Human papillomavirus L1 protein expressed in tobacco chloroplasts self-assembles into virus-like particles that are highly immunogenic

Overview of Recombinant Tick Vaccines and Perspectives on the Use of Plant-Made Vaccines to Control Ticks of Veterinary Importance

Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites that affect animals, and some of them transmit a wide range of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, and protozoa to both animals and humans. Several vaccines have shown immunogenicity and protective efficacy against ticks in animal models and definitive hosts. After several decades on anti-tick vaccine research, only a commercial vaccine based on a recombinant antigen is currently available. In this context, plants offer three decades of research and development on recombinant vaccine production to immunize hosts and as a delivery vehicle platform. Despite the experimental advances in plant-made vaccines to control several parasitosis and infectious diseases, no vaccine prototype has been developed against ticks. This review examines a panorama of ticks of veterinary importance, recombinant vaccine experimental developments, plant-made vaccine platforms, and perspectives on using this technology as well as the opportunities and limitations in the field of tick vaccine research.

Advances in Subcellular Accumulation Design for Recombinant Protein Production in Tobacco

Plants and their use as bioreactors for the generation of recombinant proteins have become one of the hottest topics in the field of Plant Biotechnology and Plant Synthetic Biology. Plant bioreactors offer superior engineering potential compared to other types, particularly in the realm of subcellular accumulation strategies for increasing production yield and quality. This review explores established and emerging strategies for subcellular accumulation of recombinant proteins in tobacco bioreactors, highlighting recent advancements in the field. Additionally, the review provides reference to the crucial initial step of selecting an optimal subcellular localization for the target protein, a design that substantially impacts production outcomes.

Assembly of Human Papillomavirus 16 L1 Protein in Nicotiana benthamiana Chloroplasts into Highly Immunogenic Virus-Like Particles

Infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause cervical cancers in women, and vaccination against the virus is one of most effective ways to prevent these cancers. Two vaccines made of virus-like particles (VLPs) of HPV L1 proteins are currently commercially available. However, these HPV vaccines are highly expensive, and thus not affordable for women living in developing countries. Therefore, great demand exists to produce a cost-effective vaccine. Here, we investigate the production of self-assembled HPV16 VLPs in plants. We generated a chimeric protein composed of N-terminal 79 amino acid residues of RbcS as a long-transit peptide to target chloroplasts, the SUMO domain, and HPV16 L1 proteins. The chimeric gene was expressed in plants with chloroplast-targeted bdSENP1, a protein that specifically recognizes the SUMO domain and cleaves its cleavage site. This co-expression of bdSENP1 led to the release of HPV16 L1 from the chimeric proteins without any extra amino acid residues. HPV16 L1 purified by heparin chromatography formed VLPs that mimicked native virions. Moreover, the plant-produced HPV16 L1 VLPs elicited strong immune responses in mice without adjuvants. Thus, we demonstrated the cost-effective production of HPV16 VLPs in plants.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12374-023-09393-6.

A CRR2-Dependent sRNA Sequence Supports Papillomavirus Vaccine Expression in Tobacco Chloroplasts

Introduction: Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the leading cause of cervical cancer, and vaccination with HPV L1 capsid proteins has been successful in controlling it. However, vaccination coverage is not universal, particularly in developing countries, where 80% of all cervical cancer cases occur. Cost-effective vaccination could be achieved by expressing the L1 protein in plants. Various efforts have been made to produce the L1 protein in plants, including attempts to express it in chloroplasts for high-yield performance. However, manipulating chloroplast gene expression requires complex and difficult-to-control expression elements. In recent years, a family of nuclear-encoded, chloroplast-targeted RNA-binding proteins, the pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins, were described as key regulators of chloroplast gene expression. For example, PPR proteins are used by plants to stabilize and translate chloroplast mRNAs. Objectives: To demonstrate that a PPR target site can be used to drive HPV L1 expression in chloroplasts. Methods: To test our hypothesis, we used biolistic chloroplast transformation to establish tobacco lines that express two variants of the HPV L1 protein under the control of the target site of the PPR protein CHLORORESPIRATORY REDUCTION2 (CRR2). The transgenes were inserted into a dicistronic operon driven by the plastid rRNA promoter. To determine the effectiveness of the PPR target site for the expression of the HPV L1 protein in the chloroplasts, we analyzed the accumulation of the transgenic mRNA and its processing, as well as the accumulation of the L1 protein in the transgenic lines. Results: We established homoplastomic lines carrying either the HPV18 L1 protein or an HPV16B Enterotoxin::L1 fusion protein. The latter line showed severe growth retardation and pigment loss, suggesting that the fusion protein is toxic to the chloroplasts. Despite the presence of dicistronic mRNAs, we observed very little accumulation of monocistronic transgenic mRNA and no significant increase in CRR2-associated small RNAs. Although both lines expressed the L1 protein, quantification using an external standard suggested that the amounts were low. Conclusions: Our results suggest that PPR binding sites can be used to drive vaccine expression in plant chloroplasts; however, the factors that modulate the effectiveness of target gene expression remain unclear. The identification of dozens of PPR binding sites through small RNA sequencing expands the set of expression elements available for high-value protein production in chloroplasts.

Tobacco-Based Vaccines, Hopes, and Concerns: A Systematic Review

Emerging infectious diseases have vigorously devastated the global economy and health sector; cost-effective plant-based vaccines (PBV) can be the potential solution to withstand the current health economic crisis. The prominent role of tobacco as an efficient expression system for PBV has been well-established for decades, through this review we highlight the importance of tobacco-based vaccines (TBV) against evolving infectious diseases in humans. Studies focusing on the use of TBV for human infectious diseases were searched in PubMed, Google Scholar, and science direct from 1995 to 2021 using the keywords Tobacco-based vaccines OR transgenic tobacco OR Nicotiana benthamiana vaccines AND Infectious diseases or communicable diseases. We carried out a critical review of the articles and studies that fulfilled the eligibility criteria and were included in this review. Of 976 studies identified, only 63 studies fulfilling the eligibility criteria were included, which focused on either the in vitro, in vivo, or clinical studies on TBV for human infectious diseases. Around 43 in vitro studies of 23 different infectious pathogens expressed in tobacco-based systems were identified and 23 in vivo analysis studies were recognized to check the immunogenicity of vaccine candidates while only 10 of these were subjected to clinical trials. Viral infectious pathogens were studied more than bacterial pathogens. From our review, it was evident that TBV can be an effective health strategy to combat the emerging viral infectious diseases which are very difficult to manage with the current health facilities. The timely administration of cost-effective TBV can prevent the outburst of viral infections, thereby can protect the global healthcare system to a greater extent.

Harnessing the Potential of Plant Expression System towards the Production of Vaccines for the Prevention of Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is the most common gynecological malignant tumor worldwide, and it remains a major health problem among women, especially in developing countries. Despite the significant research efforts employed for tumor prevention, cervical cancer ranks as the leading cause of cancer death. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most important risk factor for cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is a preventable disease, for which early detection could increase survival rates. Immunotherapies represent a promising approach in the treatment of cancer, and several potential candidates are in clinical trials, while some are available in the market. However, equal access to available HPV vaccines is limited due to their high cost, which remains a global challenge for cervical cancer prevention. The implementation of screening programs, disease control systems, and medical advancement in developed countries reduce the serious complications associated with the disease somewhat; however, the incidence and prevalence of cervical cancer in low-income and middle-income countries continues to gradually increase, making it the leading cause of mortality, largely due to the unaffordable and inaccessible anti-cancer therapeutic options. In recent years, plants have been considered as a cost-effective production system for the development of vaccines, therapeutics, and other biopharmaceuticals. Several proof-of-concept studies showed the possibility of producing recombinant biopharmaceuticals for cancer immunotherapy in a plant platform. This review summarizes the current knowledge and therapeutic options for the prevention of cervical cancer and discusses the potential of the plant expression platform to produce affordable HPV vaccines.

Recent Progress on Vaccines Produced in Transgenic Plants

The development of vaccines from plants has been going on for over two decades now. Vaccine production in plants requires time and a lot of effort. Despite global efforts in plant-made vaccine development, there are still challenges that hinder the realization of the final objective of manufacturing approved and safe products. Despite delays in the commercialization of plant-made vaccines, there are some human vaccines that are in clinical trials. The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and its resultant disease, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), have reminded the global scientific community of the importance of vaccines. Plant-made vaccines could not be more important in tackling such unexpected pandemics as COVID-19. In this review, we explore current progress in the development of vaccines manufactured in transgenic plants for different human diseases over the past 5 years. However, we first explore the different host species and plant expression systems during recombinant protein production, including their shortcomings and benefits. Lastly, we address the optimization of existing plant-dependent vaccine production protocols that are aimed at improving the recovery and purification of these recombinant proteins.

The production of the first functional antibody mimetic in higher plants: the chloroplast makes the DARPin G3 for HER2 imaging in oncology

Background

Designed mimetic molecules are attractive tools in biopharmaceuticals and synthetic biology. They require mass and functional production for the assessment of upcoming challenges in the near future. The DARPin family is considered a mimetic pharmaceutical peptide group with high affinity binding to specific targets. DARPin G3 is designed to bind to the HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) tyrosine kinase receptor. Overexpression of HER2 is common in some cancers, including breast cancer, and can be used as a prognostic and predictive tool for cancer. The chloroplasts are cost-effective alternatives, equal to, and sometimes better than, bacterial, yeast, or mammalian expression systems. This research examined the possibility of the production of the first antibody mimetic, DARPin G3, in tobacco chloroplasts for HER2 imaging in oncology.

Results

The chloroplast specific DARPin G3 expression cassette was constructed and transformed into N. tabacum chloroplasts. PCR and Southern blot analysis confirmed integration of transgenes as well as chloroplastic and cellular homoplasmy. The Western blot analysis and ELISA confirmed the production of DARPin G3 at the commercial scale and high dose with the rate of 20.2% in leaf TSP and 33.7% in chloroplast TSP. The functional analysis by ELISA confirmed the binding of IMAC purified chloroplast-made DARPin G3 to the extracellular domain of the HER2 receptor with highly effective picomolar affinities. The carcinoma cellular studies by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed the correct functioning by the specific binding of the chloroplast-made DARPin G3 to the HER2 receptor on the surface of HER2-positive cancer cell lines.

Conclusion

The efficient functional bioactive production of DARPin G3 in chloroplasts led us to introduce plant chloroplasts as the site of efficient production of the first antibody mimetic molecules. This report, as the first case of the cost-effective production of mimetic molecules, enables researchers in pharmaceuticals, synthetic biology, and bio-molecular engineering to develop tool boxes by producing new molecular substitutes for diverse purposes.

Emerging trends of edible vaccine therapy for combating human diseases especially COVID ‐19: Pros, cons, and future challenges

The researchers are still doing efforts to develop an effective, reliable, and easily accessible vaccine candidate to protect against COVID‐19. As of the August 2020, nearly 30 conventional vaccines have been emerged in clinical trials, and more than 200 vaccines are in various development stages. Nowadays, plants are also considered as a potential source for the production of monoclonal antibodies, vaccines, drugs, immunomodulatory proteins, as well as used as bioreactors or factories for their bulk production. The scientific evidences enlighten that plants are the rich source of oral vaccines, which can be given either by eating the edible parts of plants and/or by oral administration of highly refined proteins. The use of plant‐based edible vaccines is an emerging trend as it possesses minimum or no side effects compared with synthetic vaccines. This review article gives insights into different types of vaccines, the use of edible vaccines, advantages of edible vaccines over conventional vaccines, and mechanism of action of edible vaccines. This review article also focuses on the applications of edible vaccines in wide‐range of human diseases especially against COVID‐19 with emphasis on future perspectives of the use of edible vaccines.

Contributions of the international plant science community to the fight against human infectious diseases - part 1: epidemic and pandemic diseases

Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible or communicable diseases, are caused by pathogens or parasites that spread in communities by direct contact with infected individuals or contaminated materials, through droplets and aerosols, or via vectors such as insects. Such diseases cause ˜17% of all human deaths and their management and control places an immense burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Traditional approaches for the prevention and control of infectious diseases include vaccination programmes, hygiene measures and drugs that suppress the pathogen, treat the disease symptoms or attenuate aggressive reactions of the host immune system. The provision of vaccines and biologic drugs such as antibodies is hampered by the high cost and limited scalability of traditional manufacturing platforms based on microbial and animal cells, particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are prevalent and poorly controlled. Molecular farming, which uses plants for protein expression, is a promising strategy to address the drawbacks of current manufacturing platforms. In this review article, we consider the potential of molecular farming to address healthcare demands for the most prevalent and important epidemic and pandemic diseases, focussing on recent outbreaks of high-mortality coronavirus infections and diseases that disproportionately affect the developing world.

Mass Production of Virus-Like Particles Using Chloroplast Genetic Engineering for Highly Immunogenic Oral Vaccine Against Fish Disease

Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) is the causative agent of viral nervous necrosis (VNN), which is one of the most serious fish diseases leading to mass mortality in a wide range of fish species worldwide. Although a few injectable inactivated vaccines are commercially available, there is a need for more labor-saving, cost-effective, and fish-friendly immunization methods. The use of transgenic plants expressing pathogen-derived recombinant antigens as edible vaccines is an ideal way to meet these requirements. In this study, chloroplast genetic engineering was successfully utilized to overexpress the red-spotted grouper NNV capsid protein (RGNNV-CP). The RGNNV-CP accumulated at high levels in all young, mature, and old senescent leaves of transplastomic tobacco plants (averaging approximately 3 mg/g leaf fresh weight). The RGNNV-CP efficiently self-assembled into virus-like particles (RGNNV-VLPs) in the chloroplast stroma of the transgenic lines, which could be readily observed by in situ transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, intraperitoneal injection and oral administration of the crudely purified protein extract containing chloroplast-derived RGNNV-VLPs provided the sevenband grouper fish with sufficient protection against RGNNV challenge, and its immunogenicity was comparable to that of a commercial injectable vaccine. These findings indicate that chloroplast-derived VLP vaccines may play a promising role in the prevention of various diseases, not only in fish but also in other animals, including humans.

Plant Platforms for Efficient Heterologous Protein Production

Production of recombinant proteins is primarily established in cultures of mammalian, insect and bacterial cells. Concurrently, concept of using plants to produce high-value pharmaceuticals such as vaccines, antibodies, and dietary proteins have received worldwide attention. Newer technologies for plant transformation such as plastid engineering, agroinfiltration, magnifection, and deconstructed viral vectors have been used to enhance the protein production in plants along with the inherent advantage of speed, scale, and cost of production in plant systems. Production of therapeutic proteins in plants has now a more pragmatic approach when several plant-produced vaccines and antibodies successfully completed Phase I clinical trials in humans and were further scheduled for regulatory approvals to manufacture clinical grade products on a large scale which are safe, efficacious, and meet the quality standards. The main thrust of this review is to summarize the data accumulated over the last two decades and recent development and achievements of the plant derived therapeutics. It also attempts to discuss different strategies employed to increase the production so as to make plants more competitive with the established production systems in this industry.

Immunogenicity of Plant-Produced Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Virus-Like Particles (VLPs)

Cervical cancer is ranked fourth among the top cancers in women and is the second most common cancer in low- and middle-income regions, with ~570,000 new cases reported in 2018, which attributed to 84% of worldwide cervical cancer cases. Three commercially available prophylactic Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines are effective at preventing HPV infections. However, these vaccines are expensive due to their complex production systems, therefore limiting their use in developing countries. Recently, the use of plants to produce vaccines has emerged as a cost-effective alternative to conventionally used expression systems. Here, L1 proteins of eight high-risk (HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 45, 52, and 58) and two low risk (HPV 6 and 34) HPV types were successfully expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed the presence of VLPs and/or capsomeres. Immunogenicity studies were conducted in mice utilizing HPV 35, 52, and 58 and showed that type-specific L1-specific antibodies were produced which were able to successfully neutralize homologous HPV pseudovirions in pseudovirion-based neutralization assays (PBNAs). This work demonstrated the potential for using plant-based transient expression systems to produce affordable and immunogenic HPV vaccines, particularly for developing countries.

Promotion of Cellular and Humoral Immunity against Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus by Immunization with Virus-Like Particles Encapsulated in Monophosphoryl Lipid A and Liposomes

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have emerged as promising vaccine candidates against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). However, such vaccines provide a relatively low level of protection against FMD virus (FMDV) because of their poor immunogenicity. Therefore, it is necessary to design effective vaccine strategies that induce more potent immunogenicity. In order to investigate the means to improve FMD VLP vaccine (VLP_FMDV) immunogenicity, we encapsulated VLPs (MPL/DDA-VLP_FMDV) with cationic liposomes based on dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDA) and/or monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL, TLR4 agonist) as adjuvants. Unlike inactivated whole-cell vaccines, VLP_FMDV were successfully encapsulated in this MPL/DDA system. We found that MPL/DDA-VLP_FMDV could induce strong cell-mediated immune responses by inducing not only VLP-specific IFN-γ⁺CD4⁺ (Th1), IL-17A⁺CD4⁺ (Th17), and IFN-γ⁺CD8⁺ (activated CD8 response) T cells, but also the development of VLP-specific multifunctional CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ memory T cells co-expressing IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2. In addition, the MPL/DDA-VLP_FMDV vaccine markedly induced VLP-specific antibody titers; in particular, the vaccine induced greater Th1-predominant IgG responses than VLP_FMDV only and DDA-VLP_FMDV. These results are expected to provide important clues for the development of an effective VLP_FMDV that can induce cellular and humoral immune responses, and address the limitations seen in current VLP vaccines for various diseases.

Expression of LamB Vaccine Antigen in Wolffia globosa (Duck Weed) Against Fish Vibriosis

Vibriosis is a commonly found bacterial disease identified among fish and shellfish cultured in saline waters. A multitude of Vibrio species have been identified as the causative agents. LamB, a member of outer membrane protein (OMPs) family of these bacteria is conserved among all Vibrio species and has been identified as an efficient vaccine candidate against vibriosis. Rootless duckweed (Wolffia) is a tiny, edible aquatic plant possessing characteristics suitable for the utilization as a bioreactor. Thus, we attempted to express a protective edible vaccine antigen against fish vibriosis in nuclear-transformed Wolffia. We amplified LamB gene from virulent Vibrio alginolyticus and it was modified to maximize the protein expression level and translocate the protein to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in plants. It was cloned into binary vector pMYC under the control of CaMV 35S promoter and introduced into Wolffia globosa by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Integration and expression of the LamB gene was confirmed by genomic PCR and RT-PCR. Western blot analysis revealed accumulation of the LamB protein in 8 transgenic lines. The cross-protective property of transgenic Wolffia was evaluated by orally vaccinating zebrafish through feeding fresh transgenic Wolffia and subsequently challenging with virulent V. alginolyticus. High relative percent survival (RPS) of the vaccinated fish (63.3%) confirmed that fish immunized with transgenic Wolffia were well-protected from Vibrio infection. These findings suggest that Wolffia expressed LamB could serve as an edible plant-based candidate vaccine model for fish vibriosis and feasibility of utilizing Wolffia as bioreactor to produce edible vaccines.

A global epidemic increase of an HPV-induced tonsil and tongue base cancer - potential benefit from a pan-gender use of HPV vaccine

In 2007, human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 was finally recognized as a risk factor, besides smoking and alcohol, for oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), including tonsillar squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC), by the International Agency for Research against Cancer. Just before, in 2006, the Food and Drug Administration had approved Gardasil, the first vaccine against HPV16, 18, 6 and 11, for preventive vaccination women against cervical cancer. Concurrently, some Western countries, where smoking was decreasing, disclosed an epidemic increase in the incidence of OPSCC, especially of TSCC and base of tongue cancer (BOTSCC), together accounting for 80-90% of all OPSCCs, and mainly affecting men. The epidemic was later revealed to be due to a rise in HPV-positive cases, and scientists in the field suggested HPV vaccination also of boys. Globally, there are roughly 96 000 incident OPSCC cases/year of which 20-24% are caused by HPV, thereby accounting for around 22 000 OPSCC cases annually. Of these cases, 80-90% are due to HPV16 infection and would be prevented with the presently registered HPV vaccines. In Western countries, such as Sweden (with almost 400 TSCC and BOTSCC cases per year) and the United States, HPV prevalence in OPSCC is higher and around 70%. HPV vaccination of girls has been initiated in many countries, and the vaccines have been efficient and their side effects limited. HPV vaccination of boys has, however, been the exception, but should definitely not be delayed any further. It would benefit both girls and boys directly, and result in better and more robust herd immunity. Today, we have the possibility to eliminate several high-risk HPV types in the younger generations and avoid more than 600 000 cancer cases annually worldwide, and this possibility should be embraced by offering global pan-gender HPV vaccination.

NTRC and Thioredoxin f Overexpression Differentially Induces Starch Accumulation in Tobacco Leaves

Thioredoxin (Trx) f and NADPH-dependent Trx reductase C (NTRC) have both been proposed as major redox regulators of starch metabolism in chloroplasts. However, little is known regarding the specific role of each protein in this complex mechanism. To shed light on this point, tobacco plants that were genetically engineered to overexpress the NTRC protein from the chloroplast genome were obtained and compared to previously generated Trx f-overexpressing transplastomic plants. Likewise, we investigated the impact of NTRC and Trx f deficiency on starch metabolism by generating Nicotiana benthamiana plants that were silenced for each gene. Our results demonstrated that NTRC overexpression induced enhanced starch accumulation in tobacco leaves, as occurred with Trx f. However, only Trx f silencing leads to a significant decrease in the leaf starch content. Quantitative analysis of enzyme activities related to starch synthesis and degradation were determined in all of the genotypes. Zymographic analyses were additionally performed to compare the amylolytic enzyme profiles of both transplastomic tobacco plants. Our findings indicated that NTRC overexpression promotes the accumulation of transitory leaf starch as a consequence of a diminished starch turnover during the dark period, which seems to be related to a significant reductive activation of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and/or a deactivation of a putative debranching enzyme. On the other hand, increased starch content in Trx f-overexpressing plants was connected to an increase in the capacity of soluble starch synthases during the light period. Taken together, these results suggest that NTRC and the ferredoxin/Trx system play distinct roles in starch turnover.

Substitution of Human Papillomavirus Type 16 L2 Neutralizing Epitopes Into L1 Surface Loops: The Effect on Virus-Like Particle Assembly and Immunogenicity

Cervical cancer caused by infection with human papillomaviruses (HPVs) is the fourth most common cancer in women globally, with the burden mainly in developing countries due to limited healthcare resources. Current vaccines based on virus-like particles (VLPs) assembled from recombinant expression of the immunodominant L1 protein are highly effective in the prevention of cervical infection; however, these vaccines are expensive and type-specific. Therefore, there is a need for more broadly protective and affordable vaccines. The HPV-16 L2 peptide sequences 108-120, 65-81, 56-81, and 17-36 are highly conserved across several HPV types and have been shown to elicit cross-neutralizing antibodies. To increase L2 immunogenicity, L1:L2 chimeric VLPs (cVLP) vaccine candidates were developed. The four L2 peptides mentioned above were substituted into the DE loop of HPV-16 L1 at position 131 (SAC) or in the C-terminal region at position 431 (SAE) to generate HPV-16-derived L1:L2 chimeras. All eight chimeras were transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated DNA transfer. SAC chimeras predominantly assembled into higher order structures (T = 1 and T = 7 VLPs), whereas SAE chimeras assembled into capsomeres or formed aggregates. Four SAC and one SAE chimeras were used in vaccination studies in mice, and their ability to generate cross-neutralizing antibodies was analyzed in HPV pseudovirion-based neutralization assays. Of the seven heterologous HPVs tested, cross-neutralization with antisera specific to chimeras was observed for HPV-11 (SAE 65-18), HPV-18 (SAC 108-120, SAC 65-81, SAC 56-81, SAE 65-81), and HPV-58 (SAC 108-120). Interestingly, only anti-SAE 65-81 antiserum showed neutralization of homologous HPV-16, suggesting that the position of the L2 epitope display is critical for maintaining L1-specific neutralizing epitopes.

Vaccine and antibody production in plants: developments and computational tools

Plants as bioreactors have been widely used to express efficient vaccine antigens against viral, bacterial and protozoan infections. To date, many different plant-based expression systems have been analyzed, with a growing preference for transient expression systems. Antibody expression in diverse plant species for therapeutic applications is well known, and this review provides an overview of various aspects of plant-based biopharmaceutical production. Here, we highlight conventional and gene expression technologies in plants along with some illustrative examples. In addition, the portfolio of products that are being produced and how they relate to the success of this field are discussed. Stable and transient gene expression in plants, agrofiltration and virus infection vectors are also reviewed. Further, the present report draws attention to antibody epitope prediction using computational tools, one of the crucial steps of vaccine design. Finally, regulatory issues, biosafety and public perception of this technology are also discussed.

Evaluation of lettuce chloroplast and soybean cotyledon as platforms for production of functional bone morphogenetic protein 2

The bone morphogenetic protein BMP2 plays a crucial role in the formation and regeneration of bone and cartilage, which is critical for maintaining skeletal integrity and bone fracture repair. Because of its important role in osteogenic properties it has been commercially produced for clinical use. Here we report attempts to express human BMP2 using two plant systems (lettuce chloroplast and soybean seeds). The rhBMP2 gene (coding for the 13 kDa active polypeptide) was introduced in two regions of the lettuce chloroplast genome. Two homoplasmic events were achieved and RT-PCR demonstrated that the BMP2 gene was transcribed. However, it was not possible to detect accumulation of rhBMP2 in leaves. Two soybean events were achieved to express a full-length hBMP2 gene (coding for the 45 kDa pro-BMP2) fused with the α-coixin signal peptide, under control of the β-conglycinin promoter. Pro-BMP2 was expressed in the transgenic seeds at levels of up to 9.28% of the total soluble seed protein as determined by ELISA. It was demonstrated that this recombinant form was biologically active upon administration to C2C12 cell cultures, because it was able to induce an osteogenic cascade, as observed by the enhanced expression of SP7 (osterix) and ALPI (alkaline phosphatase) genes. Collectively, these results corroborated our previous observation that soybean seeds provide an effective strategy for achieving stable accumulation of functional therapeutic proteins, such as BMP2.

Advances in Designing and Developing Vaccines, Drugs and Therapeutic Approaches to Counter Human Papilloma Virus

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a viral infection with skin-to-skin based transmission mode. HPV annually caused over 500,000 cancer cases including cervical, anogenital and oropharyngeal cancer among others. HPV vaccination has become a public-health concern, worldwide, to prevent the cases of HPV infections including precancerous lesions, cervical cancers, and genital warts especially in adolescent female and male population by launching national programs with international alliances. Currently, available prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines are expensive to be used in developing countries for vaccination programs. The recent progress in immunotherapy, biotechnology, recombinant DNA technology and molecular biology along with alternative and complementary medicinal systems have paved novel ways and valuable opportunities to design and develop effective prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines, drugs and treatment approach to counter HPV effectively. Exploration and more researches on such advances could result in the gradual reduction in the incidences of HPV cases across the world. The present review presents a current global scenario and futuristic prospects of the advanced prophylactic and therapeutic approaches against HPV along with recent patents coverage of the progress and advances in drugs, vaccines and therapeutic regimens to effectively combat HPV infections and its cancerous conditions.

Physiological performance of transplastomic tobacco plants overexpressing aquaporin AQP1 in chloroplast membranes

The leaf mesophyll CO2 conductance and the concentration of CO2 within the chloroplast are major factors affecting photosynthetic performance. Previous studies have shown that the aquaporin NtAQP1 (which localizes to the plasma membrane and chloroplast inner envelope membrane) is involved in CO2 permeability in the chloroplast. Levels of NtAQP1 in plants genetically engineered to overexpress the protein correlated positively with leaf mesophyll CO2 conductance and photosynthetic rate. In these studies, the nuclear transformation method used led to changes in NtAQP1 levels in the plasma membrane and the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. In the present work, NtAQP1 levels were increased up to 16-fold in the chloroplast membranes alone by the overexpression of NtAQP1 from the plastid genome. Despite the high NtAQP1 levels achieved, transplastomic plants showed lower photosynthetic rates than wild-type plants. This result was associated with lower Rubisco maximum carboxylation rate and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate regeneration. Transplastomic plants showed reduced mesophyll CO2 conductance but no changes in chloroplast CO2 concentration. The absence of differences in chloroplast CO2 concentration was associated with the lower CO2 fixation activity of the transplastomic plants. These findings suggest that non-functional pores of recombinant NtAQP1 may be produced in the chloroplast inner envelope membrane.

Self-Assembling Plant-Derived Vaccines Against Papillomaviruses

Virus-like particles (VLPs) can be used as antiviral vaccines as they mimic the structure of virus particles, with preserved conformation and immunogenicity characteristics. L1, the major capsid protein of papillomaviruses (PV) can self-assemble into VLPs currently used as highly effective vaccines. VLPs can be produced in heterologous systems, including plants. Here, a method for the expression of the L1 protein of human papillomavirus 16 (HPV 16) and the production of highly purified preparations of HPV 16 L1 VLPs is described. The method relies on the transient expression of HPV 16 L1 in Nicotiana benthamiana plants using a nonreplicating vector and on the purification of VLPs by different centrifugation steps followed by a cesium sulfate gradient. Such a procedure has also been successfully applied to other HPVs and to bovine papillomavirus 1.

Synthetic plant virology for nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding field seeking to utilize nano-scale structures for a wide range of applications. Biologically derived nanostructures, such as viruses and virus-like particles (VLPs), provide excellent platforms for functionalization due to their physical and chemical properties. Plant viruses, and VLPs derived from them, have been used extensively in biotechnology. They have been characterized in detail over several decades and have desirable properties including high yields, robustness, and ease of purification. Through modifications to viral surfaces, either interior or exterior, plant-virus-derived nanoparticles have been shown to support a range of functions of potential interest to medicine and nano-technology. In this review we highlight recent and influential achievements in the use of plant virus particles as vehicles for diverse functions: from delivery of anticancer compounds, to targeted bioimaging, vaccine production to nanowire formation. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2017, 9:e1447. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1447 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Disease Prevention: An Opportunity to Expand Edible Plant-Based Vaccines?

The lethality of infectious diseases has decreased due to the implementation of crucial sanitary procedures such as vaccination. However, the resurgence of pathogenic diseases in different parts of the world has revealed the importance of identifying novel, rapid, and concrete solutions for control and prevention. Edible vaccines pose an interesting alternative that could overcome some of the constraints of traditional vaccines. The term “edible vaccine” refers to the use of edible parts of a plant that has been genetically modified to produce specific components of a particular pathogen to generate protection against a disease. The aim of this review is to present and critically examine “edible vaccines” as an option for global immunization against pathogenic diseases and their outbreaks and to discuss the necessary steps for their production and control and the list of plants that may already be used as edible vaccines. Additionally, this review discusses the required standards and ethical regulations as well as the advantages and disadvantages associated with this powerful biotechnology tool.

Vaccination via Chloroplast Genetics: Affordable Protein Drugs for the Prevention and Treatment of Inherited or Infectious Human Diseases

Plastid-made biopharmaceuticals treat major metabolic or genetic disorders, including Alzheimer's, diabetes, hypertension, hemophilia, and retinopathy. Booster vaccines made in chloroplasts prevent global infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, malaria, cholera, and polio, and biological threats, such as anthrax and plague. Recent advances in this field include commercial-scale production of human therapeutic proteins in FDA-approved cGMP facilities, development of tags to deliver protein drugs to targeted human cells or tissues, methods to deliver precise doses, and long-term stability of protein drugs at ambient temperature, maintaining their efficacy. Codon optimization utilizing valuable information from sequenced chloroplast genomes enhanced expression of eukaryotic human or viral genes in chloroplasts and offered unique insights into translation in chloroplasts. Support from major biopharmaceutical companies, development of hydroponic production systems, and evaluation by regulatory agencies, including the CDC, FDA, and USDA, augur well for advancing this novel concept to the clinic and revolutionizing affordable healthcare.

Chloroplasts: state of research and practical applications of plastome sequencing

This review presents origins, structure and expression of chloroplast genomes. It also describes their sequencing, analysis and modification, focusing on potential practical uses and biggest challenges of chloroplast genome modification. During the evolution of eukaryotes, cyanobacteria are believed to have merged with host heterotrophic cell. Afterward, most of cyanobacterial genes from cyanobacteria were transferred to cell nucleus or lost in the process of endosymbiosis. As a result of these changes, a primary plastid was established. Nowadays, plastid genome (plastome) is almost always circular, has a size of 100-200 kbp (120-160 in land plants), and harbors 100-120 highly conserved unique genes. Plastids have their own gene expression system, which is similar to one of their cyanobacterial ancestors. Two different polymerases, plastid-derived PEP and nucleus-derived NEP, participate in transcription. Translation is similar to the one observed in cyanobacteria, but it also utilizes protein translation factors and positive regulatory mRNA elements absent from bacteria. Plastoms play an important role in genetic transformation. Transgenes are introduced into them either via gene gun (in undamaged tissues) or polyethylene glycol treatment (when protoplasts are targeted). Antibiotic resistance markers are the most common tool used for selection of transformed plants. In recent years, plastome transformation emerged as a promising alternative to nuclear transformation because of (1) high yield of target protein, (2) removing the risk of outcrossing with weeds, (3) lack of silencing mechanisms, and (4) ability to engineer the entire metabolic pathways rather than single gene traits. Currently, the main directions of such research regard: developing efficient enzyme, vaccine antigen, and biopharmaceutical protein production methods in plant cells and improving crops by increasing their resistance to a wide array of biotic and abiotic stresses. Because of that, the detailed knowledge of plastome structure and mechanism of functioning started to play a major role.

Scalable Production of HPV16 L1 Protein and VLPs from Tobacco Leaves

Cervical cancer is the most common malignancy among women particularly in developing countries, with human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 causing 50% of invasive cervical cancers. A plant-based HPV vaccine is an alternative to the currently available virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, and would be much less expensive. We optimized methods to express HPV16 L1 protein and purify VLPs from tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves transfected with the magnICON deconstructed viral vector expression system. L1 proteins were extracted from agro-infiltrated leaves using a series of pH and salt mediated buffers. Expression levels of L1 proteins and VLPs were verified by immunoblot and ELISA, which confirmed the presence of sequential and conformational epitopes, respectively. Among three constructs tested (16L1d22, TPL1d22, and TPL1F), TPL1F, containing a full-length L1 and chloroplast transit peptide, was best. Extraction of HPV16 L1 from leaf tissue was most efficient (> 2.5% of total soluble protein) with a low-salt phosphate buffer. VLPs were purified using both cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradient and size exclusion chromatography. Electron microscopy studies confirmed the presence of assembled forms of HPV16 L1 VLPs. Collectively; our results indicated that chloroplast-targeted transient expression in tobacco plants is promising for the production of a cheap, efficacious HPV16 L1 VLP vaccine. Studies are underway to develop plant VLPs for the production of a cervical cancer vaccine.

Activation of human mast cells by retrocyclin and protegrin highlight their immunomodulatory and antimicrobial properties

Preclinical evaluation of Retrocyclins (RC-100, RC-101) and Protegrin-1 (PG-1) antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) is important because of their therapeutic potential against bacterial, fungal and viral infections. Human mast cells (HMCs) play important roles in host defense and wound healing but the abilities of retrocyclins and protegrin-1 to harness these functions have not been investigated. Here, we report that chemically synthesized RC-100 and PG-1 caused calcium mobilization and degranulation in HMCs but these responses were not blocked by an inhibitor of formyl peptide receptor-like 1 (FPRL1), a known receptor for AMPs. However, RC-100 and PG-1 induced degranulation in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells stably expressing Mas related G protein coupled receptor X2 (MrgX2). Chemical synthesis of these AMPs is prohibitively expensive and post-synthesis modifications (cyclization, disulfide bonds, folding) are inadequate for optimal antimicrobial activity. Indeed, we found that synthetic RC-100, which caused mast cell degranulation via MrgX2, did not display any antimicrobial activity. Green-fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged RC-101 (analog of RC-100) and GFP-tagged PG-1 purified from transgenic plant chloroplasts killed bacteria and induced mast cell degranulation. Furthermore, GFP-PG1 bound specifically to RBL-2H3 cells expressing MrgX2. These findings suggest that retrocyclins and protegrins activate HMCs independently of FPRL1 but via MrgX2. Harnessing this novel feature of AMPs to activate mast cell's host defense/wound healing properties in addition to their antimicrobial activities expands their clinical potential. Low cost production of AMPs in plants should facilitate their advancement to the clinic overcoming major hurdles in current production systems.

Chloroplast genomes: diversity, evolution, and applications in genetic engineering

Chloroplasts play a crucial role in sustaining life on earth. The availability of over 800 sequenced chloroplast genomes from a variety of land plants has enhanced our understanding of chloroplast biology, intracellular gene transfer, conservation, diversity, and the genetic basis by which chloroplast transgenes can be engineered to enhance plant agronomic traits or to produce high-value agricultural or biomedical products. In this review, we discuss the impact of chloroplast genome sequences on understanding the origins of economically important cultivated species and changes that have taken place during domestication. We also discuss the potential biotechnological applications of chloroplast genomes.

Androgenesis in Solanaceae

The Solanaceae is one of the most important families for global agriculture. Among the different solanaceous species, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), eggplant (Solanum melongena), and pepper (Capsicum annuum) are five crops of outstanding importance worldwide. In these crops, maximum yields are produced by hybrid plants created by crossing pure (homozygous) lines with the desired traits. Pure lines may be produced by conventional breeding methods, which is time consuming and costly. Alternatively, it is possible to accelerate the production of pure lines by creating doubled haploid (DH) plants derived from (haploid) male gametophytes or their precursors (androgenesis). In this way, the different steps for the production of pure lines can be reduced to only one generation, which implies important time and cost savings. This and other advantages make androgenic DHs the choice in a number of important crops where any of the different experimental in vitro techniques (anther culture or isolated microspore culture) is well set up. The Solanaceae family is an excellent example of heterogeneity in terms of response to these techniques, including highly responding species such as tobacco, considered a model system, and tomato, one of the most recalcitrant species, where no reliable and reproducible methods are yet available. Interestingly, the first evidence of androgenesis, particularly through in vitro anther culture, was demonstrated in a solanaceous species, Datura innoxia. In this chapter, we report the state of the art of the research about androgenic DHs in Solanaceae, paying special attention to datura, tobacco, potato, tomato, eggplant, and pepper.

Enhanced expression of soluble human papillomavirus L1 through coexpression of molecular chaperonin in Escherichia coli

The major recombinant capsid protein L1 of human papillomavirus (HPV) is widely used to produce HPV prophylactic vaccines. However, the quality of soluble and active expression of L1 in Escherichia coli was below the required amount. Coexpression with the chaperonin GroEL/ES enhanced L1 expression. Overexpressing GroEL/ES increased the soluble expression level of glutathione S-transferase-fused L1 (GST-L1) by approximately ∼3 fold. The yield of HPV type 16 L1 pentamer (L1-p) was ∼2 fold higher than that in a single expression system after purification through size-exclusion chromatograph. The expression and purification conditions were then optimized. The yield of L1-p was enhanced by ∼5 fold, and those of HPV types 18 and 58 L1-p increased by ∼3 and ∼2 folds, respectively, compared with that in the single expression system. Coexpressing the mono-site mutant HPV16 L1 L469A with GroEL/ES increased L1-p yield by ∼7 fold compared with strains expressing the wild-type L1 gene. L1-p was then characterized using circular dichroism spectra, UV-vis cloud point, dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscope analyses. Results indicated that the conformation and biological characteristics of L1-p were identical to that of native L1. Hence, overexpressing chaperonin in E. coli can increase the expression level of GST-L1 and L1-p production after purification. This finding may contribute to the development of a platform for prophylactic HPV vaccines.

Plastids: The Green Frontiers for Vaccine Production

Infectious diseases pose an increasing risk to health, especially in developing countries. Vaccines are available to either cure or prevent many of these diseases. However, there are certain limitations related to these vaccines, mainly the costs, which make these vaccines mostly unaffordable for people in resource poor countries. These costs are mainly related to production and purification of the products manufactured from fermenter-based systems. Plastid biotechnology has become an attractive platform to produce biopharmaceuticals in large amounts and cost-effectively. This is mainly due to high copy number of plastids DNA in mature chloroplasts, a characteristic particularly important for vaccine production in large amounts. An additional advantage lies in the maternal inheritance of plastids in most plant species, which addresses the regulatory concerns related to transgenic plants. These and many other aspects of plastids will be discussed in the present review, especially those that particularly make these green biofactories an attractive platform for vaccine production. A summary of recent vaccine antigens against different human diseases expressed in plastids will also be presented.

The Engineered Chloroplast Genome Just Got Smarter

Chloroplasts are known to sustain life on earth by providing food, fuel, and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. However, the chloroplast genome has also been smartly engineered to confer valuable agronomic traits and/or serve as bioreactors for the production of industrial enzymes, biopharmaceuticals, bioproducts, or vaccines. The recent breakthrough in hyperexpression of biopharmaceuticals in edible leaves has facilitated progression to clinical studies by major pharmaceutical companies. This review critically evaluates progress in developing new tools to enhance or simplify expression of targeted genes in chloroplasts. These tools hold the promise to further the development of novel fuels and products, enhance the photosynthetic process, and increase our understanding of retrograde signaling and cellular processes.

Plant-made oral vaccines against human infectious diseases-Are we there yet?

Although the plant-made vaccine field started three decades ago with the promise of developing low-cost vaccines to prevent infectious disease outbreaks and epidemics around the globe, this goal has not yet been achieved. Plants offer several major advantages in vaccine generation, including low-cost production by eliminating expensive fermentation and purification systems, sterile delivery and cold storage/transportation. Most importantly, oral vaccination using plant-made antigens confers both mucosal (IgA) and systemic (IgG) immunity. Studies in the past 5 years have made significant progress in expressing vaccine antigens in edible leaves (especially lettuce), processing leaves or seeds through lyophilization and achieving antigen stability and efficacy after prolonged storage at ambient temperatures. Bioencapsulation of antigens in plant cells protects them from the digestive system; the fusion of antigens to transmucosal carriers enhances efficiency of their delivery to the immune system and facilitates successful development of plant vaccines as oral boosters. However, the lack of oral priming approaches diminishes these advantages because purified antigens, cold storage/transportation and limited shelf life are still major challenges for priming with adjuvants and for antigen delivery by injection. Yet another challenge is the risk of inducing tolerance without priming the host immune system. Therefore, mechanistic aspects of these two opposing processes (antibody production or suppression) are discussed in this review. In addition, we summarize recent progress made in oral delivery of vaccine antigens expressed in plant cells via the chloroplast or nuclear genomes and potential challenges in achieving immunity against infectious diseases using cold-chain-free vaccine delivery approaches.

Immunotherapy of HPV-associated cancer: DNA/plant-derived vaccines and new orthotopic mouse models

Under the optimistic assumption of high-prophylactic HPV vaccine coverage, a significant reduction of cancer incidence can only be expected after decades. Thus, immune therapeutic strategies are needed for persistently infected individuals who do not benefit from the prophylactic vaccines. However, the therapeutic strategies inducing immunity to the E6 and/or E7 oncoprotein of HPV16 are more effective for curing HPV-expressing tumours in animal models than for treating human cancers. New strategies/technologies have been developed to improve these therapeutic vaccines. Our studies focussed on preparing therapeutic vaccines with low-cost technologies by DNA preparation fused to either plant-virus or plant-toxin genes, such as saporin, and by plant-produced antigens. In particular, plant-derived antigens possess an intrinsic adjuvant activity that makes these preparations especially attractive for future development. Additionally, discrepancy in vaccine effectiveness between animals and humans may be due to non-orthotopic localization of animal models. Orthotopic transplantation leads to tumours giving a more accurate representation of the parent tumour. Since HPV can cause cancer in two main localizations, anogenital and oropharynx area, we developed two orthotopic tumour mouse models in these two sites. Both models are bioluminescent in order to follow up the tumour growth by imaging and are induced by cell injection without the need to intervene surgically. These models were utilized for immunotherapies with genetic or plant-derived therapeutic vaccines. In particular, the head/neck orthotopic model appears to be very promising for studies combining chemo-radio-immune therapy that seems to be very effective in patients.

The potential of plants for the production and delivery of human papillomavirus vaccines

The available vaccines against human papillomavirus have some limitations such as low coverage due to their high cost, reduced immune coverage and the lack of therapeutic effects. Recombinant vaccines produced in plants (genetically engineered using stable or transient expression systems) offer the possibility to obtain low cost, efficacious and easy to administer vaccines. The status on the development of plant-based vaccines against human papillomavirus is analyzed and placed in perspective in this review. Some candidates have been characterized at a preclinical level with interesting outcomes. However, there is a need to perform the immunological characterization of several vaccine prototypes, especially through the oral administration route, as well as develop new candidates based on new chimeric designs intended to provide broader immunoprotection and therapeutic activity.

Engineering plastid genomes: methods, tools, and applications in basic research and biotechnology

The small bacterial-type genome of the plastid (chloroplast) can be engineered by genetic transformation, generating cells and plants with transgenic plastid genomes, also referred to as transplastomic plants. The transformation process relies on homologous recombination, thereby facilitating the site-specific alteration of endogenous plastid genes as well as the precisely targeted insertion of foreign genes into the plastid DNA. The technology has been used extensively to analyze chloroplast gene functions and study plastid gene expression at all levels in vivo. Over the years, a large toolbox has been assembled that is now nearly comparable to the techniques available for plant nuclear transformation and that has enabled new applications of transplastomic technology in basic and applied research. This review describes the state of the art in engineering the plastid genomes of algae and land plants (Embryophyta). It provides an overview of the existing tools for plastid genome engineering, discusses current technological limitations, and highlights selected applications that demonstrate the immense potential of chloroplast transformation in several key areas of plant biotechnology.

Plant-based vaccines against viruses

Plant-made or "biofarmed" viral vaccines are some of the earliest products of the technology of plant molecular farming, and remain some of the brightest prospects for the success of this field. Proofs of principle and of efficacy exist for many candidate viral veterinary vaccines; the use of plant-made viral antigens and of monoclonal antibodies for therapy of animal and even human viral disease is also well established. This review explores some of the more prominent recent advances in the biofarming of viral vaccines and therapies, including the recent use of ZMapp for Ebolavirus infection, and explores some possible future applications of the technology.

Prophylactic papillomavirus vaccines

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the causative agents of cervical cancer, the third most common cancer in women. The development of prophylactic HPV vaccines Gardasil® and Cervarix® targeting the major oncogenic HPV types is now the frontline of cervical cancer prevention. Both vaccines have been proven to be highly effective and safe although there are still open questions about their target population, cross-protection, and long-term efficacy. The main limitation for a worldwide implementation of Gardasil® and Cervarix® is their high cost. To develop more affordable vaccines research groups are concentrated in new formulations with different antigens including capsomeres, the minor capsid protein L2 and DNA. In this article we describe the vaccines' impact on HPV-associated disease, the main open questions about the marketed vaccines, and current efforts for the development of second-generation vaccines.

Immunogenic assessment of plant-produced human papillomavirus type 16 L1/L2 chimaeras

Cervical cancer is caused by infection with human papillomaviruses (HPV) and is a global concern, particularly in developing countries, which have ~80% of the burden. HPV L1 virus-like particle (VLP) type-restricted vaccines prevent new infections and associated disease. However, their high cost has limited their application, and cytological screening programmes are still required to detect malignant lesions associated with the nonvaccine types. Thus, there is an urgent need for cheap second-generation HPV vaccines that protect against multiple types. The objective of this study was to express novel HPV-16 L1-based chimaeras, containing cross-protective epitopes from the L2 minor capsid protein, in tobacco plants. These L1/L2 chimaeras contained epitope sequences derived from HPV-16 L2 amino acid 108-120, 56-81 or 17-36 substituted into the C-terminal helix 4 (h4) region of L1 from amino acid 414. All chimaeras were expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana via an Agrobacterium-mediated transient system and targeted to chloroplasts. The chimaeras were highly expressed with yields of ~1.2 g/kg plant tissue; however, they assembled differently, indicating that the length and nature of the L2 epitope affect VLP assembly. The chimaera containing L2 amino acids 108-120 was the most successful candidate vaccine. It assembled into small VLPs and elicited anti-L1 and anti-L2 responses in mice, and antisera neutralized homologous HPV-16 and heterologous HPV-52 pseudovirions. The other chimaeras predominantly assembled into capsomeres and other aggregates and elicited weaker humoral immune responses, demonstrating the importance of VLP assembly for the immunogenicity of candidate vaccines.

VLPs and particle strategies for cancer vaccines

Effective delivery of tumor antigens to APCs is one of the key steps for eliciting a strong and durable immune response to tumors. Several cancer vaccines have been evaluated in clinical trials, based on soluble peptides, but results have not been fully satisfactory. To improve immunogenicity particles provide a valid strategy to display and/or incorporate epitopes which can be efficiently targeted to APCs for effective induction of adaptive immunity. In the present review, we report some leading technologies for developing particulate vaccines employed in cancer immunotherapy, highlighting the key parameters for a rational design to elicit both humoral and cellular responses.

Developments in virus-like particle-based vaccines for HIV

Virus-like particles (VLPs) hold great promise for the development of effective and affordable vaccines. VLPs, indeed, are suitable for presentation and efficient delivery to antigen-presenting cells of linear as well as conformational antigens. This will ultimately result in a crosspresentation with both MHC class I and II molecules to prime CD4(+) T-helper and CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells. This review describes an update on the development and use of VLPs as vaccine approaches for HIV.