Relationship between Molecular Flexibility and Emulsifying Properties of Soy Protein Isolate-Glucose Conjugates

Novel food-grade water-in-water emulsion fabricated by amylopectin and tara gum: Property evaluation and stability analysis

To surmount the limitation of the instability of the currently reported water-in-water (W/W) emulsions, novel W/W emulsionss were constructed using amylopectin (AMP) and tara gum (TG) as the phases, and differently shaped ovalbumin (OVA) particles were used as stabilizers to improve the stability of W/W emulsions. Experiments displayed that the conformation of OVA could be changed by heating treatment, thus forming fibrous or spherical OVA particles that had the potential to stabilize TG-in-AMP (TG/AMP) emulsions. The emulsions had the best stability when the pH was 4 and the concentration of OVA particles was 3 %. Moreover, since ovalbumin fibril (OVAF) had better adsorption at the water-water interface than ovalbumin sphere (OVAS), OVAF-stabilized TG/AMP emulsion (OF-TE) had a relatively denser interfacial layer and exhibited more satisfactory ionic stability and physical stability than OVAS-stabilized TG/AMP emulsion (OS-TE). The rheological results demonstrated that OVAF and OVAS had little effect on the viscosity of TG/AMP emulsions. In brief, OVAF was more effective in improving the stability of TG/AMP emulsions than OVAS, and OF-TE did not show phase separation for at least 5 days. This study may be of great significance in improving the stability of food-grade W/W emulsions.

Effects of grape seed proanthocyanidin on emulsifying capacity of soy protein isolate in extrusion field and its underlying mechanism

BACKGROUND

Soy protein isolate (SPI) has poor emulsifying ability because of its low molecular flexibility and compact structure, limiting its application in extruded protein-based foods. Extrusion technology has emerged as a promising way to alter the structural properties of proteins. Therefore, the impacts of grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSP) on structural and emulsifying characteristics of SPI in extrusion field were explored in this study.

RESULTS

After extrusion treatment, the molecular chains of SPI were unfolded. In comparison with extruded SPI, the interaction with GSP led to a rightward shift in particle size distribution and an enhancement in zeta potential values of the protein. As GSP concentration increased from 20 to 80 g kg-1, the free sulfhydryl content of SPI was reduced by 4.17%, 25%, 29.24% and 35.85% compared with that of extruded SPI. The addition of GSP altered the secondary structure of SPI and enhanced the microenvironment polarity. Meanwhile, SDS-PAGE results indicated that the protein presented lower molecular weight with the introduction of GSP. Compared with extruded SPI, the supplementation with GSP increased the molecular flexibility while it decreased the surface hydrophobicity of SPI. Correlation analyses demonstrated that these structural changes induced an improvement in emulsifying activity and emulsion stability of SPI. GSP mainly binds to SPI through hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions under the extrusion environment.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that GSP is a potential modifier, which can be applied to improve the emulsifying capacity of extruded SPI-based foods. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Soy protein isolate/dextran glycation conjugates: Fabrication through ultrasound-assisted cyclic continuous reaction and their applications as carriers of anthocyanins

The precise control of browning and enhancement of Maillard reaction kinetics to improve the surface functionality and nutrient encapsulation efficiency of soy proteins remains a significant challenge. This research presents an ultrasound-assisted cyclic reaction method (1-7 cycles) to synthesize soy protein isolate/dextran (SPI/D) conjugates with enhanced grafting degree and functionality during the Maillard reaction. The technique significantly increased the grafting degree to 65.92 % by the seventh cycle, with minimal browning. Structural analysis showed tighter secondary and more relaxed tertiary structures, leading to a diminished exposure of hydrophobic moieties and an enhancement in solubility, emulsification, foaming, and antioxidant capacity. These functional improvements notably bolstered the SPI/D conjugates' ability to encapsulate anthocyanins (ANs). Particularly, after seven cycles, SPI/D demonstrated a marked enhancement in the thermal, storage, and light stability of ANs. Additionally, it reduced the susceptibility of ANs to degradation by hydrogen peroxide, Fe3+ ions, and gastrointestinal simulated digestion (p < 0.05), which was attributed to their relatively higher hydrophobic residues, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. This strategy provides new insights into soy protein design, highlighting the potential to augment surface functionality and nutrient encapsulate efficiency by controlling the browning degree and enhancing Maillard reaction kinetics.

Relationship between the interfacial properties of lactoferrin-(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate covalent complex and the macroscopic properties of emulsions

This study explored the relationship between the interfacial behavior of lactoferrin-(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate covalent complex (LF-EGCG) and the stability of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). The formation of covalent bond between lactoferrin and polyphenol was verified by the increase in molecular weight. In LF-EGCG group, the surface hydrophobicity, interfacial pressure, and adsorption rate were decreased, while the molecular flexibility, interfacial film viscoelasticity, and interfacial protein content were increased. Meanwhile, LF-EGCG HIPPE possessed reduced droplet size, increased ζ-potential and stability. Rheology showed the viscoelasticity, structural recovery and gel strength of LF-EGCG HIPPE were improved, giving HIPPE inks better 3D printing integrity and clarity. Moreover, the free fatty acids (FFA) release of LF-EGCG HIPPE (62.6%) was higher than that of the oil group (50.1%). Therefore, covalent treatment effectively improved the interfacial properties of protein particles and the stability of HIPPEs. The macroscopic properties of HIPPEs were positively regulated by the interfacial properties of protein particles. The result suggested that the stability of emulsions can be improved by regulating the interfacial properties of particles.

Characteristic and stability changes of peanut oil body emulsion during the process of demulsification using heptanoic acid

In this paper, the changes in oil body emulsion (OBE) during heptanoic acid demulsification (HD) were investigated from the macro and microscopic points of view. Specifically, the OBE particle size increased from 3.04 to 8.41 µm, while the zeta potential absolute decreased to 2.89 mV. The interfacial tension and apparent viscosity of OBE were reduced significantly. Heptanoic acid could contribute to oil droplets aggregation. The findings indicated that high-molecular proteins, including lipoxygenase (97.58 kDa) and arachin (70.28 kDa), detached from the OBs' interface. HD caused alterations in the secondary structure of protein and the environment around proteins changed. The HD mechanism was speculated that the addition of heptanoic acid resulted in the reduction in pH and changes of environment surrounding OBE, which triggered polymerization and the phase transformation of the oil droplets. Overall, this study is vital for solving the problem of demulsification during aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE).

Impact of NaCl perturbation on physicochemical and structural properties of preheat-treated egg white protein modulating foaming property

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of NaCl perturbed preheat-treated egg white proteins' (EWPs) physicochemical and structural properties to modulate the foaming property (FP). The results revealed that NaCl regulated the salinolysis (5 mM) - salt precipitation (50 mM) - gradual or complete coverage with hydrated Na+ of the hydration layer (100-300 mM) - enhanced Cl- hydration repulsion (500 mM) of EWP, showing a gradual decrease in aggregates particle size, and reversibility of structural freedom, including moleculer flexibility and surface hydrophobicity. Whereas preheating temperature affected the secondary structure rearrangement and tertiary conformation exposure, and excessive temperature reduced foaming capacity while enhanced foam stability, with a tight correlation between NaCl-mediated EWPs' FP and the extent of Na+ covering the hydration layer. The findings provide a theoretical basis for processing factors to modulate the protein hydration layer to influence the functional properties.

Enhancing the Stability of Litsea Cubeba Essential Oil Emulsions Through Glycosylation of Fish Skin Gelatin via Dry Maillard Reaction

Emulsions are widely utilized in food systems but often face stability challenges due to environmental stresses, such as pH, ionic strength, and temperature fluctuations. Fish skin gelatin (FSG), a promising natural emulsifier, suffers from limited functional properties, restricting its broader application. This study explored the enhancement of emulsion stability in Litsea cubeba essential oil systems through the glycosylation of fish skin gelatin (FSG) with dextran via the dry Maillard reaction. Among dextrans of varying molecular weights (10 kDa, 100 kDa, 200 kDa, and 500 kDa), the 200 kDa dextran exhibited the best emulsification performance, achieving a remarkable 160.49% increase in stability index. The degree of grafting (DG) increased with molecular weight, peaking at 34.77% for the 500 kDa dextran, followed by 23.70% for the 200 kDa variant. The particle size of the FSG-Dex 200 kDa conjugate emulsion was reduced to 639.1 nm, compared to 1009-1146 nm for the unmodified FSG, while hydrophobicity improved by 100.56%. The zeta potential values approached 30 mV, indicating enhanced stability. Furthermore, glycosylation significantly improved antioxidant activity, as evidenced by increased radical scavenging capacity in both DPPH and ABTS assays. These findings underscore the potential of glycosylated FSG as a natural emulsifier in food applications.

Effects of enzyme hydrolysis-assisted fibrillation treatment on the solubility, emulsifying properties and antioxidant activity of rice protein

This work aimed to explore the changes of rice protein (RP) in solubility, emulsifying properties, and antioxidant activity after the enzyme hydrolysis-assisted fibrillation dual modification. Results showed that enzyme hydrolysis by papain and fibrillation treatments significantly affected the secondary and tertiary structures of RP. The modified proteins, including RP hydrolysate (RPH), RP nanofibrils (RPN), and RPH nanofibrils (RPHN), demonstrated enhanced solubility and antioxidant activity compared to RP, with RPHN exhibiting the superior performance. The emulsifying capacity of RPH, RPN, and RPHN increased by 9.55 %, 22.86 %, and 26.57 %, respectively, compared to that of RP. Furthermore, RPHN displayed the highest emulsion stability index. Nanoemulsion stabilized by RPHN showed enhanced centrifugal, storage, and oxidative stabilities. Neither RPHN nor RPN exhibited cytotoxicity to human cell lines, and could provide nutrients for cells. Overall, the functional properties and antioxidant activity of RP were significantly improved by enzyme hydrolysis-assisted fibrillation dual modification. This study may provide reference for the development and utilization of nanofibrils from plant proteins.

Effect of Mono- and Polysaccharide on the Structure and Property of Soy Protein Isolate during Maillard Reaction

As a protein extracted from soybeans, soy protein isolate (SPI) may undergo the Maillard reaction (MR) with co-existing saccharides during the processing of soy-containing foods, potentially altering its structural and functional properties. This work aimed to investigate the effect of mono- and polysaccharides on the structure and functional properties of SPI during MR. The study found that compared to oat β-glucan, the reaction rate between SPI and D-galactose was faster, leading to a higher degree of glycosylation in the SPI-galactose conjugate. D-galactose and oat β-glucan showed different influences on the secondary structure of SPI and the microenvironment of its hydrophobic amino acids. These structural variations subsequently impact a variety of the properties of the SPI conjugates. The SPI-galactose conjugate exhibited superior solubility, surface hydrophobicity, and viscosity. Meanwhile, the SPI-galactose conjugate possessed better emulsifying stability, capability to produce foam, and stability of foam than the SPI-β-glucan conjugate. Interestingly, the SPI-β-glucan conjugate, despite its lower viscosity, showed stronger hypoglycemic activity, potentially due to the inherent activity of oat β-glucan. The SPI-galactose conjugate exhibited superior antioxidant properties due to its higher content of hydroxyl groups on its molecules. These results showed that the type of saccharides had significant influences on the SPI during MR.

Reduction in the antigenicity of beta-lactoglobulin in whole milk powder via supercritical CO2 treatment

Cow milk allergy is a common phenomenon experienced in early childhood (<5 yr of age) with an average occurrence rate of roughly 2.5%. The most prevalent allergen in cow milk is believed to be β-LG. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of hydrophobic supercritical CO2 (ScCO2) to modify the chemical structure β-LG, thus impairing its recognition by antibodies. Whole milk powder (WMP) was selected because of its closest compositional resemblance to bovine fluid milk and its applications in reconstitution and in the beverage (infant, toddler, and adult), confectionary, bakery, and meat industries. For this study, WMP was treated with food-grade CO2 at temperatures of 50, 63, and 75°C under operating pressures of 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 bar. Proteins in WMP were examined using SDS-PAGE, western blot, and ELISA. Orbitrap Fusion liquid chromatography-tandem MS (LC-MS/MS) and periodic staining was performed to confirm post-translational modifications in β-LG. Functional properties of WMP before and after treatment were assessed by its solubility index, oil holding capacity, emulsion capacity and stability, zeta potential, particle size, and color analysis. SDS-PAGE of treated samples yielded fuzzy bands (variable mobility of molecules due to different molecular weights results in ill-defined bands) indicative of an increase in molecular weight, presumably due to chemical change in the protein, and demonstrated a maximum of 71.13 ± 0.29% decrease in the band intensity of β-LG under treatment conditions of 75°C/300 bar for 30 min. These changes were small with samples treated with heat only. Lighter, diffused bands were observed using western blot analysis. The ELISA tests proved that ScCO2 treatment specifically and significantly affected the antigenicity of β-LG with a reduction of 42.9 ± 2.83% and 54.75 ± 2.43% at 63°C/200 bar and 75°C/300 bar, respectively. Orbitrap fusion detected the presence of fatty acids and sugar moieties bound to β-LG and the latter was confirmed by periodic staining. Functional properties of ScCO2-treated milk powder yielded a decrease in solubility index and an increase in emulsion capacity of WMP was observed under ScCO2 treatment at 75°C/300 bar, with small and insignificant changes at other treatments producing a decrease in antigenicity. Color changes were small for most samples, except at 63°C/200 bar, where a significant increase in yellowness was observed. Zeta potential and particle size measurements indicated that most changes were temperature driven. This study demonstrates 2 approaches to mitigate β-LG antigenicity via fatty acid binding and lactosylation using hydrophobic ScCO2.

A novel approach has been developed to produce pure plant-based gel soy yogurt by combining soy proteins (7S/11S), high pressure homogenization, and glycation reaction

This research sought to examine how the physicochemical characteristics of soy globulins and different processing techniques influence the gel properties of soy yogurt. The goal was to improve these gel properties and rectify any texture issues in soy yogurt, ultimately aiming to produce premium-quality plant-based soy yogurt. In this research study, the investigation focused on examining the impact of 7S/11S, homogenization pressure, and glycation modified with glucose on the gel properties of soy yogurt. A plant-based soy yogurt with superior gel and texture properties was successfully developed using a 7S/11S globulin-glucose conjugate at a 1:3 ratio and a homogenization pressure of 110 MPa. Compared to soy yogurt supplemented with pectin or gelatin, this yogurt demonstrated enhanced characteristics. These findings provide valuable insights into advancing plant protein gels and serve as a reference for cultivating new soybean varieties by soybean breeding experts.

Protein of yak milk residue: Structure, functionality, and the effects on the quality of non-fat yogurt

The purpose of this study was to compare the structural and functional of protein from yak milk residue, which collected from different elevations (MRP1 and MRP2) in Tibet, as well as their potential for enhancing the quality of non-fat yogurt. The results showed that MRP1 exhibited higher levels of β-sheet, turbidity, particle size, and gel properties. MRP2 had better flexibility, emulsification, foaming, water/oil absorption capacity. The addition of MRP1 (3%) could improve texture and sensory properties of yogurt. Although MRP2 yogurt had higher hardness, gumminess, chewiness and water holding capacity, poor mouthfeel. Rheological test showed that MRPs yogurt exhibited typical gel-like and shear-thinning behavior. Moreover, the fortification of non-fat yogurts with MRP1 brought the formation of larger protein clusters with a more tightly knit network of smaller pores. These results indicate that MRP1 can be used as a fat substitute to improve the quality of non-fat yogurt.

Salt ions improve soybean protein isolate/curdlan complex fat substitutes: Effect of molecular interactions on freeze-thaw stability

Although emulsion gels show significant potential as fat substitutes, they are vulnerable to degreasing, delamination, and other undesirable processes during freezing, storage, and thawing, leading to commercial value loss in terms of juiciness, flavor, and texture. This study investigated the gel strength and freeze-thaw stability of soybean protein isolate (SPI)/curdlan (CL) composite emulsion gels after adding sodium chloride (NaCl). Analysis revealed that adding low salt ion concentrations promoted the hardness and water-holding capacity (WHC) of fat substitutes, while high levels displayed an inhibitory effect. With 40 mM NaCl as the optimum concentration, the hardness increased from 259.33 g (0 mM) to 418.67 g, the WHC increased from 90.59 % to 93.18 %, exhibiting good freeze-thaw stability. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and particle size distribution were used to examine the impact of salt ion concentrations on protein particle aggregation and the damaging effect of freezing and thawing on the proteoglycan complex network structure. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and protein solubility evaluation indicated that the composite gel network structure consisted of covalent contacts between the proteoglycan molecules and hydrogen bonds, playing a predominant role in non-covalent interaction. This study showed that the salt ion concentration in the emulsion gel affected its molecular interactions.

Molecular modification of low-dissolution soy protein isolates by anionic xanthan gum, neutral guar gum, or neutral konjac glucomannan to improve the protein dissolution and stabilize fish oil emulsion

Herein, the effects of anionic xanthan gum (XG), neutral guar gum (GG), and neutral konjac glucomannan (KGM) on the dissolution, physicochemical properties, and emulsion stabilization ability of soy protein isolate (SPI)-polysaccharide conjugates were studied. The SPI-polysaccharide conjugates had better water dissolution than the insoluble SPI. Compared with SPI, SPI-polysaccharide conjugates had lower β-sheet (39.6 %-56.4 % vs. 47.3 %) and α-helix (13.0 %-13.2 % vs. 22.6 %) percentages, and higher β-turn (23.8 %-26.5 % vs. 11.0 %) percentages. The creaming stability of SPI-polysaccharide conjugate-stabilized fish oil-loaded emulsions mainly depended on polysaccharide type: SPI-XG (Creaming index: 0) > SPI-GG (Creaming index: 8.1 %-21.2 %) > SPI-KGM (18.1 %-40.4 %). In addition, it also depended on the SPI preparation concentrations, glycation times, and glycation pH. The modification by anionic XG induced no obvious emulsion creaming even after 14-day storage, which suggested that anionic polysaccharide might be the best polysaccharide to modify SPI for emulsion stabilization. This work provided useful information to modify insoluble proteins by polysaccharides for potential application.

Thermal properties of glycinin in crowded environments

Crowded environments, commonly found in the food system, are utilized to enhance the properties of soybean proteins. Despite their widespread application, little information exists regarding the impact of crowded environments on the denaturation behaviors of soybean proteins. In this study, we investigated how crowding agents with varying molecular weights, functional groups, and topology affect the denaturation behavior of glycinin under crowded conditions. The results reveal that thermal stability in PEG crowded environments is mainly influenced by both preferential hydration and binding. The stabilization is primarily enthalpy-driven, with aggregation contributing additional entropic stabilization. Specifically, ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol exhibit temperature-dependent, bilateral effects on glycinin stability. At the denaturation temperature, hydrophobic interactions play a predominant role, decreasing glycinin's thermal stability. However, at a molecular weight of 200 g/mol, there is a delicate balance between destabilizing and stabilizing effects, leading to no significant change in thermal stability. With the addition of PEG 400, 1000, and 2000, besides preferential hydration, additional hard-core repulsions between glycinin molecules enhance thermal stability. Methylation modification experiments demonstrated that 2-methoxyethyl ether exerted a more pronounced denaturing effect. Additionally, the cyclization of PEG 1000 decreased its stabilizing effect.

Conjugation of Soybean Proteins 7S/11S Isolate with Glucose/Fructose in Gels through Wet-Heating Maillard Reaction

Conjugation with glucose (G) and fructose (F) via the Maillard reaction under the wet-heating condition is a natural and non-toxic method of improving the technological functions of 7S/11S proteins in different kinds of gels. It may be used as an affordable supply of emulsifiers and an excellent encapsulating matrix for gels. This study aimed to create a glucose/fructose-conjugated 7S/11S soy protein via the Maillard reaction. The conjugation was confirmed by determining the SDS-PAGE profile and circular dichroism spectra. In addition, these conjugates were comprehensively characterized in terms of grafting degree, browning degree, sulfhydryl content, surface hydrophobicity (H0), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) through various reaction times (0, 24, 48, and 72 h) to evaluate their ability to be used in food gels. The functional characteristics of the 7S/11S isolate-G/F conjugate formed at 70 °C, with a high degree of glycosylation and browning, were superior to those obtained at other reaction times. The SDS-PAGE profile indicated that the conjugation between the 7S and 11S proteins and carbohydrate sources of G and F through the Maillard reaction occurred. Secondary structural results revealed that covalent interactions with G and F affected the secondary structural components of 7S/11S proteins, leading to increased random coils. When exposed to moist heating conditions, G and F have significant potential for protein alteration through the Maillard reaction. The results of this study may provide new insights into protein modification and establish the theoretical basis for the therapeutic application of both G and F conjugation with soy proteins in different food matrixes and gels.

Freeze-thaw stability of transglutaminase-induced soy protein-maltose emulsion gel: Focusing on morphology, texture properties, and rheological characteristics

In this study, soy protein isolate (SPI) and maltose (M) were employed as materials for the synthesis of a covalent compound denoted as SPI-M. The emulsion gel was prepared by transglutaminase (TGase) as catalyst, and its freeze-thaw stability was investigated. The occurrence of Maillard reaction was substantiated through SDS-PAGE. The analysis of spectroscopy showed that the structure of the modified protein was more stretched, changed in the direction of freeze-thaw stability. After three freeze-thaw cycles (FTC), it was observed that the water holding capacity of SPI-M, SPI/M mixture (SPI+M) and SPI emulsion gels exhibited reductions of 8.49 %, 16.85 %, and 20.26 %, respectively. Moreover, the soluble protein content also diminished by 13.92 %, 23.43 %, and 35.31 %, respectively. In comparison to unmodified SPI, SPI-M exhibited increase in gel hardness by 160 %, while elasticity, viscosity, chewability, and cohesion demonstrated reductions of 17.7 %, 23.3 %, 33.3 %, and 6.76 %, respectively. Concurrently, the SPI-M emulsion gel exhibited the most rapid gel formation kinetics. After FTCs, the gel elastic modulus (G') and viscosity modulus (G″) of SPI-M emulsion were the largest. DSC analysis underscored the more compact structure and heightened thermal stability of the SPI-M emulsion gel. SEM demonstrated that the SPI-M emulsion gel suffered the least damage following FTCs.

Enhancing the Gelation Behavior of Transglutaminase-Induced Soy Protein Isolate(SPI) through Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

Gelation, as an important functional property of soy protein isolate (SPI), can be improved by some green technologies in food manufacturing, including ultrasound, ultrahigh pressure and microwave treatments. This work investigated the effect of an alkaline solubilisation step in SPI extraction combined with sonication on protein properties. The TGase-induced gel of the modified SPI was prepared to explore the effect of ultrasound on gel properties, including structures, strength, water-holding capacity and rheological properties. Additionally, the differences between traditional ultrasound modification of SPI and current modification methods were analyzed. The results showed that the ultrasonication-assisted extraction method could result in a significant increase in extraction rate from 24.68% to 42.25%. Moreover, ultrasound-assisted modification of SPI gels induced with transglutaminase (TGase) exhibited significant improvement in mechanical properties, such as texture, water-holding capacity and rheological properties, In particular, SPI extracted at 400 W ultrasound intensity for 180 s showed the best overall performance in terms of gel properties. Our method efficiently uniformizes gel structure, enhancing mechanical properties compared to conventional ultrasound methods, which reduced energy consumption and costs. These findings provide insights into the production of high-gelation SPI in food manufacturing.

Glycation-induced enhancement of yeast cell protein for improved stability and curcumin delivery in Pickering high internal phase emulsions

Pickering high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) have gained significant attention for various applications within the food industry. Yeast cell protein (YCP), derived from spent brewer's yeast, stands out as a preferred stabilizing agent due to its cost-effectiveness, abundance, and safety profile. However, challenges persist in utilizing YCP, notably its instability under high salt concentration, thermal processing, and proximity to its isoelectric point. This study aimed to enhance YCP's emulsifying properties through glycation with glucose and evaluate its efficacy as a stabilizer for curcumin (CUR)-loaded HIPEs. The results revealed that glycation increased YCP's surface hydrophobicity, exposing hydrophobic groups. This augmentation, along with steric hindrance from grafted glucose molecules, improved emulsifying properties, resulting in a thicker interfacial layer around oil droplets. This fortified interfacial layer, in synergy with steric hindrance, bolstered resistance to pH changes, salt ions, and thermal degradation. Moreover, HIPEs stabilized with glycated YCP exhibited reduced oxidation rates and improved CUR protection. In vitro digestion studies demonstrated enhanced CUR bioaccessibility, attributed to a faster release of fatty acids. This study underscores the efficacy of glycation as a strategic approach to augment the applicability of biomass proteins, exemplified by glycated YCP, in formulating stable and functional HIPEs for diverse food applications.

Pulsed electric field enhances glucose glycation and emulsifying properties of bovine serum albumin: Focus on polarization and ionization effects at a high reaction temperature

Previous studies demonstrated that the non-thermal effects of pulsed electric fields can promote protein glycation below 40 °C, but it does not always enhance the emulsifying properties of proteins, such as in the bovine serum albumin/glucose model. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of non-thermal effects on the glucose glycation and emulsification properties of bovine serum albumin at 90 °C. The results of circular dichroism, surface hydrophobicity, and molecular dynamics simulations showed that the polarization effect increased the degree of glycation of bovine serum albumin-glucose conjugates from 12.82 % to 21.10 % by unfolding protein molecule, while the emulsifying stability index was increased from 79.17 to 100.73 compared with the control. Furthermore, the results of principal component analysis and Pearson correlation analysis indicated that the ionization effect and the free radicals generated by pulsed electric fields significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited browning and reduced free sulfhydryl content. This study demonstrated that pulsed electric fields combined with heating can prepare glycated proteins with good emulsifying properties in a short period of time and at temperatures lower than conventional heating while reducing energy consumption. This processing strategy has potential applications in improving the emulsifying performance of highly stable proteins.

Changes in flavor and biological activities of Lentinula edodes hydrolysates after Maillard reaction

This study aimed to elucidate how the Maillard reaction (MR) affects the flavor and bioactivities of Lentinula edodes hydrolysates (LEHs). Changes in flavor were investigated using non-targeted metabolomics techniques (GC-MS and LC-MS/MS) and sensory evaluation. Simultaneously, UV absorption, fluorescence, and FT-IR spectra were used to characterize the process of MR. We also evaluated the effects of MR on the antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic activity and antimicrobial activity of LEHs in vitro. The results revealed that MR produced many volatile aldehydes and ketones and decreased the content of most amino acids, sugars and flavonoids in the LEHs while increasing the content of l-theanine and succinic acid. MRPs had a strong caramel and like-meat flavor and an obvious improvement in umami, taste continuity, and total acceptability. Furthermore, MR improved the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of LEHs. This research establishes a theoretical foundation for MR in the deep processing of edible mushrooms.

Effect of ultrasonic assisted grafting on the structural and functional properties of mung bean protein isolate conjugated with maltodextrin through maillard reaction

Four different methods of maillard reaction including ultrasound (150 W, 10 min) assisted, classical wet heating (80 °C, 60min), moderate water bath heating (60°C, 12 to 30 h) and dry state method (60 °C, 79 % relative humidity and 48 h) were used to Mung bean protein isolate - Maltodexrtin conjugates (MPI-MD) preparation. The samples prepared under ultrasound and wet heating were chosen for further analysis according to degree of graft and UV-absorbance at 420 nm. Higher glycosylation at short time and lower browning were obtained under ultrasound treatment. Covalent attachment in conjugates confirmed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The structural analysis revealed prominent unfolding effect of ultrasound waves on the protein's molecules. The decrease of α-helix content was related to the exposure of buried amino group residues during reaction. Glycation of MPI under ultrasound caused changes in tertiary structure of protein and leads to decrease in the fluorescence intensity compared with native and wet heating treatments. FTIR spectra confirmed the conjugation of the MPI and MD and suggested that protein structure was changed and ultrasound promoted the graft reaction more than wet heating treatment. Conjugated MPI showed higher emulsification and solubility index than MPI, moreover the effect of ultrasonic waves on ameliorated functional properties was impressive than those for wet heating treatment. Overall, this study showed use of ultrasonication in maillard reaction was a suitable method for producing MPI- MD conjugates and improved the efficiency of graft reaction and functional properties of grafts.

Conjugation of soymilk protein and arabinoxylan induced by peroxidase to improve the gel properties of tofu

Arabinoxylan (AX) can form stable covalent bonds with protein to improve gel properties. We aimed to prepare a conjugate between soymilk protein (SMP) and AX by peroxidase, followed by the addition of transglutaminase (TG) to prepare tofu gels. The conjugate's properties and their effects on the mechanical properties, rheological properties, and microstructure of tofu gels were evaluated. Results revealed that the α-helix content decreased, the β-sheet content increased, and the surface hydrophobicity reduced from 1.60 × 105 to 1.27 × 105. The optimal amount of AX required to improve the properties of tofu gel was 1.0%. The tofu gel showed better hardness (118.44 g), water holding capacity (WHC) (86.17%), and higher storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″). Low-Field NMR (LF-NMR) showed that the water was evenly distributed. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a denser and more regular three-dimensional gel network.

Effect of polysaccharides on conformational changes and functional properties of protein-polyphenol binary complexes: A comparative study

This study aimed to investigate the effect of different polysaccharides on the binding behavior and functional properties of soybean protein isolate (SPI)-quercetin (Que) complex. The binding behavior was assessed using multi-spectral technique with the Stern-Volmer equation, which confirmed the presence of static fluorescence quenching in Que and SPI. The addition of sodium alginate (SA) resulted in a reduction of the binding affinity between SPI and Que, while dextran (DX) exhibited some promoting effect. A slight blue shift was observed in amide I and amide II bands, indicating the presence of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Circular dichroism spectra revealed the ordered structures transformed into a more disordered state when polysaccharides were added, leading to an increase in random coils (SA: 18.5 %, DX: 15.4 %). Docking and dynamic simulations demonstrated that SA displayed greater stability within the hydrophobic compartments of SPI than DX, increased rigidity and stability of the SPI structure in SPI-Que-SA complexes. Electrostatic forces played a significant role between SPI and SA, while van der Waals forces were the main driving forces in SPI-DX complexes. Overall, the introduction of SA led to a looser and stable structure of SPI-Que complexes, resulting in an improvement of their emulsifying, foaming, and antioxidant properties.

Improvement in texture and color of soy protein isolate gel containing capsorubin and carotenoid emulsions following microwave heating

The effects of microwave heating on the properties and pigment release of soybean protein isolate (SPI) emulsion gel and hydrogel were investigated. The properties of the samples were analyzed by rheology and texture. The results showed that the hardness of the emulsion gel was lower than that of the hydrogel, but the cohesiveness was the opposite. The hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction between SPI and soybean soluble polysaccharide (SSPS) enhanced the thermal stability of the gel, and the enthalpy values were the lowest. In addition, a chroma meter was used to assess the slow-release effect of pigment, with results indicating that the emulsion gel was more red and yellow than the hydrogel; the values of a* and b* were reduced with the extension of heating time, indicating that the emulsion had a good protective effect on carotenoids and capsorubin, which was helpful to the application of the pigment in food.

Regulation of Protein Flexibility and Promoting the Cod Protein Gel Formation Using Ultrasound Treatment

In order to obtain a soft-textured protein gel suitable for the elderly, the cod protein gel was prepared by improving the protein flexibility under ultrasound treatment. It has been found that the increase in ultrasonic power, protein flexibility, particle size, ζ-potential, surface hydrophobicity, and α-helix content of preheated cod protein exhibited an increasing trend. The improvement of protein flexibility promoted uniformity and density of the gel network, water retention, and texture properties. The flexibility of preheated cod protein increased to 0.189, the water holding capacity of the gel reached up to 99.41%, and the hardness increased to 49.12 g, as the ultrasonic power level increased to 400 W. Protein flexibility was correlated well with the cohesiveness of the gel. The storage modulus (G') initially decreased and then increased during the heating-cooling process. The attractive forces forming between the flexible protein molecules during cooling in the ultrasound treatment groups promoted protein self-assembly aggregation and formed the cod protein gel. The gel obtained at 100-400 W could be categorized as Level 6─soft and bite-sized according to the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) framework, indicating that the cod protein gel has potential as an easy-to-swallow diet for the elderly.

Physicochemical and functional property of the Maillard reaction products of soy protein isolate with L-arabinose/D-galactose

BACKGROUND

Soy protein isolate (SPI) is widely used in the food industry because of its nutritional and functional properties. During food processing and storage, the interaction with co-existing sugars can cause changes in the structural and functional properties of SPI. In this study, SPI-l-arabinose conjugate (SPI:Ara) and SPI-d-galactose conjugate (SPI:Gal) were prepared using Maillard reaction (MR), and the effects of five-carbon/six-carbon sugars on the structural information and function of SPI were compared.

RESULTS

MR unfolded and stretched the SPI, changing its ordered conformation into disorder. Lysine and arginine of SPI were bonded with the carbonyl group of sugar. The MR between SPI and l-arabinose has a higher degree of glycosylation compared to d-galactose. MR of SPI enhanced its solubility, emulsifying property and foaming property. Compared with SPI:Ara, SPI:Gal exhibited better aforementioned properties. The functionalities of amphiphilic SPI were enhanced by MR, SPI:Gal possessed better hypoglycemic effect, fat binding capacity and bile acid binding ability than SPI:Ara. MR endowed SPI with enhanced biological activities, SPI:Ara showed higher antioxidant activities, and SPI:Gal exhibited stronger antibacterial activities.

CONCLUSION

Our work revealed that l-arabinose/d-galactose exhibited different effects on the structural information of SPI, and further affected its physicochemical and functional property. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dynamic microfluidic-assisted transglutaminase modification of soy protein isolate-chitosan: Effects on structural and functional properties of the adduct and its antioxidant activity after in vitro digestion

In this study, soy protein isolate (SPI)-chitosan (CS) adducts were prepared by using dynamic microfluidic-assisted transglutaminase (TGase) modification. It was shown that the solubility and degree of binding of SPI-CS adducts prepared by dynamic microfluidic-assisted TGase modification were better. After the samples were treated twice at 400 bar, the degree of binding for SPI-CS adducts increased to 31.97 ± 1.31%, and the solubility increased to 66.25 ± 1.10%. With the increase of microfluidic pressure, the exposed free sulfhydryl groups increased, the particle size reduced, and the surface hydrophobicity first increased and then decreased. Under the action of the pressure generated by microfluidics, the structure of the protein in the SPI-CS adduct was unfolded and transformed from an ordered structure to a disordered one. The SPI-CS adducts prepared with assisted dynamic microfluidic treatment showed significantly higher ABTS radical scavenging rate, DPPH radical scavenging rate and reducing power after in vitro digestion compared with that of SPI-CS adducts prepared with TGase alone. This result indicated that appropriate dynamic microfluidic treatment improved the structural and functional properties of TGase-modified SPI-CS adducts and significantly increased the antioxidant activity after in vitro digestion.

Recent advances in soybean protein processing technologies: A review of preparation, alterations in the conformational and functional properties

Currently, growing concerns about sustainable development and health awareness have driven the development of plant-based meat substitutes. Soybean proteins (SPs) are eco-friendly and high-quality food sources with well-balanced amino acids to meet consumer demand. The functionality and physicochemical attributes of SPs can be improved by appropriate processing and modification. With the burgeoning advances of modern processing technologies in the food industry, a multitude of functional foods and ingredients can be manufactured based on SPs. This review mainly highlights the conformational changes of SPs under traditional and emerging processing technologies and the resultant functionality modifications. By elucidating the relationship between processing-induced structural and functional alterations, detailed and systematic insights are provided regarding the exploitation of these techniques to develop different nutritional and functional soybean products. Some popular methods to modify SPs properties are discussed in this paper, including thermal treatment, fermentation, enzyme catalysis, high hydrostatic pressure, high-intensity ultrasound, atmospheric cold plasma, high-moisture extrusion, glycosylation, pulsed ultraviolet light and interaction with polyphenols. Given these processing technologies, it is promising to expand the application market for SPs and boost the advancement of the soybean industry.

Revealing the mechanism underlying the effects of γ-aminobutyric acid-dioscorin interactions on dioscorin structure and emulsifying properties by molecular dynamic simulations

Many studies have shown that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) exhibits various beneficial biological activities, including gut-modulating, neuro-stimulating, and cardio-protecting activities. Naturally, GABA exists in small amounts in yam, which is primarily synthesized by the decarboxylation of L-glutamic acid in the presence of glutamate decarboxylase. Dioscorin, the major tuber storage protein of yam, has been shown to have good solubility and emulsifying activity. However, how GABA interacts with dioscorin and affects their properties has yet to be clarified. In this research, the physicochemical and emulsifying properties of GABA-fortified dioscorin, which was dried by spray drying and freeze drying, were studied. As results, the freeze-dried (FD) dioscorin produced more stable emulsions, while the spray-dried (SD) dioscorin adsorbed more rapidly to oil/water (O/W) interface. The fluorescence spectroscopy, ultraviolet spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that GABA changed the structure of dioscorin, by exposing its hydrophobic groups. The addition of GABA significantly promoted the adsorption of dioscorin to the O/W interface and prevented droplets coalescence. The results of molecular dynamics simulation (MD) showed that GABA destroyed the H-bond network between dioscorin and water, increased surface hydrophobicity and finally improved the emulsifying properties of dioscorin.

Physicochemical properties and in vitro digestion behavior of emulsion gels stabilized by rice bran protein aggregates: Effects of heating time and induction methods

To investigate the effects of heating time and induction methods on the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestion behavior of emulsion gels, rice bran protein aggregates (RBPAs) were formed by acid-heat induction (90 °C, pH 2.0) and the emulsion gels were further prepared by adding GDL or/and laccase for single/double cross-linked induction. Heating time affected the aggregation and oil/water interfacial adsorption behavior of RBPAs. Suitable heating (1-6 h) was conducive to faster and more adsorption of aggregates at the oil/water interface. While excessive heating (7-10 h) resulted in protein precipitation, which inhibited the adsorption at the oil/water interface. The heating time at 2, 4, 5 and 6 h was thus chosen to prepare the subsequent emulsion gels. Compared with the single cross-linked emulsion gels, the double-cross-linked emulsion gels showed higher water holding capacity (WHC). After simulated gastrointestinal digestion, the single/double cross-linked emulsion gels all exhibited slow-release effect on free fatty acid (FFA). Moreover, the WHC and final FFA release rate of emulsion gels were closely related to the surface hydrophobicity, molecular flexibility, sulfhydryl, disulfide bond and interface behavior of RBPAs. Generally, these findings proved the potential of emulsion gels in designing fat alternatives, which could provide a novel technique for the fabrication of low-fat food.

Fabrication, in-vitro digestion and pH-responsive release behavior of soy protein isolate glycation conjugates-based hydrogels

Hydrogel made by glycated soy protein isolate (SPI) conjugates is a promising gastrointestinal targeted delivery system for bioactives. In this study, SPI conjugates were prepared with dextran molecules at various molecular weights by Maillard reaction -based heating, and then used to fabricate hydrogel aided by transglutaminase. The modification on the structure, interfacial and rheological properties of SPI by dextran was studied. The physicochemical properties, digestion behavior and curcumin-encapsulation capacity of resultant SPI-dextran hydrogels were comprehensively studied. As compared to SPI and SPI-glucose conjugates-based hydrogels, SPI-dextran hydrogels showed lower mechanical properties but more homogeneous gel network. Dextran with higher molecular weight showed lower grafting degree on SPI, but was more effective on improving the thermos-set gel performance, and resistance to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The contribution of glycinin and β-conglycinin, two major individual proteins of SPI, in the dextran conjugates formation were predicated by molecular docking for the first time. The impact of molecular weight of dextran on glycated SPI hydrogel-based delivery systems was comprehensively investigated, which is promising for development of functional food applications.

Behavior of protein-polysaccharide conjugate-stabilized food emulsions under various destabilization conditions

The sensitivity of protein-stabilized emulsions to flocculation, coalescence, and phase separation under destabilization conditions (i.e., heating, aging, pH, ionic strength, and freeze-thawing) may limit the widespread use of proteins as effective emulsifiers. Therefore, there is a great interest in modulating and improving the technological functionality of food proteins by conjugating them with polysaccharides, through the Maillard reaction. The present review article highlights the current approaches of protein-polysaccharide conjugate formation, their interfacial properties, and the behavior of protein-polysaccharide conjugate stabilized emulsions under various destabilization conditions, including long-term storage, heating and freeze-thawing treatments, acidic conditions, high ionic strength, and oxidation. Protein-polysaccharide conjugates are capable of forming a thick and cohesive macromolecular layer around oil droplets in food emulsions and stabilizing them against flocculation and coalescence under unfavorable conditions, through steric and electrostatic repulsion. The protein-polysaccharide conjugates could be therefore industrially used to design emulsion-based functional foods with high physicochemical stability.

Ultrasound-assisted reverse micelle extraction and characterization of tea protein from tea residue

BACKGROUND

In this study, ultrasonic-assisted reverse micelles were used to extract tea protein from tea residues. First, the extraction conditions of ultrasonic power, ionic strength and pH were optimized by response surface methodology. Then, structural comparison of ultrasonic-assisted reverse micelle extraction of tea protein (UARME) and ultrasonic-assisted alkali extraction (UAAE) were performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and amino acid composition.

RESULTS

The optimum process conditions were determined as follows: ultrasonic power 300 W, KCl 0.15 mol L^-1 , pH 8. The extraction rate was 46.29%, which was close to the theoretical value (46.44%). SEM showed that the protein particles extracted by UARME were smaller than those by UAAE. The results of FTIR spectroscopy showed that the protein extracted by UARME had higher α-helix, β-sheet and β-turn, and the contents were 20%, 62.3% and 17.1%, respectively. The content of random coil was 0%, which was significantly lower than that of alkali extraction, indicating that the secondary structure of protein extracted by UARME was more orderly. By comparing the amino acid composition of the two methods, the amino acid content of tea protein extracted by UARME was significantly higher than that of UAAE.

CONCLUSION

The biological activity of tea protein is closely related to its structure. Compared with alkali extraction, reverse micelles can better protect the secondary structure of proteins, which is of great significance for studying their functional properties. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ultrasound-assisted free radical modification on the structural and functional properties of ovalbumin-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) conjugates

The influence of ultrasound-assisted free radical modification on the structure and functional properties of ovalbumin-epigallocatechin gallate (OVA-EGCG) conjugates was investigated by experimental measurements and computer simulations. Compared with the traditional free radical condition, the ultrasonic-assisted processing significantly increased the conjugating efficiency of OVA and EGCG and shortened the conjugating from 24 h to 1 h without affecting the equivalent amount of EGCG conjugating. The sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and multi-spectroscopy analysis (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy, and UV spectroscopy) indicated that the covalent conjugates could be formed between OVA and EGCG. And modification in the conformation of OVA was induced by EGCG. Furthermore, molecular docking results demonstrated the possession of high-affinity EGCG binding location on OVA, supporting and clarifying the experimental results. In addition, the functional properties of OVA including emulsification (emulsifying activity and emulsion stability) and antioxidant properties (DPPH scavenging capacity and ABTS scavenging capacity) were significantly improved after conjugation with EGCG, especially in ultrasound-assisted conditions. Overall, OVA-EGCG conjugates produced by ultrasound-assisted free radical treatment could be applied as a potential emulsifier and antioxidant, thereby expanding the application of OVA as a dual-functional ingredient.

Correlation between interfacial layer properties and physical stability of food emulsions: current trends, challenges, strategies, and further perspectives

Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable systems that tend to separate into two immiscible phases over time. The interfacial layer formed by the emulsifiers adsorbed at the oil-water interface plays an important role in the emulsion stability. The interfacial layer properties of emulsion droplets have been considered the cutting-in points that influence emulsion stability, a traditional motif of physical chemistry and colloid chemistry of particular significance in relation to the food science and technology sector. Although many attempts have shown that high interfacial viscoelasticity may contribute to long-term emulsion stability, a universal relationship for all cases between the interfacial layer features at the microscopic scale and the bulk physical stability of the emulsion at the macroscopic scale remains to be established. Not only that, but integrating the cognition from different scales of emulsions and establishing a unified single model to fill the gap in awareness between scales also remain challenging. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of recent progress in the general science of emulsion stability with a peculiar focus on interfacial layer characteristics in relation to the formation and stabilization of food emulsions, where the natural origin and edible safety of emulsifiers and stabilizers are highly requested. This review begins with a general overview of the construction and destruction of interfacial layers in emulsions to highlight the most important physicochemical characteristics of interfacial layers (formation kinetics, surface load, interactions among adsorbed emulsifiers, thickness and structure, and shear and dilatational rheology), and their roles in controlling emulsion stability. Subsequently, the structural effects of a series of typically dietary emulsifiers (small-molecule surfactants,proteins, polysaccharides, protein-polysaccharide complexes, and particles) on oil-water interfaces in food emulsions are emphasized. Finally, the main protocols developed for modifying the structural characteristics of adsorbed emulsifiers at multiple scales and improving the stability of emulsions are highlighted. Overall, this paper aims to comprehensively study the literature findings in the past decade and find out the commonality of multi-scale structures of emulsifiers, so as to deeply understand the common characteristics and emulsification stability behaviour of adsorption emulsifiers with different interfacial layer structures. It is difficult to say that there has been significant progress in the underlying principles and technologies in the general science of emulsion stability over the last decade or two. However, the correlation between interfacial layer properties and physical stability of food emulsions promotes revealing the role of interfacial rheological properties in emulsion stability, providing guidance on controlling the bulk properties by tuning the interfacial layer functionality.

Formation mechanism and functional properties of walnut protein isolate and soy protein isolate nanoparticles using the pH-cycle technology

Walnut protein isolate (WPI) is a nutritious protein with poor solubility, which severely limits its application. In this study, composite nanoparticles were prepared from WPI and soy protein isolate (SPI) using the pH-cycle technology. The WPI solubility increased from 12.64 to 88.53% with a WPI: SPI ratio increased from 1: 0.01 to 1: 1. Morphological and structural analyses illustrated that interaction forces with hydrogen bonding as the main effect jointly drive the binding of WPI to SPI and that protein co-folding occurs during the neutralization process, resulting in a hydrophilic rigid structure. In addition, the interfacial characterization showed that the composite nanoparticle with a large surface charge enhanced the affinity with water molecules, prevented protein aggregation, and protected the new hydrophilic structure from damage. All these parameters helped to maintain the stability of the composite nanoparticles in a neutral environment. Amino acid analysis, emulsification capacity, foaming, and stability analysis showed that the prepared WPI-based nanoparticles exhibited good nutritional and functional properties. Overall, this study could provide a technical reference for the value-added use of WPI and an alternative strategy for delivering natural food ingredients.

Different interactions between Tartary buckwheat protein and Tartary buckwheat phenols during extraction: Alterations in the conformation and antioxidant activity of protein

The purpose of this study is to investigate the interaction between buckwheat protein and buckwheat phenols in the process of protein extraction and to compare the effects of phenols on protein structure and antioxidant activity. With the extension of extraction time, the content of total phenol increased from 150.51 to 336.01 mg gallic acid equivalent/g sample. Four phenols and seven phenols were identified by UPLC-Q/TOF-MS as binding to proteins in non-covalent and covalent forms, respectively. The contribution of non-covalent and covalent bound phenols to the antioxidant activity of the complexes were different. Meanwhile, the binding of phenols changed the infrared characteristic peak of protein, and reduced the fluorescence intensity and surface hydrophobic value. The free amino and sulfhydryl content of the protein decreased with increasing extraction time. These findings provide valuable information for one-step preparation of protein-phenol complexes.

Emulsion Properties during Microencapsulation of Cannabis Oil Based on Protein and Sucrose Esters as Emulsifiers: Stability and Rheological Behavior

The effects of different emulsifiers, such as soy protein isolate-sucrose ester (SPI-SE) and whey protein isolate-sucrose ester (WPI-SE), on the properties of the emulsion during the microencapsulation of cannabis oil were studied. The influence of SE concentration on the emulsion properties of the two emulsifying systems was analyzed. The results of the adsorption kinetics show that SE can decrease the interfacial tension, particle size and zeta potential of the emulsions. The results of the interfacial protein concentration show that SE could competitively replace the protein at the oil-water interface and change the strength of the interfacial film. The results of the viscoelastic properties show that the emulsion structure of the two emulsion systems results in the maximum value when the concentration of SE is 0.75% (w/v), and the elastic modulus (G') of the emulsion prepared with SPI-SE is high. The viscosity results show that all emulsions show shear-thinning behavior and the curve fits well with the Ostwald-Dewaele model. The addition of SE in the emulsions of the two emulsion systems can effectively stabilize the emulsion and change the composition and strength of the oil-water interface of the emulsion. The cannabis oil microcapsules prepared with protein-SE as an emulsion system exhibit high quality.

UV/Fe(II) synergistically activated S(IV) per-treatment on HA-enhanced Ca2+ scaling in NF filtration: Fouling mitigation, mechanisms and correlation analysis of membrane resistance in different filtration stage

The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility and fouling mitigation mechanisms of UV/Fe(II) synergistically activated sulfite (S(IV)) (UFS) pretreatment to alleviate membrane fouling caused by HA-enhanced Ca²⁺ scaling. After UFS treatment, hydrophobic substances and carboxyl groups structure were destroyed by the in-situ-generated SO•-4, resulted in a significant reduction of hydrophobic substances ratio and carboxyl group concentration. Due to the formation of more electropositive in-situ-generated Fe(III), the complexation between Ca²⁺ and carboxyl groups was weakened so that the bulk crystallization size on the membrane surface was greatly reduced. The filter cake enhanced osmotic pressure effect (CEOP) and concentration polarization effect were hence alleviated, as well as the surface roughness. At the microcosmic perspective, as the energy barrier between the membrane and foulants was increased significantly after pretreatment, the anti-foulants adsorption ability of the membrane was enhanced. Correlation analysis showed that the carboxyl concentration and density, HPO ratio, larger particle size (>100 nm) ratio, the Ca²⁺ concentration in the scaling layer and energy barrier all had a good correlation with the membrane resistance. This research not only provides an advanced oxidation technology that can effectively alleviate the synergistically-fouling effect of HA and Ca²⁺ of nanofiltration process, but also proposes a guidance for the UV/Fe(II) synergistically activated sulfite.

Thoroughly review the recent progresses in improving O/W interfacial properties of proteins through various strategies

Along with the future food market developing world widely, the personalized nutrition and rational function food design are found to be urgently attracted. Oil in a water (O/W) emulsion system has an excellent ability to maintain nutraceuticals and thus plays a promising role in producing future functional foods. Understanding the interfacial related mechanisms involved are essential for improving the quality of food products. Protein can effectively reduce interfacial tension and stable immiscible phases. The interfacial properties of proteins directly affect the emulsion qualities, which have gradually become a prospective topic. This review will first briefly discuss the interfacial-related fundamental factors of proteins. Next, the paper thoroughly overviewed current physical and chemical strategies tailored to improving the interfacial and emulsion properties of proteins. To be summarized, a higher flexibility could allow protein to be more easily unfolded and adsorbed onto the interface but could also possibly form a softer interfacial film. Several physical strategies, such as thermal, ultrasound and especially high-pressure homogenization are well applied to improve the interfacial properties. The interfacial behavior is also altered by various green chemical strategies, such as pH adjustment, covalent modification, and low molecular weight (LMW) surfactant addition. These strategies upgraded emulsion properties by increasing adsorption load, accelerating diffusion and adsorption rate, associated with lowering interfacial tension, and promoting interfacial protein interactions. Future researches targeted at elucidating interfacial-bulk protein interactions, unraveling interfacial behavior through in silico tools, exploring connection between interfacial-industrial processing properties, and clarifying the interfacial-sensory-digestive relationships of O/W emulsions is needed to develop emulsion applications.

Gellan gum conjugation with soy protein via Maillard-driven molecular interactions and subsequent clustering lead to conjugates with tuned technological functionality

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Soy protein isolate (SPI) was conjugated to low acyl gellan gum (LAGG).

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Conjugate formation was confirmed by glycation degree (DG) and structural changes.

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SPI-LAGG conjugates were classified into low, medium, and high DG clusters.

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A low DG was enough to enhance the techno-functional properties of SPI.

Soy proteins are frequently used in the food industry; however, they have rigid and compact structure with relatively poor interfacial properties and solubility. This study was therefore aimed to modify techno-functional characteristics of soy protein isolate (SPI; 0.1% w/v) by conjugating to low acyl gellan gum (LAGG; 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% w/v), through the Maillard reaction (at 90 °C for 90 min). The SPI-LAGG conjugates were confirmed by changes in pH, glycation degree (DG; up to 48%), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide electrophoresis. The conjugates were then classified into three clusters of low, medium, and high DG, via K-means clustering method. The low DG conjugate had lower surface hydrophobicity and foaming capacity, and higher thermal stability, solubility, emulsifying properties, foam stability, and antioxidant activity compared to the other clusters. This indicated that a low DG is required to enhance the functional properties of proteins.

Effects of UV/Fe(II)/sulfite pre-treatment on NOM-enhanced Ca2+ scaling during nanofiltration treatment: Fouling mitigation, mechanisms, and correlation analysis of membrane resistance

This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of a pre-treatment involving sulfite (S(IV)) synergistically activated by ultraviolet (UV)/Fe(II) on natural organic matter (NOM)-enhanced Ca²⁺ scaling during nanofiltration treatment. Based on the variations in the physicochemical properties and correlation analyses of irreversible resistance, the intrinsic fouling mechanisms were revealed from two aspects: bulk crystallization (interaction between NOM and inorganic ions) and surface crystallization (morphology of surface crystallization and a change in the Ca²⁺ concentration in the scaling layer). Furthermore, the degradation contribution rates of different free radicals during the UV/Fe(II)/S(IV) (UFS) treatment process were evaluated. During the reactions in the UFS, three free radicals (SO·-4, OH^·- and e- aq) were generated, and in-situ Fe(III) was formed in-situ. The carboxyl groups of the NOM were attacked by the free radicals, resulting in decreased of carboxyl concentration and density. In addition, the bond between Ca²⁺ and NOM weakened, and hydrophobic (HPO) substances were mineralized. However, the Fe(III) formed in-situ was active and electropositive, competing with Ca²⁺ for the complexation active sites on the NOM. The synergy effect of bulk crystallization and surface crystallization led to a significant decrease in the particle size of feed solution. The crystal size and roughness of membrane surface also decreased, which was conducive to reducing the membrane irreversible resistance. Correlation analysis revealed that the HPO ratio, carboxyl density and particle size (> 100 nm) ratio were effective characterization parameters for predicting irreversible resistance. This study not only provides guidance for alleviating membrane fouling caused by NOM-enhanced Ca²⁺ scaling during the nanofiltration process, but also presents the rationality of irreversible resistance during nanofiltration process and various indicators with strong linear correlation.

Structural and emulsifying properties of soybean protein isolate glycated with glucose based on pH treatment

BACKGROUNDS

In the present study, a glycosylated soybean protein with glucose was prepared after pH treatment under different conditions (5.0, 6.0 7.0, 8.0, 9.0) and the conformation and emulsifying properties of soybean protein isolate (SPI) and soybean protein isolate-glucose (SPI-G) were investigated.

RESULTS

The degree of grafting (37.11%) and browning (39.2%) of SPI-G conjugates were obtained at pH 9.0 (P < 0.05). The results of analysis of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Endogenous fluorescence spectroscopy showed that the Maillard reaction between the SPI and glucose occurred and the natural rigid structure of test proteins was stretched and became looser, and thus the tertiary conformation was unfolding. Furthermore, the particle size of the all of samples was reduced under different pH conditions, indicating that pH treatment can increase the flexibility of SPI molecules. The proteins exhibited the best surface hydrophobicity, thermal stability and emulsifying activity (EA) of modified products when subjected to a pH treatment of 9.0, whereas they afforded the best emulsion stability (ES) at pH 8.0. There was a good correlation between the molecular flexibility and emulsifying properties of SPI-G [0.963 (F:EA) and 0.879 (F:ES)] (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The present study shows that the structural and emulsification characteristics of natural SPI and SPI-G conjugates have been significantly enhanced via pH treatment and these results provide a theoretical guidance for the application of glycosylated SPI in the food industry. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Fibrous and Spherical Aggregates of Ovotransferrin as Stabilizers for Oleogel-Based Pickering Emulsions: Preparation, Characteristics and Curcumin Delivery

This study aimed to explore the effects and mechanisms of differently shaped aggregates of ovotransferrin (OVT) particles on oleogel-based Pickering emulsions (OPEs). Medium-chain triglyceride oil-based oleogels were constructed using beeswax, and their gel-sol melting temperatures were investigated. Atomic force microscopy confirmed that both OVT fibrils and OVT spheres were successfully prepared, and the three-phase contact angle measurements indicated that fibrous and spherical aggregates of OVT particles possessed great potential to stabilize the OPEs. Afterward, the oil-in-water OPEs were fabricated using oleogel as the oil phase and OVT fibrils/spheres as the emulsifiers. The results revealed that OPEs stabilized with OVT fibrils (FIB-OPEs) presented a higher degree of emulsification, smaller droplet size, better physical stability and stronger apparent viscosity compared with OPEs stabilized with OVT spheres (SPH-OPEs). The freeze–thaw stability test showed that the FIB-OPEs remained stable after three freeze–thaw cycles, while the SPH-OPEs could barely withstand one freeze–thaw cycle. An in vitro digestion study suggested that OVT fibrils conferred distinctly higher lipolysis (46.0%) and bioaccessibility (62.8%) of curcumin to OPEs.