In an attempt to delineate the mechanism behind this adherence process, an in vitro bacterial binding assay was developed to quantitate the adherence of various S aureus strains to AD, psoriatic, and normal skin sections. S aureus strains used in this study were obtained either from cultures of AD skin lesions or from genetically manipulated strains of S aureus that lacked specific microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs)--namely, fibronectin-binding protein (Fnbp), fibrinogen-binding protein (Clf), collagen-binding protein (Cna), and their parent strains. In addition, S aureus strains from patients with AD were pretreated with fibronectin or fibrinogen to block MSCRAMM receptors and interfere with binding.

RESULTS

Under all experimental conditions, binding of S aureus was localized primarily to the stratum corneum. Immunocytochemical staining of AD skin sections showed a redistribution of fibronectin to the cornified layer, an observation not seen in normal skin. S aureus binding to uninvolved AD skin was significantly greater than the binding to uninvolved psoriatic skin (P <.0001) and normal skin (P <.0005). The Fnbp-negative S aureus showed a significant reduction in binding to the AD skin (P <.0001) but not to the psoriatic and normal skin. In the AD skin, a significant reduction in the binding of S aureus was also observed in the Clf-negative strain (P <.0001) but not in the Cna-negative S aureus. Preincubation of S aureus with either fibronectin or fibrinogen also inhibited bacterial binding to AD skin (P <.0001).

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that fibronectin and fibrinogen--but not collagen--play a major role in the enhanced binding of S aureus to the skin of patients with AD.

Rac and p38 kinase mediate 5-lipoxygenase translocation and cell death

5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) is a key enzyme involved in the synthesis of leukotrienes from arachidonic acid, and its activation is usually followed by translocation to the nuclear envelope. The details of mechanisms involved in the translocation of 5-LO are not well understood, though Ca(2+) is known to be essential. Here we show that ionomycin, a Ca(2+) ionophore, induces 5-LO translocation and necrotic cell death in Rat-2 fibroblasts, suggesting a potential relationship between activation of 5-LO and cell death. These effects were markedly attenuated in Rat2-Rac(N17) cells expressing a dominant negative Rac1 mutant. Pretreatment with SB203580, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase, or EGTA, a Ca(2+) chelator, likewise diminished ionomycin-induced 5-LO translocation and cell death, but PD98059, a MEK inhibitor, did not. Thus, Rac and p38 MAP kinase appear to be components in a Ca(2+)-dependent pathway leading to 5-LO translocation and necrotic cell death in Rat-2 fibroblasts.

Role of the cytosolic phospholipase A2-linked cascade in signaling by an oncogenic, constitutively active Ha-Ras isoform

Activation of Ras signaling by growth factors has been associated with gene regulation and cell proliferation. Here we characterize the contributory role of cytosolic phospholipase A(2) in the oncogenic Ha-Ras(V12) signaling pathway leading to activation of c-fos serum response element (SRE) and transformation in Rat-2 fibroblasts. Using a c-fos SRE-luciferase reporter gene, we showed that the transactivation of SRE by Ha-Ras(V12) is mainly via a Rac-linked cascade, although the Raf-mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade is required for full activation. In addition, Ha-Ras(V12)-induced DNA synthesis was significantly attenuated by microinjection of recombinant Rac(N17), a dominant negative mutant of Rac1. To identify the mediators downstream of Rac in the Ha-Ras(V12) signaling, we investigated the involvement of cytosolic phospholipase A(2). Oncogenic Ha-Ras(V12)-induced SRE activation was significantly inhibited by either pretreatment with mepacrine, a phospholipase A(2) inhibitor, or cotransfection with the antisense oligonucleotide of cytosolic phospholipase A(2). We also found cytosolic phospholipase A(2) to be situated downstream of Ha-Ras(V12) in a signal pathway leading to transformation. Together, these results are indicative of mediatory roles of Rac and cytosolic phospholipase A(2) in the signaling pathway by which Ha-Ras(V12) transactivates c-fos SRE and transformation. Our findings point to cytosolic phospholipase A(2) as a novel potential target for suppressing oncogenic Ha-Ras(V12) signaling in the cell.

Preferential binding of Staphylococcus aureus to skin sites of Th2-mediated inflammation in a murine model

Staphylococcus aureus is found on over 90% of atopic dermatitis skin lesions and is thought to contribute to skin inflammation via the production of potent exotoxins. In contrast, less than 5% of normal subjects harbor S. aureus. This suggests that an atopic immune response itself may play a role in preferential binding of S. aureus to the skin. To examine this issue more directly, we analyzed the S. aureus binding characteristics of skin in mice undergoing different T helper type 1 cell versus T helper type 2 cell inflammatory responses using a novel in vitro bacterial binding assay. BALB/C female mice were first sensitized to ovalbumin with alum or ovalbumin with complete Freund's adjuvant to induce T helper type 2 or T helper type 1 responses, respectively. Mice were then challenged intradermally with either saline (control) or ovalbumin. Forty-eight hours later, skin specimens were obtained from the challenge sites, and the number of S. aureus binding to each skin section was quantitated. Bacterial binding was found to be significantly greater at skin sites of BALB/C mice that had been ovalbumin/alum sensitized compared with ovalbumin/complete Freund's adjuvant sensitized (p < or = 0.01). When compared to the ovalbumin sensitized/challenged skin of wild type BALB/C mice or interferon-gamma gene knockout mice, interleukin-4, but not interferon-gamma, gene knockout mice had significantly less S. aureus binding at their ovalbumin sensitized/challenged skin sites. Mutant S. aureus strains that lacked either fibronectin- or fibrinogen-binding protein expression showed significantly reduced S. aureus binding compared with the parent wild type strain (p < 0.005). Moreover, preincubation of the wild type bacteria with fibronectin or fibrinogen, but not collagen, resulted in significantly less skin binding of S. aureus (p < 0.01). Incubation of skin with interleukin-4, and less so with interferon-gamma, led to more binding of wild type S. aureus but not of an S. aureus mutant deficient in fibronectin binding protein expression. After interleukin-4 incubation, but not interferon-gamma, epidermal immunoreactivity for fibronectin was observed in murine skin explants. These results show that a T helper type 2 inflammatory environment can promote skin binding by S. aureus and that this binding is mediated by fibronectin and fibrinogen.