Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food

Research progress on inhibitors and inhibitory mechanisms of mycotoxin biosynthesis

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi with harmful effects such as carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. They cause widespread contamination of plant products such as crops, food, and feed, posing serious threats to the life and health of human beings and animals. It has been found that many traditionally synthesized and natural compounds are capable of inhibiting the growth of fungi and their secondary metabolite production. Natural compounds have attracted much attention due to their safety, environmental, and health friendly features. In this paper, compounds of plant origin with inhibitory effects on ochratoxins, aflatoxins, Fusarium toxins, and Alternaria toxins, including cinnamaldehyde, citral, magnolol, eugenol, pterostilbene, curcumin, and phenolic acid, are reviewed, and the inhibitory mechanisms of different compounds on the toxin production of fungi are also elucidated, with the aim of providing application references to reduce the contamination of fungal toxins, thus safeguarding the health of human beings and animals.

Negative Effects of Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Animal Feed and Biological Methods of Their Detoxification: A Review

Secondary metabolic products of molds, called mycotoxins, negatively affect animal health and production. They constitute a significant problem in veterinary and medical sciences, and their presence has been confirmed in feed all over the world. Applying appropriate agricultural practices and ensuring proper storage conditions significantly reduces the contamination of agricultural products with mycotoxins. However, this does not guarantee that raw materials are completely free from contamination. Many detoxification methods are currently used, but their insufficient effectiveness and negative impact on the quality of the raw material subjected to them significantly limits their usefulness. The positive results of eliminating mycotoxins from many products have been proven by the specific properties of microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, and fungi) and the enzymes they produce. Biological detoxification methods seem to offer the most promising opportunities to solve the problem of the presence of mycotoxins in animal food. This work, based on literature data, presents the health risks to farm animals consuming mycotoxins with feed and discusses the biological methods of their purification.

Mycotoxins in food: Occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-A comprehensive review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Claviceps, Mucor, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Myrothecium, Pyrenophora, and Stachybotrys. They can contaminate various plants or animal foods, resulting in a significant loss of nutritional and commercial value. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, such as humidity, temperature, oxygen levels, fungal species, and substrate. When contaminated food is consumed by animals and humans, mycotoxins are rapidly absorbed, affecting the liver, and causing metabolic disorders. The detrimental effects on humans and animals include reduced food intake and milk production, reduced fertility, increased risk of abortion, impaired immune response, and increased occurrence of diseases. Therefore, it is imperative to implement strategies for mycotoxin control, broadly classified as preventing fungal contamination and detoxifying their toxic compounds. This review aims to discuss various aspects of mycotoxins, including their occurrence, and risk potential. Additionally, it provides an overview of mycotoxin detoxification strategies, including the use of mycotoxin absorbents, as potential techniques to eliminate or mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins on human and animal health while preserving the nutritional and commercial value of affected food products.

A DNA tetrahedral scaffolds-based electrochemical biosensor for simultaneous detection of AFB1 and OTA

Herein, a bifunctional electrochemical biosensor based on the DNA tetrahedral scaffolds (TDNs) was proposed, OTA@TDNs and AFB1@TDNs were adopted for electrochemical signal output in response to OTA and AFB1 concentration, simultaneously. In order to increase the conductivity of the biosensor, highly porous gold (HPG) was loaded on electrode surface by pulse electrodeposition. Under optimal conditions, the PFc displayed a linear range with AFB1 concentration between 0.05 ∼ 360 ng·mL-1 with the LOD of 3.5 pg·mL-1. And the PMB selective and sensitive responses to OTA are achieved with a linear range of 0.05 ∼ 420 ng·mL-1 and a LOD of 2.4 pg·mL-1. This biosensor has high sensitivity, selectivity and stability for OTA and AFB1 detection in peanut samples. The approach streamlines the experimental procedure, leading to significantly improve the detection efficiency of mycotoxins. Collectively, this method suggest a novel approach for the detection and monitoring of OTA and AFB1 in food sample.

Challenges and Future State for Mycotoxin Analysis: A Review From a Regulatory Perspective

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain fungi. Exposure to mycotoxins may occur through the consumption of contaminated foods or from animals that are fed contaminated feed. To safeguard the nation's food supply, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) utilizes a comprehensive mycotoxin program which samples and analyzes foods for surveillance and compliance purposes, including enforcing action levels. Mycotoxin analysis is at the center of the mycotoxin program, as concentration data are needed for data analysis, scientific assessments, and risk management. This review focuses on the Agency's continuous efforts to develop and incorporate fit-for-purpose analytical tools for mycotoxin analysis with particular focus on the relationship between analytical methodologies and scientific assessments. The discussion further highlights challenges and advancements in analytical methods and discusses future possibilities to develop analytical tools and preventative risk management approaches to meet the evolving regulatory needs.

Paired metagenomic and chemical evaluation of aflatoxin-contaminated dog kibble

Introduction

Identification of chemical toxins from complex or highly processed foods can present 'needle in the haystack' challenges for chemists. Metagenomic data can be used to guide chemical toxicity evaluations by providing DNA-based description of the wholistic composition (eukaryotic, bacterial, protozoal, viral, and antimicrobial resistance) of foods suspected to harbor toxins, allergens, or pathogens. This type of information can focus chemistry-based diagnostics, improve hazard characterization and risk assessment, and address data gaps. Additionally, there is increasing recognition that simultaneously co-occurring mycotoxins, either from single or multiple species, can impact dietary toxicity exposure. Metagenomic data provides a way to address data gaps related to co-occurrence of multiple fungal species.

Methods

Paired metagenomic and chemical data were used to evaluate aflatoxin-contaminated kibble with known levels of specific mycotoxins. Kibble was ground to a fine powder for both chemical and molecular analyses. Chemical analyses were performed with Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) and according to the AOAC Official method 2005.08: Aflatoxins in Corn, Raw Peanuts, and Peanut Butter using Liquid Chromatography with Post-Column Photochemical Derivatization. Metagenomes were created from DNA extracted from ground kibble and sequenced on an Illumina NextSeq 2000 with an average sequence depth of 180 million reads per replicate.

Results and discussion

Metagenomic data demonstrated that the abundance of DNA from putative aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. correlated with the levels of aflatoxin quantified by LCMS. Metagenomic data also identified an expansive range of co-occurring fungal taxa which may produce additional mycotoxins. DNA data paired with chemical data provides a novel modality to address current data gaps surrounding dietary mycotoxin exposure, toxigenic fungal taxonomy, and mycotoxins of emerging concern.

Changing climate, shifting mycotoxins: A comprehensive review of climate change impact on mycotoxin contamination

Climate change (CC) is a complex phenomenon that has the potential to significantly alter marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. Global warming of 2°C is expected to be exceeded during the 21st century, and the frequency of extreme weather events, including floods, storms, droughts, extreme temperatures, and wildfires, has intensified globally over recent decades, differently affecting areas of the world. How CC may impact multiple food safety hazards is increasingly evident, with mycotoxin contamination in particular gaining in prominence. Research focusing on CC effects on mycotoxin contamination in edible crops has developed considerably throughout the years. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive literature search to collect available studies in the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2023. The selected papers highlighted how warmer temperatures are enabling the migration, introduction, and mounting abundance of thermophilic and thermotolerant fungal species, including those producing mycotoxins. Certain mycotoxigenic fungal species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium graminearum, are expected to readily acclimatize to new conditions and could become more aggressive pathogens. Furthermore, abiotic stress factors resulting from CC are expected to weaken the resistance of host crops, rendering them more vulnerable to fungal disease outbreaks. Changed interactions of mycotoxigenic fungi are likewise expected, with the effect of influencing the prevalence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the future. Looking ahead, future research should focus on improving predictive modeling, expanding research into different pathosystems, and facilitating the application of effective strategies to mitigate the impact of CC.

Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

Innovative approaches for mycotoxin detection in various food categories

Mycotoxins (MTs), produced by filamentous fungi, represent a severe hazard to the health of humans and food safety, affecting the quality of various agricultural products. They can contaminate a wide range of foods, during any processing phase before or after harvest. Animals and humans who consume MTs-contaminated food or feed may experience acute or chronic poisoning, which may result in serious pathological consequences. Accordingly, developing rapid, easy, and accurate methods of MTs detection in food becomes highly urgent and critical as a quality control and to guarantee food safety and lower health hazards. In this review, we highlighted and discussed innovative approaches like biosensors, fluorescent polarization, capillary electrophoresis, infrared spectroscopy, and electronic noses for MT identification pointing out current challenges and future directions. The limitations, current challenges, and future directions of conventional detection methods versus innovative methods have also been highlighted and discussed.

Multi-Fusarium mycotoxin exposure activates Nrf2 and Ahr pathway in the liver of laying hens

This study investigates gene expression changes in laying hens exposed to trichothecene mycotoxins, known to induce oxidative stress and affect xenobiotic transformation and antioxidants. A 3-day feeding trial tested low and high doses of T-2/HT-2 toxin, DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON, and FB1 in hen feed. Results showed increased expression of AHR, AHRR, HSP90, and CYP1A2 genes on days 2 and 3, suggesting a response to mycotoxin exposure. High doses down-regulated CYP1A2, AHR, and AHRR on day 1. KEAP1 expression decreased on day 1 but increased dose-dependently on days 2 and 3. NRF2 was up-regulated by low and down-regulated by high doses on day 1, then increased on days 2 and 3. Antioxidant-related genes (GPX3, GPX4, GSS, GSR) showed dose-dependent responses. Low doses up-regulated GPX3 and GPX4 throughout, while high doses up-regulated GPX3 on days 2 and 3 and GPX4 on day 3. GSS was up-regulated on day 3. Results indicate that toxic metabolites formed by phase I biotransformation rapidly induce ROS formation at low doses through the AHR/Hsp90/CYP1A2 pathway at the gene expression level, but at high levels, ROS-induced oxidative stress manifests later. Study showed simultaneous activation of redox-sensitive pathways: aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) and nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) by multi-mycotoxin exposure.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

Assessment of mycotoxins in cornflakes marketed in Lebanon

Cornflakes are a popular and convenient breakfast cereal made from corn and widely consumed worldwide, including in Lebanon. However, they are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination, which can have harmful effects on human health. Our study evaluated the occurrence of five mycotoxins (AFB1, OTA, FUM, ZEA, DON) levels in packed cornflakes marketed in Lebanon. A market screening identified 35 different cornflake stock-keeping units (SKU) in the Lebanese market, originating from 10 different brands and having different tastes and shapes. SKUs were collected and tested for five mycotoxins in triplicates using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. The results showed the presence of the five mycotoxins in the samples. The average levels of AFB1, OTA, ZEA and FUM among positive samples (above limit of detection) were 1.58, 1.2, 15.1 and 774.1 μg/kg, respectively, and were below the EU limits. On the other hand, the average level of DON was 1206.7 μg/kg, exceeding the EU limit. Furthermore, out of the positive samples, 60%, 17%, 9%, 14%, and 6% exceeded the EU limits for DON, OTA, AFB1, FUM, and ZEA, respectively. Notably, SKUs made in Lebanon had significantly (p < 0.05) higher levels of AFB1 and FUM. The packing size of the cornflakes had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on the levels of the five mycotoxins detected in the samples. AFB1, FUM and ZEA levels differed significantly among SKUs (p > 0.05). Considering these findings, further studies should be conducted to assess the exposure to mycotoxins from the consumption of cornflakes in Lebanon, especially among children.

Abdallah M, Chen X, Rajkovic A. Current Knowledge of Individual and Combined Toxicities of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 In Vitro

Mycotoxins are considered the most threating natural contaminants in food. Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are the most prominent fungal metabolites that represent high food safety risks, due to their widespread co-occurrence in several food commodities, and their profound toxic effects on humans. Considering the ethical and more humane animal research, the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) principle has been promoted in the last few years. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the research studies conducted up to date on the toxicological effects that AFB1 and FB1 can induce on human health, through the examination of a selected number of in vitro studies. Although the impact of both toxins, as well as their combination, were investigated in different cell lines, the majority of the work was carried out in hepatic cell lines, especially HepG2, owing to the contaminants' liver toxicity. In all the reviewed studies, AFB1 and FB1 could invoke, after short-term exposure, cell apoptosis, by inducing several pathways (oxidative stress, the mitochondrial pathway, ER stress, the Fas/FasL signaling pathway, and the TNF-α signal pathway). Among these pathways, mitochondria are the primary target of both toxins. The interaction of AFB1 and FB1, whether additive, synergistic, or antagonistic, depends to great extent on FB1/AFB1 ratio. However, it is generally manifested synergistically, via the induction of oxidative stress and mitochondria dysfunction, through the expression of the Bcl-2 family and p53 proteins. Therefore, AFB1 and FB1 mixture may enhance more in vitro toxic effects, and carry a higher significant risk factor, than the individual presence of each toxin.

Wheat craft beer made from AFB1-contaminated wheat malt contains detectable mycotoxins, retains quality attributes, but differs in some fermentation metabolites

Levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were measured during the production of wheat craft beer made with wheat malt contaminated with AFB1 (1.23 µg/kg). A wheat craft beer made with non-contaminated wheat malt was produced for comparison purposes. AFB1 was measured after mashing (malt after the mashing process), and in spent grain (spent grains are filtered to collect the wort - remaining sugar-rich liquid), sweet wort, green beer, spent yeast, and in beer. Physicochemical parameters (pH, titratable acidity, color parameters, total soluble solids), sugars, organic acids, alcohols, and phenolics were evaluated after mashing, and in sweet wort, green beer, and beer samples. Density and yeast counts were determined over 120 h of sweet wort fermentation every 24 h. The AFB1 levels in the final beer were 0.22 µg/L, while the spent grains and spent yeasts contained 0.71 ± 0.17 and 0.11 ± 0.03 µg/kg of AFB1, respectively. AFB1 contamination did not influence the final product's physicochemical parameters, density during fermentation, fructose, or glycerol content. Higher yeast counts were observed during the first 48 h of non-contaminated wheat craft beer fermentation, with higher ethanol, citric acid, and propionic acid contents and lower glucose, malic acid, and lactic acid contents compared with beer contaminated with AFB1. Non-contaminated wheat craft beer also had higher concentrations of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, procyanidin A2, and procyanidin B1. AFB1 contamination of wheat malt may not affect basic quality parameters in wheat craft beer but can influence the final product's organic acid and phenolic contents. Our findings show that if wheat craft beer is made with contaminated malt, AFB1 can remain in the final product and may pose a risk to consumers.

Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals

Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans and farmed animals. Despite our best efforts to prevent crop diseases, or postharvest spoilage, our cereals are consistently contaminated with aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, and while established monitoring systems effectively prevent acute exposure, Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins still threaten our food security. This is through the understudied impacts of: (i) our chronic exposure to these mycotoxins, (ii) the underestimated dietary intake of masked mycotoxins, and (iii) the synergistic threat of cocontaminations by multiple mycotoxins. Mycotoxins also have profound economic consequences for cereal and farmed-animal producers, plus their associated food and feed industries, which results in higher food prices for consumers. Climate change and altering agronomic practices are predicted to exacerbate the extent and intensity of mycotoxin contaminations of cereals. Collectively, this review of the diverse threats from Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins highlights the need for renewed and concerted efforts to understand, and mitigate, the increased risks they pose to our food and feed cereals.

Modified Mycotoxins and Multitoxin Contamination of Food and Feed as Major Analytical Challenges

Mycotoxins, as natural products of molds, are often unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, to which the increasingly evident climate changes contribute a large part. The consequences are more or less severe and range from economic losses to worrying health problems to a fatal outcome. One of the best preventive approaches is regular monitoring of food and feed for the presence of mycotoxins. However, even under conditions of frequent, comprehensive, and conscientious controls, the desired protection goal may not be achieved. In fact, it often happens that, despite favorable analytical results that do not indicate high mycotoxin contamination, symptoms of their presence occur in practice. The most common reasons for this are the simultaneous presence of several different mycotoxins whose individual content does not exceed the detectable or prescribed values and/or the alteration of the form of the mycotoxin, which renders it impossible to be analytically determined using routine methods. When such contaminated foods enter a living organism, toxic effects occur. This article aims to shed light on the above problems in order to pay more attention to them, work to reduce their impact, and, eventually, overcome them.

Determination of Multimycotoxin in Cereal-Based Products Sold in Open-Air Markets

In this study, a total of 140 cereal-based foods sold in temporary open-air markets were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, ochratoxin (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁, fumonisin B₂, citrinin (CIT), HT-2, and T-2 toxins. Breakfast cereals (n:27), cornmeal (n:41), extruded maize (n:32), and oatmeal (n:40) purchased from these alternative shopping areas created to meet the food needs of low-income people in the suburbs formed the sample set of the study. These foods, which are sold in areas that are out of legal control and greatly affected by external environmental conditions, are more open to health risks. Mycotoxins, chemicals of a biological origin, are some of the most important of these risks. In terms of public health, it is important to investigate the presence of mycotoxins in foods, which can cause acute and chronic diseases such as immunosuppression, genotoxic, estrogenic, teratogenic effect, cancer, and liver and kidney dysfunctions. Grain-based foods are often contaminated with a large number of mycotoxins, but legal regulations have not been prepared that consider the health risks associated with the co-existence of mycotoxins. Many of the studies have focused on the presence of a single mycotoxin and the risks it poses. As a result, aflatoxin B₁ levels in 28.57% of the samples and total aflatoxin (B₁ + B₂ + G₁ + G₂) levels in 26.43% of the samples were determined to exceed the limits defined in the "Turkish Food Codex Contaminants Regulation". Citrinin could not be detected in any of the samples. The rate of mycotoxin occurrences above the limit of detection (LOD) in grain-based food samples ranged from 22.86% to 99.29%. Total aflatoxin (TAF) + Total Fumonisin (FUM) were found in 83.57% of the samples; TAF + FUM + OTA in 82.14%; TAF + FUM + OTA + T-2 in 44.29%; TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + HT-2, TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + T-2, and TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + ZEN in 22.86% of the samples.

Relevance of Zearalenone and its modified forms in bakery products

Zearalenone is a frequently occurring and well-known mycotoxin developed in cereals before and during the harvest period by Fusarium spp. mainly in maize and wheat. In addition to the main form, various modified forms (phase I and II metabolites) were detected, in some cases in high amounts. These modified forms can be harmful for human health due to their different toxicity, which can be much higher compared to the parent toxin. In addition, the parent toxin can be cleaved from the phase I and II metabolites during digestion. A risk of correlated and additive adverse effects of the metabolites of ZEN phase I and II in humans and animals is evident. ZEN is considered in many studies on its occurrence in grain-based foods and some studies are dedicated to the behavior of ZEN during food processing. This is not the case for the ZEN phase I and II metabolites, which are only included in a few occurrence reports. Their effects during food processing is also only sporadically addressed in studies to date. In addition to the massive lack of data on the occurrence and behavior of ZEN modified forms, there is also a lack of comprehensive clarification of the toxicity of the numerous different ZEN metabolites detected to date. Finally, studies on the fate during digestion of the relevant ZEN metabolites will be important in the future to further clarify their relevance in processed foods such as bakery products.

Mycotoxin Determination and Occurrence in Pseudo-Cereals Intended for Food and Feed: A Review

Nowadays, pseudo-cereals' consumption is increasing due to their health benefits as they possess an excellent nutrient profile. Whole pseudo-cereal grains are rich in a wide range of compounds, namely flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acids, and vitamins with known beneficial effects on human and animal health. Mycotoxins are common contaminants in cereals and by-products; however, the study of their natural occurrence in pseudo-cereals is currently scarce. Pseudo-cereals are similar to cereal grains; thus, mycotoxin contamination is expected to occur in pseudo-cereals. Indeed, mycotoxin-producing fungi have been reported in these matrices and, consequently, mycotoxin contents have been reported too, especially in buckwheat samples, where ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol reached levels up to 1.79 μg/kg and 580 μg/kg, respectively. In comparison to cereal contamination, mycotoxin levels detected in pseudo-cereal samples are lower; however, more studies are necessary in order to describe the mycotoxin pattern in these samples and to establish maximum levels that ensure human and animal health protection. In this review, mycotoxin occurrence in pseudo-cereal samples as well as the main extraction methods and analytical techniques to determine them are described, showing that mycotoxins can be present in pseudo-cereal samples and that the most employed techniques for their determination are liquid and gas chromatography coupled to different detectors.

Deciphering of seed Health of common food grains (wheat, rice) of North Eastern UP and Gurgaon Haryana, India

The stored random samples of food seeds of wheat and rice (60 samples) were purchased from places of Eastern UP and Gurgaon district Haryana. Its moisture contents were estimated. The Mycological investigations of wheat seeds revealed presence of a total number of 16 fungal species viz., Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceous, A. phoenicis, A. tamari, A. terreus, A. sydowi, Fusarium moniliforme, F. oxysporum F. solani, P. glabrum, Rhizopus nigricans, Trichoderma viride and Trichothecium roseum. While mycological analysis of rice seeds showed presence of 15 fungal species viz., Alternaria padwickii, A. oryzae, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium moniliforme, Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, A. niger, Cladosporium sp., Nigrospora oryzae, Alternaria tenuissima, Chaetomium globosum, F. solani, Microascus cirrosus, Helminthosporium oryzae, Pyricularia grisea. It also projected variation in presence of fungal species in blotter and agar plate method of analysis. In wheat Blotter method of analysis showed 16 fungal species while agar plate depicted 13 fungal species. In rice Agar plate method depicted presence of 15 fungal species while blotter method shows presence of 12 fungal species. The insect analysis revealed that wheat samples were infected with Tribolium castaneum. While rice seeds sample showed presence of insect Sitophilus oryzae. The investigations revealed that Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum caused reduction in seed weight loss, seed germination, carbohydrate and protein contents of common food grains (wheat, rice). It also revealed that randomly selected A. flavus isolate 1 of wheat showed higher potential of aflatoxin B₁ production (1392.940 μg/l) while rice isolate 2 showed 1231.117 μg/l production.

Mycotoxins on edible insects: Should we be worried?

Edible insects are a solid alternative to meet the growing demand for animal protein. However, there are doubts regarding the safety of insect consumption. Mycotoxins are substances of concern for food safety, as they may cause harmful effects on the human organism and accumulate in the tissues of some animals. This study focuses on the characteristics of the main mycotoxins, the mitigation of human consumption of contaminated insects, and the effects of mycotoxins on insect metabolism. To date, studies reported the interaction of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and T-2, isolated or combined, in three insect species from Coleoptera and one from Diptera order. The use of rearing substrates with low mycotoxin contamination did not reduce the survival and development of insects. Fasting practices and replacing contaminated substrate with a decontaminated one decreased the concentration of mycotoxins in insects. There is no evidence that mycotoxins accumulate in the tissues of the insects' larvae. Coleoptera species showed high excretion capacity, while Hermetia illucens had a lower excretion capacity of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Thus, a substrate with low mycotoxin contamination could be used for raising edible insects, particularly from the Coleoptera order.

The association of food ingredients in breakfast cereal products and fumonisins production: risks identification and predictions

Breakfast processed products are remarkably at risk of fungal contamination. This research surveyed the fumonisins concentration in different breakfast products and carried out in vitro experiments measuring fumonisins content in different substrates inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides. The pipeline started with the identification of combinations of ingredients for 58 breakfast products. Twenty-three core ingredients, seven nutritional components and production types were analyzed using a Pearson correlation, k-means clustering, and principal component analysis to show that no single factor is responsible for high fumonisins detection in processed cereals products. Consequently, decision tree regression was used as a means of determining and visualizing complex logical interactions between the same factors. We clustered the association of ingredients in low, medium, and high risk of fumonisin detection. The analysis showed that high fumonisins concentration is associated with those products that have high maize concentrations coupled especially with high sodium or rice. In an in vitro experiment, different media were prepared by mixing the ingredients in the proportion found in the first survey and by measuring fumonisins production by Fusarium verticillioides. Results showed that (1) fumonisins production by F. verticillioides is boosted by the synergistic effect of maize and highly ready carbohydrate content such as white flour; (2) a combination of maize > 26% (w/w), rice > 2.5% (w/w), and NaCl > 2.2% (w/w) led to high fumonisins production, while mono-ingredient products were more protective against fumonisins production. The observations in the in vitro experiments appeared to align with the decision tree model that an increase in ingredient complexity can lead to fumonisins production by Fusarium. However, more research is urgently needed to develop the area of predictive mycology based on the association of processing, ingredients, fungal development, and mycotoxins production.

New insights into the combined toxicity of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in HepG2 cells using Seahorse respirometry analysis and RNA transcriptome sequencing

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are widely (co-)detected in food and known for their hepatotoxicity in humans. Still, their combined toxicity needs to be investigated, especially the impact on mitochondria. In our previous work, we examined the effect of short-term exposure to different doses of AFB1, FB1, and their binary mixture (MIX) on the bioenergetic status of HepG2 cells, a well-recognized in vitro model system for studying liver cell function. In the current work, we further investigated the (combined) effect of AFB1 and FB1 on the mitochondrial and glycolytic activity of HepG2 cells using Seahorse respirometry analysis and RNA transcriptome sequencing. The results showed that the co-exposure, especially at high doses, is more toxic due to a more inhibition of all parameters of mitochondrial respiration. However, FB1 contributes more to the MIX effects than AFB1. RNA transcriptome sequencing showed that the p53 signaling pathway, a major orchestrator of mitochondrial apoptosis, was differentially expressed. Moreover, the co-exposure significantly downregulated the genes encoding for Complexes I, II, III, and IV, representing the onset of the suppressed mitochondrial respiration in HepG2 cells.

Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Determination in Fish Feed Ingredients

Low-cost plant-based sources used in aquaculture diets are prone to the occurrence of animal feed contaminants, which may in certain conditions affect the quality and safety of aquafeeds. Mycotoxins, a toxic group of small organic molecules produced by fungi, comprise a frequently occurring plant-based feed contaminant in aquafeeds. Mycotoxin contamination can potentially cause significant mortality, reduced productivity, and higher disease susceptibility; thus, its timely detection is crucial to the aquaculture industry. The present review summarizes the methodological advances, developed mainly during the past decade, related to mycotoxin detection in aquafeed ingredients, namely analytical, chromatographic, and immunological methodologies, as well as the use of biosensors and spectroscopic methods which are becoming more prevalent. Rapid and accurate mycotoxin detection is and will continue to be crucial to the food industry, animal production, and the environment, resulting in further improvements and developments in mycotoxin detection techniques.

Rapid detection of three mycotoxins in animal feed materials using competitive ELISA-based origami microfluidic paper analytical device (μPAD)

We report the development of a competitive ELISA-based origami microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) for the detection of mycotoxins in animal feed material. The μPAD was patterned using the wax printing technique with the design of a testing pad in the middle and two absorption pads at the side. Anti-mycotoxin antibodies were effectively immobilized on chitosan-glutaraldehyde-modified sample reservoirs in the μPAD. The determination of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin in corn flour was successfully achieved by performing competitive ELISA on the μPAD in 20 min. Colorimetric results were easily distinguished by the naked eye with a detection limit of 1 µg/mL for all three mycotoxins. The μPAD integrated with competitive ELISA holds potential for practical applications in the livestock industry for rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective detection of different mycotoxins in animal feed materials.

Molecular Docking and In Vitro Studies of Ochratoxin A (OTA) Biodetoxification Testing Three Endopeptidases

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA's detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA's concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions.

Exploring the impact of lactic acid bacteria on the biocontrol of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their main mycotoxins

The occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in foods is a serious global problem. Most of the regulated mycotoxins in food are produced by Fusarium spp. This work aimed to assess the antifungal activity of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains against the main toxigenic Fusarium spp. isolated from cereals. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms such as neural networks (NN), random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosted trees (XGBoost), and multiple linear regression (MLR), were applied to develop models able to predict the percentage of fungal growth inhibition caused by the LAB strains tested. In addition, the ability of the assayed LAB strains to reduce/inhibit the production of the main mycotoxins associated with these fungi was studied by UPLC-MS/MS. All assays were performed at 20, 25, and 30 °C in dual culture (LAB plus fungus) on MRS agar-cereal-based media. All factors and their interactions very significantly influenced the percentage of growth inhibition compared to controls. The efficacy of LAB strains was higher at 20 °C followed by 30 °C and 25 °C. Overall, the order of susceptibility of the fungi to LAB was F. oxysporum > F. poae = F. culmorum ≥ F. sporotrichioides > F. langsethiae > F. graminearum > F. subglutinans > F. verticillioides. In general, the most effective LAB was Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b), and the least effective were Latilactobacillus sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1 and T3Y2). XGBoost and RF were the algorithms that produced the most accurate predicting models of fungal growth inhibition. Mycotoxin levels were usually lower when fungal growth decreased. In the cultures of F. langsethiae treated with LAB, T-2 and HT-2 toxins were not detected except in the treatments with Pediococcus pentosaceus (M9MM5b, S11sMM1, and S1M4). These three strains of P. pentosaceus, L. mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b) and L. mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3) inhibited fumonisin production in cultures of F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides. In F. culmorum cultures, zearalenone production was inhibited by all LAB strains, except L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1) and Companilactobacillus farciminis (T3Y6c), whereas deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol were only detected in cultures of L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1). The results show that an appropriate selection and use of LAB strains can be one of the most impacting tools in the control of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their mycotoxins in food and therefore one of the most promising strategies in terms of efficiency, positive impact on the environment, food safety, food security, and international economy.

Mutual effects on mycotoxin production during co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains

Mycotoxin co-occurrence compromises the safety of food crops worldwide. Environmental factors, as well as fungal interaction, can substantially influence the infectivity of mycotoxigenic fungi and their subsequent production of multi-mycotoxin. Here, we investigated the mutual effects of the co-culture of ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains on the co-production of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Single cultures of ochratoxigenic A. carbonarius and A. alliaceus grew optimally at 25 °C, whereas aflatoxigenic A. flavus grew optimally at 35 °C. The maximum levels of OTA and AFB1 were achieved at 25 °C, whereas mycotoxin production decreased at 35 °C. During competitive growth of the ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic isolates, inhibition or stimulation of mycotoxin production was dependent on the fungal strain, temperature, and the ratio of the spore concentration. Aspergillus carbonarius and A. alliaceus generally produced OTA, with similar patterns of relative OTA levels at all temperatures. AFB1 production by A. flavus in the presence of ochratoxigenic Aspergillus species was inhibited at 25 °C and stimulated at 35 °C. These results indicated that the temperature, presence of other mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species, and ratio of the initial spore concentration significantly contributed to the co-production of OTA and AFB1.

Enzymatic Degradation of Zearalenone in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Pigs, Chickens, and Rainbow Trout

The estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a common contaminant of animal feed. Effective strategies for the inactivation of ZEN in feed are required. The ZEN-degrading enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme^®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) converts ZEN to hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN), thereby enabling a strong reduction in estrogenicity. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of ZenA added to feed to degrade ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of three monogastric animal species, i.e., pigs, chickens, and rainbow trout. For each species, groups of animals received (i) feed contaminated with ZEN (chickens: 400 µg/kg, pigs: 200 µg/kg, rainbow trout: 2000 µg/kg), (ii) feed contaminated with ZEN and supplemented with ZenA, or (iii) uncontaminated feed. To investigate the fate of dietary ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract in the presence and absence of ZenA, concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were analyzed in digesta of chickens and rainbow trout and in feces of pigs. Upon ZenA administration, concentrations of ZEN were significantly decreased and concentrations of the degradation product HZEN were significantly increased in digesta/feces of each investigated animal species, indicating degradation of ZEN by ZenA in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, upon addition of ZenA to the diet, the concentration of the highly estrogenic ZEN metabolite α-ZEL was significantly reduced in feces of pigs. In conclusion, ZenA was effective in degrading ZEN to HZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, pigs, and rainbow trout, and counteracted formation of α-ZEL in pigs. Therefore, ZenA could find application as a ZEN-degrading feed additive for these animal species.

Risk Assessment of Combined Exposure to Multiple Chemicals at the European Food Safety Authority: Principles, Guidance Documents, Applications and Future Challenges

Human health and animal health risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals use the same steps as single-substance risk assessment, namely problem formulation, exposure assessment, hazard assessment and risk characterisation. The main unique feature of combined RA is the assessment of combined exposure, toxicity and risk. Recently, the Scientific Committee of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published two relevant guidance documents. The first one "Harmonised methodologies for the human health, animal health and ecological risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals" provides principles and explores methodologies for all steps of risk assessment together with a reporting table. This guidance supports also the default assumption that dose addition is applied for combined toxicity of the chemicals unless evidence for response addition or interactions (antagonism or synergism) is available. The second guidance document provides an account of the scientific criteria to group chemicals in assessment groups using hazard-driven criteria and prioritisation methods, i.e., exposure-driven and risk-based approaches. This manuscript describes such principles, provides a brief description of EFSA's guidance documents, examples of applications in the human health and animal health area and concludes with a discussion on future challenges in this field.

Lactobacillus plantarum and Deoxynivalenol Detoxification: A Concise Review

ABSTRACT

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate feeds, and their levels remain stable during feed processing. The economic impact of mycotoxins on animal production happens mainly due to losses related to direct effects on animal health and trade losses related to grain rejection. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin that has contaminated approximately 60% of the grains worldwide. Ingestion of DON induces many toxic effects on human and animal health. Detoxification strategies to decrease DON levels in food and feeds include physical and chemical methods; however, they are not very effective when incorporated into the industrial production process. A valuable alternative to achieve this aim is the use of lactic acid bacteria. These bacteria can control fungal growth and thus overcome DON production or can detoxify the mycotoxin through adsorption and biotransformation. Some Lactobacillus spp. strains, such as Lactobacillus plantarum, have demonstrated preventive effects against DON toxicity in poultry and swine. This beneficial effect is associated with a binding capacity of lactic acid bacteria cell wall peptidoglycan with mycotoxins. Moreover, several antifungal compounds have been isolated from L. plantarum supernatants, including lactic, acetic, caproic, phenyl lactic, 3-hydroxylated fatty, and cyclic dipeptide acids. Biotransformation of DON by L. plantarum into other products is also hypothesized, but the mechanism remains unknown. In this concise review, we highlight the use of L. plantarum as an alternative approach to reduce DON levels and toxicity. Although the action mechanism of L. plantarum is still not fully understood, these bacteria are a safe, efficient, and low-cost strategy to reduce economic losses from mycotoxin contamination cases.

HIGHLIGHTS

A Novel Preanalytical Strategy Enabling Application of a Colorimetric Nanoaptasensor for On-Site Detection of AFB1 in Cattle Feed

Aflatoxin contamination of cattle feed is responsible for serious adverse effects on animal and human health. A number of approaches have been reported to determine aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in a variety of feed samples using aptasensors. However, rapid analysis of AFB1 in these matrices remains to be addressed in light of the complexity of the preanalytical process. Herein we describe an optimization on the preanalytical stage to minimize the sample processing steps required to perform semi-quantitative colorimetric detection of AFB1 in cattle feed using a gold nanoparticle-based aptasensor (nano-aptasensor). The optical behavior of the nano-aptasensor was characterized in different organics solvents, with acetonitrile showing the least interference on the activity of the nan-aptasensor. This solvent was selected as the extractant agent for AFB1-containing feed, allowing for the first time, direct colorimetric detection from the crude extract (detection limit of 5 µg/kg). Overall, these results lend support to the application of this technology for the on-site detection of AFB1 in the dairy sector.

Cytotoxicities of Co-occurring alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid on human gastric epithelial cells

Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) are the three major Alternaria toxin contaminants in food. In the present study, we conducted their single and combined toxicity analyses using human gastric epithelial cell line (GES-1) that was first exposed to the toxins when they entered the human body. By comparing the cytotoxicity IC50, we found that compared to several other mycotoxins with limit standards there was cytotoxicity DON > OTA > AME > AOH > ZEN > TeA. Further, we obtained combination index (CI)-isobologram equation by the Chou-Talalay method according to a toxin ratio of 1:1:2 and carried out the combined toxicity analysis of the three binary and ternary compounds, and the results showed that AOH + AME + TeA showed synergistic toxic effects. Based on the co-occurring status, we also carried out the combined toxicity analysis of AME and AOH at different ratios and found antagonistic effects at low cytotoxic concentrations as well as synergistic and additive effects at high concentrations. Also, we found that all three and their combinations caused apoptosis, activation of caspase-3 cleavage, activation of DNA damage pathways ATR-Chk1-P53 and ATM-Chk2-P53. In conclusion, we used GES-1 cells to inform the risk of coaction of AOH, AME, and TeA in dietary exposure.

Does Deoxynivalenol Affect Amoxicillin and Doxycycline Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract? Ex Vivo Study on Swine Jejunum Mucosa Explants

The presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in feed may increase intestinal barrier permeability. Disturbance of the intestinal barrier integrity may affect the absorption of antibiotics used in animals. Since the bioavailability of orally administered antibiotics significantly affects their efficacy and safety, it was decided to evaluate how DON influences the absorption of the most commonly used antibiotics in pigs, i.e., amoxicillin (AMX) and doxycycline (DOX). The studies were conducted using jejunal explants from adult pigs. Explants were incubated in Ussing chambers, in which a buffer containing DON (30 µg/mL), AMX (50 µg/mL), DOX (30 µg/mL), a combination of AMX + DON, or a combination of DOX + DON was used. Changes in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), the flux of transcellular and intracellular transport markers, and the flux of antibiotics across explants were measured. DON increased the permeability of small intestine explants, expressed by a reduction in TEER and an intensification of transcellular marker transport. DON did not affect AMX transport, but it accelerated DOX transport by approximately five times. The results suggest that DON inhibits the efflux transport of DOX to the intestinal lumen, and thus significantly changes its absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.

Recent Progress in Aptamer-Functionalized Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Optical and Electrochemical Sensors for Detection of Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin contamination in foodstuffs and agricultural products has posed a serious hazard to human health and raised international concern. The progress of cost-effective, facile, rapid and reliable analytical tools for mycotoxin determination is in urgent need. In this regard, the potential utility of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as a class of crystalline porous materials has sparked immense attention due to their large specific surface area, adjustable pore size, nanoscale framework structure and good chemical stability. The amalgamation of MOFs with high-affinity aptamers has resulted in the progress of advanced aptasensing methods for clinical and food/water safety diagnosis. Aptamers have many advantages over classical approaches as exceptional molecular recognition constituents for versatile bioassays tools. The excellent sensitivity and selectivity of the MOF-aptamer biocomposite nominate them as efficient lab-on-chip tools for portable, label-free, cost-effective and real-time screening of mycotoxins. Current breakthroughs in the concept, progress and biosensing applications of aptamer functionalized MOFs-derived electrochemical and optical sensors for mycotoxins have been discussed in this study. We first highlighted an overview part, which provides some insights into the functionalization mechanisms of MOFs with aptamers, offering a foundation to create MOFs-based aptasensors. Then, we discuss various strategies to design high-performance MOFs-based aptamer scaffolds, which serve as either signal nanoprobe carriers or signal nanoprobes and their applications. We perceived that applications of optical aptamers are in their infancy in comparison with electrochemical MOFs-derived aptasensors. Finally, current challenges and prospective trends of MOFs-aptamer sensors are discussed.

Searching for the Fusarium spp. Which Are Responsible for Trichothecene Contamination in Oats Using Metataxonomy to Compare the Distribution of Toxigenic Species in Fields from Spain and the UK

The contamination of oats with Fusarium toxins poses a high risk for food safety. Among them, trichothecenes are the most frequently reported in European oats, especially in northern countries. The environmental conditions related to the climate change scenario might favour a distribution shift in Fusarium species and the presence of these toxins in Southern European countries. In this paper, we present an ambitious work to determine the species responsible for trichothecene contamination in Spanish oats and to compare the results in the United Kingdom (UK) using a metataxonomic approach applied to both oat grains and soil samples collected from both countries. Regarding T-2 and HT-2 toxin producers, F. langsethiae was detected in 38% and 25% of the oat samples from the UK and Spain, respectively, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the detection of this fungus in oats from Spain. The relevant type B trichothecene producer, F. poae, was the most frequently detected Fusarium species in oats from both origins. Other important trichothecene producers, such as the Fusarium tricinctum species complex or Fusarium cerealis, were also frequently detected in oat fields. Many Fusarium toxins, including T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol, or nivalenol, were detected in oat samples. The results obtained in this work revealed a clear change in the distribution of trichothecene producers and the necessity to establish the potential of these species to colonize oats and their ability to produce mycotoxins.

The Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Emerging, and Masked Mycotoxins in Rice Bran and Maize from Southeast Asia

Raw feed materials are often contaminated with mycotoxins, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins occurs frequently. A total of 250 samples i.e., rice bran and maize from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand were analysed using state-of-the-art liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for monitoring the occurrence of regulated, emerging, and masked mycotoxins. Seven regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B₁, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, HT-2, and T-2 toxin were detected as well as some emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin, enniatin type B, stachybotrylactam, sterigmatocystin, and masked mycotoxins, specifically zearalenone-14-glucoside, and zearalenone-16-glucoside. Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent compounds identified, especially aflatoxins and fumonisin B₁ in 100% and 95% of samples, respectively. Of the emerging toxins, beauvericin and enniatin type B showed high occurrences, with more than 90% of rice bran and maize contaminated, whereas zearalenone-14-glucoside and zearalenone-16-glucoside were found in rice bran in the range of 56–60%. Regulated mycotoxins (DON and ZEN) were the most frequent mycotoxin combination with emerging mycotoxins (BEA and ENN type B) in rice bran and maize. This study indicates that mycotoxin occurrence and co-occurrence are common in raw feed materials, and it is critical to monitor mycotoxin levels in ASEAN’s feedstuffs so that mitigation strategies can be developed and implemented.

Development of a reliable UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of zearalenone and zearalenone-14-glucoside in various feed products

A reliable ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of two mycotoxins, that is, zearalenone (ZEN) and zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G) in formula feed, concentrated feed, and premixed feed products. An improved sample pretreatment was achieved with the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) cartridges efficiently removing the impurities and enriching the target analytes in different feeds. The critical parameters affecting the performance of the solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure were carefully optimized, and 20% acetonitrile in water as the loading solution, 50% methanol in water as the washing solvent, and 5 ml of methanol as the elution solvent yielded the optimal purification efficiencies. The established method was thoroughly validated in terms of linearity (R 2 ≥ 0.999), sensitivity (limit of quantification in the range of 0.50-5.00 μg kg-1), recovery (89.35 ± 2.67% to 110.93 ± 1.56%), and precision (RSD, 3.00-14.20%), and it was then successfully applied to investigate a total of 60 feed samples. Among them, 50 samples were found to be contaminated with ZEN (an incidence of 83.3%) at levels ranging from 0.63 to 615.24 μg kg-1, whereas 22 samples were contaminated with ZEN-14G (an incidence of 36.7%) in the range of 0.89-15.31 μg kg-1. The developed method proved to be a specific and reliable tool for intensive monitoring of ZEN and ZEN-14G in complex feed matrices.

Fe3O4@PDA/MIL-101(Cr) as magnetic solid-phase extraction sorbent for mycotoxins in licorice prior to ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis

Magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) strategy based on the Fe3O4@PDA/MIL-101(Cr) has been proposed to separate and purify five common mycotoxins in licorice, including aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G1, sterigmatocystin, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A. Integrating the MSPE and solid-liquid extraction/partitioning, a modified QuEChERS was established to adapt to the complex licorice samples. The Fe3O4@PDA/MIL-101(Cr) was successfully synthesized and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms. Sorbents with superior advantages for exclusion of matrix interference and extraction of target analytes in a short time were obtained, according to their ability of magnetic separation, high surface area (287.75 m2/g), large pore volume (0.61 cm3/g), and nanosized structure with mesopores. Prior to analysis with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), several key parameters that would affect the sorbents' extraction efficiency were extensively investigated. Under the optimized conditions, the practicality of the developed method for analysis of mycotoxins in licorice samples was confirmed by adequate linearity (R 2 ≥ 0.9967), high sensitivity (LODs and LOQs, respectively, in the ranges 0.01-0.09 and 0.02-0.30 μg/kg), acceptable recovery (78.53%-116.28%), satisfactory reusability, and good interbatch precision of the sorbents (RSDs in the ranges 6.70%-11.20% and 6.02%-10.35%, respectively). The results indicated that the established method was feasible and reliable for the environment-friendly and rapid screening of mycotoxins in complex licorice samples.

Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.

Zearalenone Degradation by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Cold Plasma: The Kinetics and Mechanism

In this study, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) cold plasma was used to degrade zearalenone and the efficiency of degradation were evaluated. In addition, the degradation kinetics and possible pathway of degradation were investigated. The results showed that zearalenone degradation percentage increased with increasing voltage and time. When it was treated at 50 KV for 120 s, the degradation percentage could reach 98.28%. Kinetics analysis showed that the degradation process followed a first-order reaction, which fitted the exponential function model best (R² = 0.987). Meanwhile, liquid chromatographywith quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF LC/MS) was used to analyze the degradation products, one major compound was identified. In this study, the reactive species generated in cold plasma was analyzed by Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) and the free radicals were detected by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR). This study could provide a theoretical basis for the degradation of zearalenone to a certain extent.

Mycotoxin Exposure in Children through Breakfast Cereal Consumption in Chile

Mycotoxins are unavoidable contaminants produced by fungi in food, especially grains. This study aimed to measure the occurrence and levels of total aflatoxins (AFs); ochratoxin A (OTA); zearalenone (ZEN); fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 (FUM); deoxynivalenol (DON); and T-2/HT-2 toxins in the four most commonly consumed breakfast cereals in Chile and to assess mycotoxin exposure and risk in children aged 2 to 13 years due to cereal consumption. In this study, a total of 110 batches with three subsamples of the four brands were sampled in supermarkets from November 2019 to June 2021. Samples were analyzed by Veratox® ELISA (Neogen). Exposure was assessed by estimated daily intake (EDI) considering the levels found in a modified lower bound (mLB) and upper bound (UB). Risk was estimated by margin of exposure (MOE) in the case of OTA and AFs and hazard quotient (HQ) for the rest of the mycotoxins. No T2/HT2 toxins were detected. Few samples had quantifiable levels of ZEN, FUM, and DON except for brand 1, with a mean (standard deviation, SD) of 54 (20), 1552 (351), and 706 (218) ng/g, respectively. In addition, three FUM samples and one DON sample had values over the Chilean regulation. Brands 2, 3, and 4 had quantifiable levels of AFs, with mean (SD) values of 1.3 (0.1), 2.1 (0.6), and 1.9 (0.4) ng/g, respectively. Brand 3 had quantifiable levels of OTA, with a mean (SD) of 2.3 (0.4) ng/g. Estimated exposure indicated a risk of AFs in all scenarios, and of FUM for brand 1 consumption, OTA and DON for brand 3 consumption, and OTA for brand 4 consumption in the mLB worst-case scenario. In general, mycotoxin levels were below the Chilean regulatory limits, but most of them were above the EU regulation for processed cereal-based food in young children. Because the risk was higher in the 2- to 5-year-old children, we recommend special regulations for this group in Chile.

Combined Exposure to Multiple Mycotoxins: An Example of Using a Tiered Approach in a Mixture Risk Assessment

Humans are exposed to mycotoxins on a regular basis. Exposure to a mixture of mycotoxins may, therefore, result in a combination of adverse effects, or trigger the same effects. This should be accounted for when assessing the combined risk of multiple mycotoxins. Here, we show the outcome of using different approaches in assessing the risks related to the combined exposure to mycotoxins. We performed a tiered approach using assessment groups with a common target organ (kidney, liver and haematologic system), or a common adverse effect (phenomenon) (reduced white blood cell count), to combine the exposure to mycotoxins. The combined exposure was calculated for the individuals in this assessment, using the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment (MCRA) tool. The risk related to this combined exposure was assessed using toxicological reference values, e.g., health based guidance values. We show that estimating the combined risk by adding the single compounds' risk distributions slightly overestimates the combined risk in the 95th percentile, as compared to combining the exposures at an individual level. We also show that relative potency factors can be used to refine the mixture risk assessment, as compared to ratios of toxicological reference values with different effect sizes and assessment factors.

Mycotoxins in food and feed: toxicity, preventive challenges, and advanced detection techniques for associated diseases

Mycotoxins are produced primarily as secondary fungal metabolites. Mycotoxins are toxic in nature and naturally produced by various species of fungi, which usually contaminate food and feed ingredients. The growth of these harmful fungi depends on several environmental factors, such as pH, humidity, and temperature; therefore, the mycotoxin distribution also varies among global geographical areas. Various rules and regulations regarding mycotoxins are imposed by the government bodies of each country, which are responsible for addressing global food and health security concerns. Despite this legislation, the incidence of mycotoxin contamination is continuously increasing. In this review, we discuss the geographical regulatory guidelines and recommendations that are implemented around the world to control mycotoxin contamination of food and feed products. Researchers and inventors from various parts of the world have reported several innovations for controlling mycotoxin-associated health consequences. Unfortunately, most of these techniques are restricted to laboratory scales and cannot reach users. Consequently, to date, no single device has been commercialized that can detect all mycotoxins that are naturally available in the environment. Therefore, in this study, we describe severe health hazards that are associated with mycotoxin exposure, their molecular signaling pathways and processes of toxicity, and their genotoxic and cytotoxic effects toward humans and animals. We also discuss recent developments in the construction of a sensitive and specific device that effectively implements mycotoxin identification and detection methods. In addition, our study comprehensively examines the recent advancements in the field for mitigating the health consequences and links them with the molecular and signaling pathways that are activated upon mycotoxin exposure.

Screening of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Barley and Barley Malt (Hordeum vulgare L.) Using Real-Time PCR—A Comparison between Molecular Diagnostic and Culture Technique

Filamentous fungi have a crucial impact on the food safety and technological quality of malting barley. Commonly used techniques for the detection of seed-borne fungi are based on cultivation and identification by morphological criteria. In contrast, this study established a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay based on SYBR green technology for the detection and quantification of black fungal species (Alternaria spp., Epicoccum nigrum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus niger) on brewing barley and compares it with the traditional cultivation technique and visual assessment. To screen the fungal spectrum over different barley varieties and harvest years, naturally infected samples of malting barley and corresponding malts (Hordeum vulgare L.) were analyzed over four consecutive years (2018–2021), grown under different climatic conditions in Germany. Alternaria and Cladosporium spp. DNA were present in all examined barley samples, even without visible contamination. In contrast, detection via culture-based methods does not reliably cover all species. Molecular analysis showed that there was less fungal biomass after malting, by 58.57% in the case of A. alternata, by 28.27% for Cladosporium spp. and by 12.79% for Epicoccum nigrum. Correlation analysis showed no causal relationship between fungal DNA and the number of black kernels. The qPCR provides a highly sensitive and time-saving screening method for detecting latent fungal infections in brewing grains to identify batches that are potentially highly contaminated with toxigenic fungi.