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Abstract
Cancer cells have distinct metabolism that highly depends on glycolysis instead of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation alone, known as aerobic glycolysis. Pyruvate kinase (PK), which catalyzes the final step of glycolysis, has emerged as a potential regulator of this metabolic phenotype. Expression of PK type M2 (PKM2) is increased and facilitates lactate production in cancer cells, which determines whether the glucose carbons are degraded to pyruvate and lactate or are channeled into synthetic processes. Modulation of PKM2 catalytic activity also regulates the synthesis of DNA and lipids that are required for cell proliferation. However, the mechanisms by which PKM2 coordinates high-energy requirements with high anabolic activities to support cancer cell proliferation are still not completely understood. This review summarizes the biological characteristics of PKM2 and discusses the dual role in cancer metabolism as well as the potential therapeutic applications. Given its pleiotropic effects on cancer biology, PKM2 represents an attractive target for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songfang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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502
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503
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Teperino R, Amann S, Bayer M, McGee SL, Loipetzberger A, Connor T, Jaeger C, Kammerer B, Winter L, Wiche G, Dalgaard K, Selvaraj M, Gaster M, Lee-Young RS, Febbraio MA, Knauf C, Cani PD, Aberger F, Penninger JM, Pospisilik JA, Esterbauer H. Hedgehog partial agonism drives Warburg-like metabolism in muscle and brown fat. Cell 2012; 151:414-26. [PMID: 23063129 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2012.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes, obesity, and cancer affect upward of 15% of the world's population. Interestingly, all three diseases juxtapose dysregulated intracellular signaling with altered metabolic state. Exactly which genetic factors define stable metabolic set points in vivo remains poorly understood. Here, we show that hedgehog signaling rewires cellular metabolism. We identify a cilium-dependent Smo-Ca(2+)-Ampk axis that triggers rapid Warburg-like metabolic reprogramming within minutes of activation and is required for proper metabolic selectivity and flexibility. We show that Smo modulators can uncouple the Smo-Ampk axis from canonical signaling and identify cyclopamine as one of a new class of "selective partial agonists," capable of concomitant inhibition of canonical and activation of noncanonical hedgehog signaling. Intriguingly, activation of the Smo-Ampk axis in vivo drives robust insulin-independent glucose uptake in muscle and brown adipose tissue. These data identify multiple noncanonical endpoints that are pivotal for rational design of hedgehog modulators and provide a new therapeutic avenue for obesity and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Teperino
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stuebeweg 51, D-79108 Freiburg, Germany
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504
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M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase is dispensable for tumor maintenance and growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 110:489-94. [PMID: 23267074 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1212780110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Many cancer cells have increased rates of aerobic glycolysis, a phenomenon termed the Warburg effect. In addition, in tumors there is a predominance of expression of the M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). M2 expression was previously shown to be necessary for aerobic glycolysis and to provide a growth advantage to tumors. We report that knockdown of pyruvate kinase in tumor cells leads to a decrease in the levels of pyruvate kinase activity and an increase in the pyruvate kinase substrate phosphoenolpyruvate. However, lactate production from glucose, although reduced, was not fully inhibited. Furthermore, we are unique in reporting increased serine and glycine biosynthesis from both glucose and glutamine following pyruvate kinase knockdown. Although pyruvate kinase knockdown results in modest impairment of proliferation in vitro, in vivo growth of established xenograft tumors is unaffected by PKM2 absence. Our findings indicate that PKM2 is dispensable for tumor maintenance and growth in vivo, suggesting that other metabolic pathways bypass its function.
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505
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Wilson KF, Erickson JW, Antonyak MA, Cerione RA. Rho GTPases and their roles in cancer metabolism. Trends Mol Med 2012; 19:74-82. [PMID: 23219172 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2012.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the small molecule 968 was found to block the Rho GTPase-dependent growth of cancer cells in cell culture and mouse xenografts, and when the target of 968 was found to be the mitochondrial enzyme glutaminase (GLS1), it revealed a surprising link between Rho GTPases and mitochondrial glutamine metabolism. Signal transduction via the Rho GTPases, together with NF-κB, appears to elevate mitochondrial glutaminase activity in cancer cells, thereby helping cancer cells satisfy their altered metabolic demands. Here, we review what is known about the mechanism of glutaminase activation in cancer cells, compare the properties of two distinct glutaminase inhibitors, and discuss recent findings that shed new light on how glutamine metabolism might affect cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin F Wilson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-6401, USA
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506
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Abstract
Oxygen-sensing prolyl hydroxylase domain enzymes (PHDs) target hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-α subunits for proteasomal degradation in normoxia through hydroxylation. Recently, novel mechanisms of PHD activation and function have been unveiled. Interestingly, PHD3 can unexpectedly amplify HIF signaling through hydroxylation of the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase (PK) muscle isoform 2 (PKM2). Recent studies have also yielded insight into HIF-independent PHD functions, including the control of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor trafficking in synaptic transmission and the activation of transient receptor potential cation channel member A1 (TRPA1) ion channels by oxygen levels in sensory nerves. Finally, PHD activation has been shown to involve the iron chaperoning function of poly(rC) binding protein (PCBP)1 and the (R)-enantiomer of 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG). The intersection of these regulatory pathways and interactions highlight the complexity of PHD regulation and function.
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507
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Zhou S, Liu R, Yuan K, Yi T, Zhao X, Huang C, Wei Y. Proteomics analysis of tumor microenvironment: Implications of metabolic and oxidative stresses in tumorigenesis. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2012; 32:267-311. [PMID: 23165949 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Revised: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Tumorigenesis is always concomitant with microenvironmental alterations. The tumor microenvironment is a heterogeneous and complex milieu, which exerts a variety of stresses on tumor cells for proliferation, survival, or death. Recently, accumulated evidence revealed that metabolic and oxidative stresses both play significant roles in tumor development and progression that converge on a common autophagic pathway. Tumor cells display increased metabolic autonomy, and the hallmark is the exploitation of aerobic glycolysis (termed Warburg effect), which increased glucose consumption and decreased oxidative phosphorylation to support growth and proliferation. This characteristic renders cancer cells more aggressive; they devour tremendous amounts of nutrients from microenvironment to result in an ever-growing appetite for new tumor vessel formation and the release of more "waste," including key determinants of cell fate like lactate and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The intracellular ROS level of cancer cells can also be modulated by a variety of stimuli in the tumor microenvironment, such as pro-growth and pro-inflammatory factors. The intracellular redox state serves as a double-edged sword in tumor development and progression: ROS overproduction results in cytotoxic effects and might lead to apoptotic cell death, whereas certain level of ROS can act as a second-messenger for regulation of such cellular processes as cell survival, proliferation, and metastasis. The molecular mechanisms for cancer cell responses to metabolic and oxidative stresses are complex and are likely to involve multiple molecules or signaling pathways. In addition, the expression and modification of these proteins after metabolic or oxidative stress challenge are diverse in different cancer cells and endow them with different functions. Therefore, MS-based high-throughput platforms, such as proteomics, are indispensable in the global analysis of cancer cell responses to metabolic and oxidative stress. Herein, we highlight recent advances in the understanding of the metabolic and oxidative stresses associated with tumor progression with proteomics-based systems biology approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengtao Zhou
- The State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
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508
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The Warburg effect: insights from the past decade. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 137:318-30. [PMID: 23159371 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Several decades ago, Otto Warburg discovered that cancer cells produce energy predominantly by glycolysis; a phenomenon now termed "Warburg effect". Warburg linked mitochondrial respiratory defects in cancer cells to aerobic glycolysis; this theory of his gradually lost its importance with the lack of conclusive evidence confirming the presence of mitochondrial defects in cancer cells. Scientists began to believe that this altered mechanism of energy production in cancer cells was more of an effect than the cause. More than 50 years later, the clinical use of FDG-PET imaging in the diagnosis and monitoring of cancers rekindled the interest of the scientific community in Warburg's hypothesis. In the last ten years considerable progress in the field has advanced our understanding of the Warburg effect. However, it still remains unclear if the Warburg effect plays a causal role in cancers or it is an epiphenomenon in tumorigenesis. In this review we aim to discuss the molecular mechanisms associated with the Warburg effect with emphasis on recent advances in the field including the role of epigenetic changes, miRNAs and post-translational modification of proteins. In addition, we also discuss emerging therapeutic strategies that target the dependence of cancer cells on altered energy processing through aerobic glycolysis.
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509
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Hitosugi T, Zhou L, Elf S, Fan J, Kang HB, Seo JH, Shan C, Dai Q, Zhang L, Xie J, Gu TL, Jin P, Aleckovic M, LeRoy G, Kang Y, Sudderth JA, DeBerardinis RJ, Luan CH, Chen GZ, Muller S, Shin DM, Owonikoko TK, Lonial S, Arellano ML, Khoury HJ, Khuri FR, Lee BH, Ye K, Boggon TJ, Kang S, He C, Chen J. Phosphoglycerate mutase 1 coordinates glycolysis and biosynthesis to promote tumor growth. Cancer Cell 2012; 22:585-600. [PMID: 23153533 PMCID: PMC3500524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is unclear how cancer cells coordinate glycolysis and biosynthesis to support rapidly growing tumors. We found that the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase 1 (PGAM1), commonly upregulated in human cancers due to loss of TP53, contributes to biosynthesis regulation in part by controlling intracellular levels of its substrate, 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG), and product, 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG). 3-PG binds to and inhibits 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), while 2-PG activates 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase to provide feedback control of 3-PG levels. Inhibition of PGAM1 by shRNA or a small molecule inhibitor PGMI-004A results in increased 3-PG and decreased 2-PG levels in cancer cells, leading to significantly decreased glycolysis, PPP flux and biosynthesis, as well as attenuated cell proliferation and tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Hitosugi
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Lu Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Shannon Elf
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Jun Fan
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Hee-Bum Kang
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Jae Ho Seo
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Changliang Shan
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Qing Dai
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Liang Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Jianxin Xie
- Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (CST), Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, USA
| | - Ting-Lei Gu
- Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (CST), Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, USA
| | - Peng Jin
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Masa Aleckovic
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Gary LeRoy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Yibin Kang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | | | | | - Chi-Hao Luan
- Department of Molecular BioSciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Georgia Z. Chen
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Susan Muller
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Dong M. Shin
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Taofeek K. Owonikoko
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Sagar Lonial
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Martha L. Arellano
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Hanna J. Khoury
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Fadlo R. Khuri
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Benjamin H. Lee
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Keqiang Ye
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Titus J. Boggon
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
| | - Sumin Kang
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Chuan He
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
- Correspondence: (C.H.) or (J.C.)
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
- Correspondence: (C.H.) or (J.C.)
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510
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511
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Benjamin DI, Cravatt BF, Nomura DK. Global profiling strategies for mapping dysregulated metabolic pathways in cancer. Cell Metab 2012; 16:565-77. [PMID: 23063552 PMCID: PMC3539740 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2012.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2012] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells possess fundamentally altered metabolism that provides a foundation to support tumorigenicity and malignancy. Our understanding of the biochemical underpinnings of cancer has benefited from the integrated utilization of large-scale profiling platforms (e.g., genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics), which, together, can provide a global assessment of how enzymes and their parent metabolic networks become altered in cancer to fuel tumor growth. This review presents several examples of how these integrated platforms have yielded fundamental insights into dysregulated metabolism in cancer. We will also discuss questions and challenges that must be addressed to more completely describe, and eventually control, the diverse metabolic pathways that support tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel I Benjamin
- Program in Metabolic Biology, Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, 127 Morgan Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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512
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Bluemlein K, Glückmann M, Grüning NM, Feichtinger R, Krüger A, Wamelink M, Lehrach H, Tate S, Neureiter D, Kofler B, Ralser M. Pyruvate kinase is a dosage-dependent regulator of cellular amino acid homeostasis. Oncotarget 2012; 3:1356-69. [PMID: 23154538 PMCID: PMC3717798 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase (PK) is required for cancer development, and has been implicated in the metabolic transition from oxidative to fermentative metabolism, the Warburg effect. However, the global metabolic response that follows changes in PK activity is not yet fully understood. Using shotgun proteomics, we identified 31 yeast proteins that were regulated in a PK-dependent manner. Selective reaction monitoring confirmed that their expression was dependent on PK isoform, level and activity. Most of the PK targets were amino acid metabolizing enzymes or factors of protein translation, indicating that PK plays a global regulatory role in biosynthethic amino acid metabolism. Indeed, we found strongly altered amino acid profiles when PK levels were changed. Low PK levels increased the cellular glutamine and glutamate concentrations, but decreased the levels of seven amino acids including serine and histidine. To test for evolutionary conservation of this PK function, we quantified orthologues of the identified PK targets in thyroid follicular adenoma, a tumor characterized by high PK levels and low respiratory activity. Aminopeptidase AAP-1 and serine hydroxymethyltransferase SHMT1 both showed PKM2- concentration dependence, and were upregulated in the tumor. Thus, PK expression levels and activity were important for maintaining cellular amino acid homeostasis. Mediating between energy production, ROS clearance and amino acid biosynthesis, PK thus plays a central regulatory role in the metabolism of proliferating cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Bluemlein
- Department of Biochemistry & Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nana-Maria Grüning
- Department of Biochemistry & Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - René Feichtinger
- Research Program for Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, University Hospital Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Antje Krüger
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mirjam Wamelink
- VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Lehrach
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Daniel Neureiter
- Institute of Pathology, Paracelsus Medical University, University Hospital Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Research Program for Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, University Hospital Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Markus Ralser
- Department of Biochemistry & Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
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513
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Zhou W, Liotta LA, Petricoin EF. Cancer metabolism: what we can learn from proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2012; 9:373-381. [PMID: 23162076 PMCID: PMC5547437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of genomic and proteomic tools have been used to study cancer metabolism and metabolomics in order to understand how cancer cells survive in their environment. Throughout the past decade, mass spectrometry has been routinely used for large-scale protein identification of complex biological mixtures. In this review, we discuss some recent developments in cancer metabolism by proteomic analysis using mass spectrometric techniques, focusing on pyruvate kinase, L-lactate dehydrogenase, Warburg effect, glutamine metabolism and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Zhou
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, George Mason University, 10900 University Blvd, MS 1A9, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
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514
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Luo W, Semenza GL. Emerging roles of PKM2 in cell metabolism and cancer progression. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2012; 23:560-6. [PMID: 22824010 PMCID: PMC3466350 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Increased conversion of glucose to lactate is a key feature of many cancer cells that promotes rapid growth. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) expression is increased and facilitates lactate production in cancer cells. Modulation of PKM2 catalytic activity also regulates the synthesis of DNA and lipids that are required for cell proliferation, and of NADPH that is required for redox homeostasis. In addition to its role as a pyruvate kinase, PKM2 also functions as a protein kinase and as a transcriptional coactivator. These biochemical activities are controlled by allosteric regulators and post-translational modifications of PKM2 that include acetylation, oxidation, phosphorylation, prolyl hydroxylation, and sumoylation. Given its pleiotropic effects on cancer biology, PKM2 represents an attractive target for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weibo Luo
- Vascular Program, Institute for Cell Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Gregg L. Semenza
- Vascular Program, Institute for Cell Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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515
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Chen Y, Choi SS, Michelotti GA, Chan IS, Swiderska M, Karaca GF, Xie G, Moylan CA, Garibaldi F, Premont R, Suliman HB, Piantodosi CA, Diehl AM. Hedgehog controls hepatic stellate cell fate by regulating metabolism. Gastroenterology 2012; 143:1319-1329.e11. [PMID: 22885334 PMCID: PMC3480563 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2012.07.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Revised: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 07/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The pathogenesis of cirrhosis, a disabling outcome of defective liver repair, involves deregulated accumulation of myofibroblasts derived from quiescent hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), but the mechanisms that control transdifferentiation of HSCs are poorly understood. We investigated whether the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway controls the fate of HSCs by regulating metabolism. METHODS Microarray, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and immunoblot analyses were used to identify metabolic genes that were differentially expressed in quiescent vs myofibroblast HSCs. Glycolysis and lactate production were disrupted in HSCs to determine if metabolism influenced transdifferentiation. Hh signaling and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) activity were altered to identify factors that alter glycolytic activity. Changes in expression of genes that regulate glycolysis were quantified and localized in biopsy samples from patients with cirrhosis and liver samples from mice following administration of CCl(4) or bile duct ligation. Mice were given systemic inhibitors of Hh to determine if they affect glycolytic activity of the hepatic stroma; Hh signaling was also conditionally disrupted in myofibroblasts to determine the effects of glycolytic activity. RESULTS Transdifferentiation of cultured, quiescent HSCs into myofibroblasts induced glycolysis and caused lactate accumulation. Increased expression of genes that regulate glycolysis required Hh signaling and involved induction of HIF1α. Inhibitors of Hh signaling, HIF1α, glycolysis, or lactate accumulation converted myofibroblasts to quiescent HSCs. In diseased livers of animals and patients, numbers of glycolytic stromal cells were associated with the severity of fibrosis. Conditional disruption of Hh signaling in myofibroblasts reduced numbers of glycolytic myofibroblasts and liver fibrosis in mice; similar effects were observed following administration of pharmacologic inhibitors of Hh. CONCLUSIONS Hedgehog signaling controls the fate of HSCs by regulating metabolism. These findings might be applied to diagnosis and treatment of patients with cirrhosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuping Chen
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Steve S. Choi
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Section of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Durham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Gregory A. Michelotti
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Isaac S. Chan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marzena Swiderska
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Gamze F. Karaca
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Guanhua Xie
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Cynthia A. Moylan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Section of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Durham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Francesca Garibaldi
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Richard Premont
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Hagir B. Suliman
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Claude A. Piantodosi
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Department of Pathology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Anna Mae Diehl
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.
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516
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Serine is a natural ligand and allosteric activator of pyruvate kinase M2. Nature 2012; 491:458-462. [PMID: 23064226 DOI: 10.1038/nature11540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 471] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells exhibit several unique metabolic phenotypes that are critical for cell growth and proliferation. Specifically, they overexpress the M2 isoform of the tightly regulated enzyme pyruvate kinase (PKM2), which controls glycolytic flux, and are highly dependent on de novo biosynthesis of serine and glycine. Here we describe a new rheostat-like mechanistic relationship between PKM2 activity and serine biosynthesis. We show that serine can bind to and activate human PKM2, and that PKM2 activity in cells is reduced in response to serine deprivation. This reduction in PKM2 activity shifts cells to a fuel-efficient mode in which more pyruvate is diverted to the mitochondria and more glucose-derived carbon is channelled into serine biosynthesis to support cell proliferation.
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517
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Chinnaiyan P, Kensicki E, Bloom G, Prabhu A, Sarcar B, Kahali S, Eschrich S, Qu X, Forsyth P, Gillies R. The metabolomic signature of malignant glioma reflects accelerated anabolic metabolism. Cancer Res 2012; 72:5878-88. [PMID: 23026133 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-1572-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Although considerable progress has been made toward understanding glioblastoma biology through large-scale genetic and protein expression analyses, little is known about the underlying metabolic alterations promoting their aggressive phenotype. We conducted global metabolomic profiling on patient-derived glioma specimens and identified specific metabolic programs differentiating low- and high-grade tumors, with the metabolic signature of glioblastoma reflecting accelerated anabolic metabolism. When coupled with transcriptional profiles, we identified the metabolic phenotype of the mesenchymal subtype to consist of accumulation of the glycolytic intermediate phosphoenolpyruvate and decreased pyruvate kinase activity. Unbiased hierarchical clustering of metabolomic profiles identified three subclasses, which we term energetic, anabolic, and phospholipid catabolism with prognostic relevance. These studies represent the first global metabolomic profiling of glioma, offering a previously undescribed window into their metabolic heterogeneity, and provide the requisite framework for strategies designed to target metabolism in this rapidly fatal malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakash Chinnaiyan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Experimental Therapeutics, H Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA.
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518
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Abstract
Contrary to conventional wisdom, functional mitochondria are essential for the cancer cell. Although mutations in mitochondrial genes are common in cancer cells, they do not inactivate mitochondrial energy metabolism but rather alter the mitochondrial bioenergetic and biosynthetic state. These states communicate with the nucleus through mitochondrial 'retrograde signalling' to modulate signal transduction pathways, transcriptional circuits and chromatin structure to meet the perceived mitochondrial and nuclear requirements of the cancer cell. Cancer cells then reprogramme adjacent stromal cells to optimize the cancer cell environment. These alterations activate out-of-context programmes that are important in development, stress response, wound healing and nutritional status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas C Wallace
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
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519
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Kung C, Hixon J, Choe S, Marks K, Gross S, Murphy E, DeLaBarre B, Cianchetta G, Sethumadhavan S, Wang X, Yan S, Gao Y, Fang C, Wei W, Jiang F, Wang S, Qian K, Saunders J, Driggers E, Woo HK, Kunii K, Murray S, Yang H, Yen K, Liu W, Cantley LC, Vander Heiden MG, Su SM, Jin S, Salituro FG, Dang L. Small molecule activation of PKM2 in cancer cells induces serine auxotrophy. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2012; 19:1187-98. [PMID: 22999886 PMCID: PMC3775715 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Revised: 07/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Proliferating tumor cells use aerobic glycolysis to support their high metabolic demands. Paradoxically, increased glycolysis is often accompanied by expression of the lower activity PKM2 isoform, effectively constraining lower glycolysis. Here, we report the discovery of PKM2 activators with a unique allosteric binding mode. Characterization of how these compounds impact cancer cells revealed an unanticipated link between glucose and amino acid metabolism. PKM2 activation resulted in a metabolic rewiring of cancer cells manifested by a profound dependency on the nonessential amino acid serine for continued cell proliferation. Induction of serine auxotrophy by PKM2 activation was accompanied by reduced carbon flow into the serine biosynthetic pathway and increased expression of high affinity serine transporters. These data support the hypothesis that PKM2 expression confers metabolic flexibility to cancer cells that allows adaptation to nutrient stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Kung
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Jeff Hixon
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Sung Choe
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Kevin Marks
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Stefan Gross
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Erin Murphy
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Byron DeLaBarre
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | | | | | - Xiling Wang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shunqi Yan
- Schrodinger, 103 SW Main Street, Portland, OR 97204, USA
| | - Yi Gao
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Cheng Fang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Wentao Wei
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Fan Jiang
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shaohui Wang
- Shanghai ChemPartner Company, No. 5 Building 998 Halei Road, Pudong Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Kevin Qian
- Viva Biotech, 334 Aidisheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jeff Saunders
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Ed Driggers
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Hin Koon Woo
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Kaiko Kunii
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Stuart Murray
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Hua Yang
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Katharine Yen
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Wei Liu
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Lewis C. Cantley
- Department of Medicine-Division of Signal Transduction, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Matthew G. Vander Heiden
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Shinsan M. Su
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Shengfang Jin
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | | | - Lenny Dang
- Agios Pharmaceuticals, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
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520
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Yi W, Clark PM, Mason DE, Keenan MC, Hill C, Goddard WA, Peters EC, Driggers EM, Hsieh-Wilson LC. Phosphofructokinase 1 glycosylation regulates cell growth and metabolism. Science 2012; 337:975-80. [PMID: 22923583 DOI: 10.1126/science.1222278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 478] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells must satisfy the metabolic demands of rapid cell growth within a continually changing microenvironment. We demonstrated that the dynamic posttranslational modification of proteins by O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAcylation) is a key metabolic regulator of glucose metabolism. O-GlcNAcylation was induced at serine 529 of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1) in response to hypoxia. Glycosylation inhibited PFK1 activity and redirected glucose flux through the pentose phosphate pathway, thereby conferring a selective growth advantage on cancer cells. Blocking glycosylation of PFK1 at serine 529 reduced cancer cell proliferation in vitro and impaired tumor formation in vivo. These studies reveal a previously uncharacterized mechanism for the regulation of metabolic pathways in cancer and a possible target for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yi
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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521
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Krisher RL, Prather RS. A role for the Warburg effect in preimplantation embryo development: metabolic modification to support rapid cell proliferation. Mol Reprod Dev 2012; 79:311-20. [PMID: 22431437 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.22037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In this essay, we propose that embryos express a metabolic phenotype necessarily different from that of differentiated somatic cells and more like that of rapidly proliferating cancer cells. This metabolic adaptation, known as the Warburg effect, supports rapid cell proliferation. One of the hallmarks of the Warburg effect is that pyruvate is directed away from the tri-carboxylic acid cycle and metabolized to lactate, resulting in a buildup of glycolytic intermediates. Although this is a comparatively inefficient way to generate ATP, this adaptation allows the cell to meet other critical metabolic requirements, including biomass production and redox regulation. Thus, utilization of WE gives proliferating cells a selective growth advantage. This model represents a completely new understanding of embryo metabolism in the context of a broad, interconnected network of metabolic mechanisms that influence viability, versus the current dogma of carbohydrate metabolism via oxidative phosphorylation. A more complete understanding of embryo metabolism is critical to better support embryo viability in vitro, and to avoid forcing embryos to adapt to suboptimal culture conditions at a significant cost to future growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Krisher
- National Foundation for Fertility Research, Lone Tree, Colorado 80124, USA.
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522
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Chaneton B, Gottlieb E. Rocking cell metabolism: revised functions of the key glycolytic regulator PKM2 in cancer. Trends Biochem Sci 2012; 37:309-16. [PMID: 22626471 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cell metabolism is exemplified by high glucose consumption and lactate production. Pyruvate kinase (PK), which catalyzes the final step of glycolysis, has emerged as a potential regulator of this metabolic phenotype. The M2 isoform of PK (PKM2) is highly expressed in cancer cells. However, the mechanisms by which PKM2 coordinates high energy requirements with high anabolic activities to support cancer cell proliferation are still not completely understood. Current research has elucidated novel regulatory mechanisms for PKM2, contributing to its important role in cancer. This review summarizes the current understanding and explores future directions in the field, highlighting controversies regarding the activity and specificity of PKM2 in cancer. In light of this knowledge, the potential therapeutic implications and strategies are critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Chaneton
- Cancer Research UK, The Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Switchback Road, Glasgow, UK
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523
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Granchi C, Minutolo F. Anticancer agents that counteract tumor glycolysis. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:1318-50. [PMID: 22684868 PMCID: PMC3516916 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Can we consider cancer to be a "metabolic disease"? Tumors are the result of a metabolic selection, forming tissues composed of heterogeneous cells that generally express an overactive metabolism as a common feature. In fact, cancer cells have increased needs for both energy and biosynthetic intermediates to support their growth and invasiveness. However, their high proliferation rate often generates regions that are insufficiently oxygenated. Therefore, their carbohydrate metabolism must rely mostly on a glycolytic process that is uncoupled from oxidative phosphorylation. This metabolic switch, also known as the Warburg effect, constitutes a fundamental adaptation of tumor cells to a relatively hostile environment, and supports the evolution of aggressive and metastatic phenotypes. As a result, tumor glycolysis may constitute an attractive target for cancer therapy. This approach has often raised concerns that antiglycolytic agents may cause serious side effects toward normal cells. The key to selective action against cancer cells can be found in their hyperbolic addiction to glycolysis, which may be exploited to generate new anticancer drugs with minimal toxicity. There is growing evidence to support many glycolytic enzymes and transporters as suitable candidate targets for cancer therapy. Herein we review some of the most relevant antiglycolytic agents that have been investigated thus far for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Granchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
| | - Filippo Minutolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa (Italy)
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524
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Zhou CF, Li XB, Sun H, Zhang B, Han YS, Jiang Y, Zhuang QL, Fang J, Wu GH. Pyruvate kinase type M2 is upregulated in colorectal cancer and promotes proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells. IUBMB Life 2012; 64:775-82. [DOI: 10.1002/iub.1066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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525
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Ward PS, Thompson CB. Signaling in control of cell growth and metabolism. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2012; 4:a006783. [PMID: 22687276 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian cells require growth-factor-receptor-initiated signaling to proliferate. Signal transduction not only initiates entry into the cell cycle, but also reprograms cellular metabolism. This instructional metabolic reprogramming is critical if the cell is to fulfill the anabolic and energetic requirements that accompany cell growth and division. Growth factor signaling mediated by the PI3K/Akt pathway plays a major role in regulating the cellular uptake of glucose, as well as the incorporation of this glucose carbon into lipids for membrane synthesis. Tyrosine-kinase-based regulation of key glycolytic enzymes such as pyruvate kinase also plays a critical role directing glucose carbon into anabolic pathways. In addition, the Myc transcription factor and mTOR kinase regulate the uptake and utilization of amino acids for protein and nucleic acid synthesis, as well as for the supply of intermediates to the mitochondrial Krebs cycle. However, the relationship between cellular signaling and metabolism is not unidirectional. Cells, by sensing levels of intracellular metabolites and the status of key metabolic pathways, can exert feedback control on signal transduction networks through multiple types of metabolite-derived protein modifications. These mechanisms allow cells to coordinate growth and division with their metabolic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick S Ward
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
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526
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527
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Graham NA, Tahmasian M, Kohli B, Komisopoulou E, Zhu M, Vivanco I, Teitell MA, Wu H, Ribas A, Lo RS, Mellinghoff IK, Mischel PS, Graeber TG. Glucose deprivation activates a metabolic and signaling amplification loop leading to cell death. Mol Syst Biol 2012; 8:589. [PMID: 22735335 PMCID: PMC3397414 DOI: 10.1038/msb.2012.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The altered metabolism of cancer can render cells dependent on the availability of metabolic substrates for viability. Investigating the signaling mechanisms underlying cell death in cells dependent upon glucose for survival, we demonstrate that glucose withdrawal rapidly induces supra-physiological levels of phospho-tyrosine signaling, even in cells expressing constitutively active tyrosine kinases. Using unbiased mass spectrometry-based phospho-proteomics, we show that glucose withdrawal initiates a unique signature of phospho-tyrosine activation that is associated with focal adhesions. Building upon this observation, we demonstrate that glucose withdrawal activates a positive feedback loop involving generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidase and mitochondria, inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases by oxidation, and increased tyrosine kinase signaling. In cells dependent on glucose for survival, glucose withdrawal-induced ROS generation and tyrosine kinase signaling synergize to amplify ROS levels, ultimately resulting in ROS-mediated cell death. Taken together, these findings illustrate the systems-level cross-talk between metabolism and signaling in the maintenance of cancer cell homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Graham
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Martik Tahmasian
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Bitika Kohli
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Evangelia Komisopoulou
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Maggie Zhu
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Igor Vivanco
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael A Teitell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Broad Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hong Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Broad Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Antoni Ribas
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Roger S Lo
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ingo K Mellinghoff
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Paul S Mischel
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Thomas G Graeber
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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528
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Liu Y, Cao Y, Zhang W, Bergmeier S, Qian Y, Akbar H, Colvin R, Ding J, Tong L, Wu S, Hines J, Chen X. A small-molecule inhibitor of glucose transporter 1 downregulates glycolysis, induces cell-cycle arrest, and inhibits cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Mol Cancer Ther 2012; 11:1672-82. [PMID: 22689530 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-12-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 392] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The functional and therapeutic importance of the Warburg effect is increasingly recognized, and glycolysis has become a target of anticancer strategies. We recently reported the identification of a group of novel small compounds that inhibit basal glucose transport and reduce cancer cell growth by a glucose deprivation-like mechanism. We hypothesized that the compounds target Glut1 and are efficacious in vivo as anticancer agents. Here, we report that a novel representative compound WZB117 not only inhibited cell growth in cancer cell lines but also inhibited cancer growth in a nude mouse model. Daily intraperitoneal injection of WZB117 at 10 mg/kg resulted in a more than 70% reduction in the size of human lung cancer of A549 cell origin. Mechanism studies showed that WZB117 inhibited glucose transport in human red blood cells (RBC), which express Glut1 as their sole glucose transporter. Cancer cell treatment with WZB117 led to decreases in levels of Glut1 protein, intracellular ATP, and glycolytic enzymes. All these changes were followed by increase in ATP-sensing enzyme AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and declines in cyclin E2 as well as phosphorylated retinoblastoma, resulting in cell-cycle arrest, senescence, and necrosis. Addition of extracellular ATP rescued compound-treated cancer cells, suggesting that the reduction of intracellular ATP plays an important role in the anticancer mechanism of the molecule. Senescence induction and the essential role of ATP were reported for the first time in Glut1 inhibitor-treated cancer cells. Thus, WZB117 is a prototype for further development of anticancer therapeutics targeting Glut1-mediated glucose transport and glucose metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Department of Biological Science, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
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529
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530
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Buchheit CL, Rayavarapu RR, Schafer ZT. The regulation of cancer cell death and metabolism by extracellular matrix attachment. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2012; 23:402-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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531
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Greer SN, Metcalf JL, Wang Y, Ohh M. The updated biology of hypoxia-inducible factor. EMBO J 2012; 31:2448-60. [PMID: 22562152 PMCID: PMC3365421 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2012.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxygen is essential for eukaryotic life and is inextricably linked to the evolution of multicellular organisms. Proper cellular response to changes in oxygen tension during normal development or pathological processes, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, is ultimately regulated by the transcription factor, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF). Over the past decade, unprecedented molecular insight has been gained into the mammalian oxygen-sensing pathway involving the canonical oxygen-dependent prolyl-hydroxylase domain-containing enzyme (PHD)-von Hippel-Lindau tumour suppressor protein (pVHL) axis and its connection to cellular metabolism. Here we review recent notable advances in the field of hypoxia that have shaped a more complex model of HIF regulation and revealed unique roles of HIF in a diverse range of biological processes, including immunity, development and stem cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha N Greer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Julie L Metcalf
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael Ohh
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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532
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Rabinowitz
- Department of Chemistry and Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
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533
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Oxidative stress, tumor microenvironment, and metabolic reprogramming: a diabolic liaison. Int J Cell Biol 2012; 2012:762825. [PMID: 22666258 PMCID: PMC3361160 DOI: 10.1155/2012/762825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Conversely to normal cells, where deregulated oxidative stress drives the activation of death pathways, malignant cells exploit oxidative milieu for its advantage. Cancer cells are located in a very complex microenvironment together with stromal components that participate to enhance oxidative stress to promote tumor progression. Indeed, convincing experimental and clinical evidence underline the key role of oxidative stress in several tumor aspects thus affecting several characteristics of cancer cells. Oxidants influence the DNA mutational potential, intracellular signaling pathways controlling cell proliferation and survival and cell motility and invasiveness as well as control the reactivity of stromal components that is fundamental for cancer development and dissemination, inflammation, tissue repair, and de novo angiogenesis. This paper is focused on the role of oxidant species in the acquisition of two mandatory features for aggressive neoplastic cells, recently defined by Hanahan and Weinberg as new “hallmarks of cancer”: tumor microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells.
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534
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Nieborowska-Skorska M, Kopinski PK, Ray R, Hoser G, Ngaba D, Flis S, Cramer K, Reddy MM, Koptyra M, Penserga T, Glodkowska-Mrowka E, Bolton E, Holyoake TL, Eaves CJ, Cerny-Reiterer S, Valent P, Hochhaus A, Hughes TP, van der Kuip H, Sattler M, Wiktor-Jedrzejczak W, Richardson C, Dorrance A, Stoklosa T, Williams DA, Skorski T. Rac2-MRC-cIII-generated ROS cause genomic instability in chronic myeloid leukemia stem cells and primitive progenitors. Blood 2012; 119:4253-63. [PMID: 22411871 PMCID: PMC3359741 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-10-385658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic myeloid leukemia in chronic phase (CML-CP) is induced by BCR-ABL1 oncogenic tyrosine kinase. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors eliminate the bulk of CML-CP cells, but fail to eradicate leukemia stem cells (LSCs) and leukemia progenitor cells (LPCs) displaying innate and acquired resistance, respectively. These cells may accumulate genomic instability, leading to disease relapse and/or malignant progression to a fatal blast phase. In the present study, we show that Rac2 GTPase alters mitochondrial membrane potential and electron flow through the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex III (MRC-cIII), thereby generating high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in CML-CP LSCs and primitive LPCs. MRC-cIII-generated ROS promote oxidative DNA damage to trigger genomic instability, resulting in an accumulation of chromosomal aberrations and tyrosine kinase inhibitor-resistant BCR-ABL1 mutants. JAK2(V617F) and FLT3(ITD)-positive polycythemia vera cells and acute myeloid leukemia cells also produce ROS via MRC-cIII. In the present study, inhibition of Rac2 by genetic deletion or a small-molecule inhibitor and down-regulation of mitochondrial ROS by disruption of MRC-cIII, expression of mitochondria-targeted catalase, or addition of ROS-scavenging mitochondria-targeted peptide aptamer reduced genomic instability. We postulate that the Rac2-MRC-cIII pathway triggers ROS-mediated genomic instability in LSCs and primitive LPCs, which could be targeted to prevent the relapse and malignant progression of CML.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Catalase/metabolism
- DNA Damage
- DNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- DNA, Neoplasm/metabolism
- Disease Progression
- Electron Transport
- Electron Transport Complex III/metabolism
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/genetics
- Genomic Instability
- Humans
- Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/metabolism
- Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/pathology
- Leukemia, Myeloid, Chronic-Phase/pathology
- Membrane Potential, Mitochondrial
- Methacrylates/pharmacology
- Mice
- Neoplasm Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/drug effects
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/metabolism
- Polycythemia Vera/metabolism
- Polycythemia Vera/pathology
- Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/physiology
- Superoxide Dismutase/metabolism
- Thiazoles/pharmacology
- rac GTP-Binding Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- rac GTP-Binding Proteins/genetics
- rac GTP-Binding Proteins/physiology
- RAC2 GTP-Binding Protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Nieborowska-Skorska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Temple University School of Medicine, 3400 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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535
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Barbosa IA, Machado NG, Skildum AJ, Scott PM, Oliveira PJ. Mitochondrial remodeling in cancer metabolism and survival: potential for new therapies. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2012; 1826:238-54. [PMID: 22554970 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2012.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles that play essential roles in cellular metabolism and programmed cell death pathways. Genomic, functional and structural mitochondrial alterations have been associated with cancer. Some of those alterations may provide a selective advantage to cells, allowing them to survive and grow under stresses created by oncogenesis. Due to the specific alterations that occur in cancer cell mitochondria, these organelles may provide promising targets for cancer therapy. The development of drugs that specifically target metabolic and mitochondrial alterations in tumor cells has become a matter of interest in recent years, with several molecules undergoing clinical trials. This review focuses on the most relevant mitochondrial alterations found in tumor cells, their contribution to cancer progression and survival, and potential usefulness for stratification and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês A Barbosa
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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536
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Abstract
Advances in understanding the biology of tumour progression and metastasis have clearly highlighted the importance of aberrant tumour metabolism, which supports not only the energy requirements but also the enormous biosynthetic needs of tumour cells. Such metabolic alterations modulate glucose, amino acid and fatty-acid-dependent metabolite biosynthesis and energy production. Although much progress has been made in understanding the somatic mutations and expression genomics behind these alterations, the regulation of these processes by microRNAs (miRNAs) is only just beginning to be appreciated. This Review focuses on the miRNAs that are potential regulators of the expression of genes whose protein products either directly regulate metabolic machinery or serve as master regulators, indirectly modulating the expression of metabolic enzymes. We focus particularly on miRNAs in pancreatic cancer.
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537
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Pyruvate kinase M2 promotes de novo serine synthesis to sustain mTORC1 activity and cell proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:6904-9. [PMID: 22509023 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1204176109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that most cancer cells display high glycolytic activity, cancer cells selectively express the less active M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). Here we demonstrate that PKM2 expression makes a critical regulatory contribution to the serine synthetic pathway. In the absence of serine, an allosteric activator of PKM2, glycolytic efflux to lactate is significantly reduced in PKM2-expressing cells. This inhibition of PKM2 results in the accumulation of glycolytic intermediates that feed into serine synthesis. As a consequence, PKM2-expressing cells can maintain mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity and proliferate in serine-depleted medium, but PKM1-expressing cells cannot. Cellular detection of serine depletion depends on general control nonderepressible 2 kinase-activating transcription factor 4 (GCN2-ATF4) pathway activation and results in increased expression of enzymes required for serine synthesis from the accumulating glycolytic precursors. These findings suggest that tumor cells use serine-dependent regulation of PKM2 and GCN2 to modulate the flux of glycolytic intermediates in support of cell proliferation.
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538
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Abstract
Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) may occur in both a tetrameric and a dimeric form. When the majority of PKM2 molecules are in the highly active tetrameric conformation, glucose is primarily degraded to pyruvate and lactate with the regeneration of energy. A tumor suppressor protein, death-associated protein kinase (DAPK), interacts with PKM2 protein and stabilizes PKM2 in its active tetrameric form in normal proliferating cells. However, DAPK is widely inactivated in cancer cells, leading to the loss of the active conformation of PKM2. This may render PKM2 sensitive to cellular oxidants, switching the enzyme into its inactive dimeric form. Consequently, inhibition of PKM2 after oxidative stress contributes optimal tumor growth and allows cancer cells to withstand oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adnan Erol
- Erol Project Development House for the Disorders of Energy Metabolism, Silivri-Istanbul, Turkey.
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539
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Abstract
Cancer therapeutic targets found within metabolic pathways. Cellular transformation is associated with the reprogramming of cellular pathways that control proliferation, survival, and metabolism. Among the metabolic changes exhibited by tumor cells is an increase in glucose metabolism and glucose dependence. It has been hypothesized that targeting glucose metabolism may provide a selective mechanism by which to kill cancer cells. In this minireview, we discuss the benefits that high levels of glycolysis provide for tumor cells, as well as several key enzymes required by cancer cells to maintain this high level of glucose metabolism. It is anticipated that understanding which metabolic enzymes are particularly critical for tumor cell proliferation and survival will identify novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Hamanaka
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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540
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Laemmle A, Lechleiter A, Roh V, Schwarz C, Portmann S, Furer C, Keogh A, Tschan MP, Candinas D, Vorburger SA, Stroka D. Inhibition of SIRT1 impairs the accumulation and transcriptional activity of HIF-1α protein under hypoxic conditions. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33433. [PMID: 22479397 PMCID: PMC3316573 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins and hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIF) have well-established roles in regulating cellular responses to metabolic and oxidative stress. Recent reports have linked these two protein families by demonstrating that sirtuins can regulate the activity of HIF-1 and HIF-2. Here we investigated the role of SIRT1, a NAD+-dependent deacetylase, in the regulation of HIF-1 activity in hypoxic conditions. Our results show that in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines, hypoxia did not alter SIRT1 mRNA or protein expression, whereas it predictably led to the accumulation of HIF-1α and the up-regulation of its target genes. In hypoxic models in vitro and in in vivo models of systemic hypoxia and xenograft tumor growth, knockdown of SIRT1 protein with shRNA or inhibition of its activity with small molecule inhibitors impaired the accumulation of HIF-1α protein and the transcriptional increase of its target genes. In addition, endogenous SIRT1 and HIF-1α proteins co-immunoprecipitated and loss of SIRT1 activity led to a hyperacetylation of HIF-1α. Taken together, our data suggest that HIF-1α and SIRT1 proteins interact in HCC cells and that HIF-1α is a target of SIRT1 deacetylase activity. Moreover, SIRT1 is necessary for HIF-1α protein accumulation and activation of HIF-1 target genes under hypoxic conditions.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Benzamides/pharmacology
- Blotting, Western
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/genetics
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/pathology
- Cell Hypoxia
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Hep G2 Cells
- Humans
- Hypoxia
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit/genetics
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Nude
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Naphthols/pharmacology
- Protein Binding
- Pyrimidinones/pharmacology
- RNA Interference
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sirtuin 1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Sirtuin 1/genetics
- Sirtuin 1/metabolism
- Transcriptional Activation
- Transplantation, Heterologous
- Tumor Burden/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Laemmle
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Antje Lechleiter
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Roh
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa Schwarz
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Simone Portmann
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Cynthia Furer
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Keogh
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mario P. Tschan
- Medical Oncology/Hematology, Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Candinas
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stephan A. Vorburger
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Stroka
- Clinic of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Bern and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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541
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Ward PS, Thompson CB. Metabolic reprogramming: a cancer hallmark even warburg did not anticipate. Cancer Cell 2012; 21:297-308. [PMID: 22439925 PMCID: PMC3311998 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2361] [Impact Index Per Article: 196.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2012] [Revised: 02/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer metabolism has long been equated with aerobic glycolysis, seen by early biochemists as primitive and inefficient. Despite these early beliefs, the metabolic signatures of cancer cells are not passive responses to damaged mitochondria but result from oncogene-directed metabolic reprogramming required to support anabolic growth. Recent evidence suggests that metabolites themselves can be oncogenic by altering cell signaling and blocking cellular differentiation. No longer can cancer-associated alterations in metabolism be viewed as an indirect response to cell proliferation and survival signals. We contend that altered metabolism has attained the status of a core hallmark of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick S. Ward
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Craig B. Thompson
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Correspondence: Craig B. Thompson, M.D Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center 1275 York Avenue, Room M110 New York, NY 10065 212-639-6561 212-717-3299 (Fax)
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542
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Bensinger SJ, Christofk HR. New aspects of the Warburg effect in cancer cell biology. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2012; 23:352-61. [PMID: 22406683 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Revised: 01/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Altered cellular metabolism is a defining feature of cancer [1]. The best studied metabolic phenotype of cancer is aerobic glycolysis--also known as the Warburg effect--characterized by increased metabolism of glucose to lactate in the presence of sufficient oxygen. Interest in the Warburg effect has escalated in recent years due to the proven utility of FDG-PET for imaging tumors in cancer patients and growing evidence that mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes directly impact metabolism. The goals of this review are to provide an organized snapshot of the current understanding of regulatory mechanisms important for Warburg effect and its role in tumor biology. Since several reviews have covered aspects of this topic in recent years, we focus on newest contributions to the field and reference other reviews where appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Bensinger
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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543
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Harris
- The Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, 620 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5C 2M9, Canada
- The Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, 610 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2C1, Canada
| | - Susan McCracken
- The Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, 620 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5C 2M9, Canada
| | - Tak Wah Mak
- The Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, 620 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5C 2M9, Canada
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544
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Lunt SY, Vander Heiden MG. Aerobic glycolysis: meeting the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2012; 27:441-64. [PMID: 21985671 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2110] [Impact Index Per Article: 175.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Warburg's observation that cancer cells exhibit a high rate of glycolysis even in the presence of oxygen (aerobic glycolysis) sparked debate over the role of glycolysis in normal and cancer cells. Although it has been established that defects in mitochondrial respiration are not the cause of cancer or aerobic glycolysis, the advantages of enhanced glycolysis in cancer remain controversial. Many cells ranging from microbes to lymphocytes use aerobic glycolysis during rapid proliferation, which suggests it may play a fundamental role in supporting cell growth. Here, we review how glycolysis contributes to the metabolic processes of dividing cells. We provide a detailed accounting of the biosynthetic requirements to construct a new cell and illustrate the importance of glycolysis in providing carbons to generate biomass. We argue that the major function of aerobic glycolysis is to maintain high levels of glycolytic intermediates to support anabolic reactions in cells, thus providing an explanation for why increased glucose metabolism is selected for in proliferating cells throughout nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Y Lunt
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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545
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Flicking the Warburg switch-tyrosine phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase regulates mitochondrial activity in cancer cells. Mol Cell 2012; 44:846-8. [PMID: 22195959 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2011.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In this issue of Molecular Cell, Hitosugi et al. (2011) show that the switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis in cancer cells is regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation of PDHK1.
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546
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Gao X, Wang H, Yang JJ, Liu X, Liu ZR. Pyruvate kinase M2 regulates gene transcription by acting as a protein kinase. Mol Cell 2012; 45:598-609. [PMID: 22306293 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 564] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Revised: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 12/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate kinase isoform M2 (PKM2) is a glycolysis enzyme catalyzing conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate by transferring a phosphate from PEP to ADP. We report here that PKM2 localizes to the cell nucleus. The levels of nuclear PKM2 correlate with cell proliferation. PKM2 activates transcription of MEK5 by phosphorylating stat3 at Y705. In vitro phosphorylation assays show that PKM2 is a protein kinase using PEP as a phosphate donor. ADP competes with the protein substrate binding, indicating that the substrate may bind to the ADP site of PKM2. Our experiments suggest that PKM2 dimer is an active protein kinase, while the tetramer is an active pyruvate kinase. Expression of a PKM2 mutant that exists as a dimer promotes cell proliferation, indicating that protein kinase activity of PKM2 plays a role in promoting cell proliferation. Our study reveals an important link between metabolism alteration and gene expression during tumor transformation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueliang Gao
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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547
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Metabolic disease and cancer are two of the leading causes of death worldwide. This review focuses on the potential increased relative risk for the development of cancer in a population with a rapidly increasing incidence of metabolic disturbances. RECENT FINDINGS A large number of recent epidemiological and prospective studies link metabolic syndrome-associated diseases to an increased risk for development of, as well as mortality from, several types of cancer. In patients diagnosed with metabolic disorders, the incidence of gastrointestinal, glandular and reproductive tract cancers is significantly higher compared to the general population. In line with that, hyperglycemia has recently been shown to be an independent risk factor for overall cancer incidence. SUMMARY Disorders connected to the metabolic syndrome have been shown to have profound impacts on the incidence and progression of cancer. Continued efforts to make lifestyle interventions, such as weight loss and increased physical activity in the general population, are clearly warranted as a contribution to efforts aimed at decreasing the development of and mortality from cancer. Progression in this field requires a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind the cancer-promoting effects associated with disturbed energy balance.
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548
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Tamada M, Nagano O, Tateyama S, Ohmura M, Yae T, Ishimoto T, Sugihara E, Onishi N, Yamamoto T, Yanagawa H, Suematsu M, Saya H. Modulation of glucose metabolism by CD44 contributes to antioxidant status and drug resistance in cancer cells. Cancer Res 2012; 72:1438-48. [PMID: 22293754 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-3024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
An increased glycolytic flux accompanied by activation of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is implicated in chemoresistance of cancer cells. In this study, we found that CD44, a cell surface marker for cancer stem cells, interacts with pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) and thereby enhances the glycolytic phenotype of cancer cells that are either deficient in p53 or exposed to hypoxia. CD44 ablation by RNA interference increased metabolic flux to mitochondrial respiration and concomitantly inhibited entry into glycolysis and the PPP. Such metabolic changes induced by CD44 ablation resulted in marked depletion of cellular reduced glutathione (GSH) and increased the intracellular level of reactive oxygen species in glycolytic cancer cells. Furthermore, CD44 ablation enhanced the effect of chemotherapeutic drugs in p53-deficient or hypoxic cancer cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that metabolic modulation by CD44 is a potential therapeutic target for glycolytic cancer cells that manifest drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Tamada
- Division of Gene Regulation, Institute for Advanced Medical Research, School of Medicine, Keio University, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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549
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Hamanaka
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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550
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Abstract
Cellular metabolism influences life and death decisions. An emerging theme in cancer biology is that metabolic regulation is intricately linked to cancer progression. In part, this is due to the fact that proliferation is tightly regulated by availability of nutrients. Mitogenic signals promote nutrient uptake and synthesis of DNA, RNA, proteins and lipids. Therefore, it seems straight-forward that oncogenes, that often promote proliferation, also promote metabolic changes. In this review we summarize our current understanding of how 'metabolic transformation' is linked to oncogenic transformation, and why inhibition of metabolism may prove a cancer's 'Achilles' heel'. On one hand, mutation of metabolic enzymes and metabolic stress sensors confers synthetic lethality with inhibitors of metabolism. On the other hand, hyperactivation of oncogenic pathways makes tumors more susceptible to metabolic inhibition. Conversely, an adequate nutrient supply and active metabolism regulates Bcl-2 family proteins and inhibits susceptibility to apoptosis. Here, we provide an overview of the metabolic pathways that represent anti-cancer targets and the cell death pathways engaged by metabolic inhibitors. Additionally, we will detail the similarities between metabolism of cancer cells and metabolism of proliferating cells.
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