551
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Chen L, Shern JF, Wei JS, Yohe ME, Song YK, Hurd L, Liao H, Catchpoole D, Skapek SX, Barr FG, Hawkins DS, Khan J. Clonality and evolutionary history of rhabdomyosarcoma. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005075. [PMID: 25768946 PMCID: PMC4358975 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To infer the subclonality of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and predict the temporal order of genetic events for the tumorigenic process, and to identify novel drivers, we applied a systematic method that takes into account germline and somatic alterations in 44 tumor-normal RMS pairs using deep whole-genome sequencing. Intriguingly, we find that loss of heterozygosity of 11p15.5 and mutations in RAS pathway genes occur early in the evolutionary history of the PAX-fusion-negative-RMS (PFN-RMS) subtype. We discover several early mutations in non-RAS mutated samples and predict them to be drivers in PFN-RMS including recurrent mutation of PKN1. In contrast, we find that PAX-fusion-positive (PFP) subtype tumors have undergone whole-genome duplication in the late stage of cancer evolutionary history and have acquired fewer mutations and subclones than PFN-RMS. Moreover we predict that the PAX3-FOXO1 fusion event occurs earlier than the whole genome duplication. Our findings provide information critical to the understanding of tumorigenesis of RMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jack F. Shern
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jun S. Wei
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Marielle E. Yohe
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Young K. Song
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Laura Hurd
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hongling Liao
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Catchpoole
- Biospecimens Research and Tumour Bank, The Kids Research Institute, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephen X. Skapek
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Frederic G. Barr
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Douglas S. Hawkins
- Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children’s Hospital, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Javed Khan
- Genetics Branch, Oncogenomics Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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552
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Chen S, Sanjana NE, Zheng K, Shalem O, Lee K, Shi X, Scott DA, Song J, Pan JQ, Weissleder R, Lee H, Zhang F, Sharp PA. Genome-wide CRISPR screen in a mouse model of tumor growth and metastasis. Cell 2015; 160:1246-60. [PMID: 25748654 PMCID: PMC4380877 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 614] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Genetic screens are powerful tools for identifying genes responsible for diverse phenotypes. Here we describe a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9-mediated loss-of-function screen in tumor growth and metastasis. We mutagenized a non-metastatic mouse cancer cell line using a genome-scale library with 67,405 single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs). The mutant cell pool rapidly generates metastases when transplanted into immunocompromised mice. Enriched sgRNAs in lung metastases and late-stage primary tumors were found to target a small set of genes, suggesting that specific loss-of-function mutations drive tumor growth and metastasis. Individual sgRNAs and a small pool of 624 sgRNAs targeting the top-scoring genes from the primary screen dramatically accelerate metastasis. In all of these experiments, the effect of mutations on primary tumor growth positively correlates with the development of metastases. Our study demonstrates Cas9-based screening as a robust method to systematically assay gene phenotypes in cancer evolution in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidi Chen
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Neville E Sanjana
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kaijie Zheng
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Ophir Shalem
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Kyungheon Lee
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Xi Shi
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - David A Scott
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jun Song
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Jen Q Pan
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hakho Lee
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Feng Zhang
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Phillip A Sharp
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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553
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Abstract
Mutations in the KRAS oncogene represent one of the most prevalent genetic alterations in colorectal cancer (CRC), the third leading cause of cancer-related death in the US. In addition to their well-characterized function in driving tumor progression, KRAS mutations have been recognized as a critical determinant of the therapeutic response of CRC. Recent studies demonstrate that KRAS-mutant tumors are intrinsically insensitive to clinically-used epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) targeting antibodies, including cetuximab and panitumumab. Acquired resistance to the anti-EGFR therapy was found to be associated with enrichment of KRAS-mutant tumor cells. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of mutant-KRAS-mediated therapeutic resistance has remained unclear. Despite intensive efforts, directly targeting mutant KRAS has been largely unsuccessful. This review summarizes the recent advances in understanding the biological function of KRAS mutations in determining the therapeutic response of CRC, highlighting several recently developed agents and strategies for targeting mutant KRAS, such as synthetic lethal interactions.
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554
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14-3-3σ regulates keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation by modulating Yap1 cellular localization. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:1621-1628. [PMID: 25668240 PMCID: PMC4430425 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The homozygous repeated epilation (Er/Er) mouse mutant of the gene encoding 14-3-3σ displays an epidermal phenotype characterized by hyperproliferative keratinocytes and undifferentiated epidermis. Heterozygous Er/+ mice develop spontaneous skin tumors and are highly sensitive to tumor-promoting DMBA/TPA induction. The molecular mechanisms underlying 14-3-3σ regulation of epidermal proliferation, differentiation, and tumor formation have not been well elucidated. In the present study, we found that Er/Er keratinocytes failed to sequester Yap1 in the cytoplasm, leading to its nuclear localization during epidermal development in vivo and under differentiation-inducing culture conditions in vitro. In addition, enhanced Yap1 nuclear localization was also evident in DMBA/TPA-induced tumors from Er/+ skin. Furthermore, shRNA knockdown of Yap1 expression in Er/Er keratinocytes inhibited their proliferation, suggesting that YAP1 functions as a downstream effector of 14-3-3σ controlling epidermal proliferation. We then demonstrated that keratinocytes express all seven 14-3-3 protein isoforms, some of which form heterodimers with 14-3-3σ, either full-length WT or the mutant form found in Er/Er mice. However Er 14-3-3σ does not interact with Yap1, as demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation. We conclude that Er 14-3-3σ disrupts the interaction between 14-3-3 and Yap1, thus fails to block Yap1 nuclear transcriptional function, causing continued progenitor expansion and inhibition of differentiation in Er/Er epidermis.
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555
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The Hippo effector YAP promotes resistance to RAF- and MEK-targeted cancer therapies. Nat Genet 2015; 47:250-6. [PMID: 25665005 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to RAF- and MEK-targeted therapy is a major clinical challenge. RAF and MEK inhibitors are initially but only transiently effective in some but not all patients with BRAF gene mutation and are largely ineffective in those with RAS gene mutation because of resistance. Through a genetic screen in BRAF-mutant tumor cells, we show that the Hippo pathway effector YAP (encoded by YAP1) acts as a parallel survival input to promote resistance to RAF and MEK inhibitor therapy. Combined YAP and RAF or MEK inhibition was synthetically lethal not only in several BRAF-mutant tumor types but also in RAS-mutant tumors. Increased YAP in tumors harboring BRAF V600E was a biomarker of worse initial response to RAF and MEK inhibition in patients, establishing the clinical relevance of our findings. Our data identify YAP as a new mechanism of resistance to RAF- and MEK-targeted therapy. The findings unveil the synthetic lethality of combined suppression of YAP and RAF or MEK as a promising strategy to enhance treatment response and patient survival.
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556
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Abstract
Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) are the major downstream effectors of the Hippo pathway, which regulates tissue homeostasis, organ size, regeneration and tumorigenesis. In this Progress article, we summarize the current understanding of the biological functions of YAP and TAZ, and how the regulation of these two proteins can be disrupted in cancer. We also highlight recent findings on their expanding role in cancer progression and describe the potential of these targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiro Moroishi
- Department of Pharmacology and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Carsten Gram Hansen
- Department of Pharmacology and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Kun-Liang Guan
- Department of Pharmacology and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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557
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Zeng H, Zhang Y, Yi Q, Wu Y, Wan R, Tang L. CRIM1, a newfound cancer-related player, regulates the adhesion and migration of lung cancer cells. Growth Factors 2015; 33:384-92. [PMID: 26653968 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2015.1119132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
CRIM1 is a member of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) antagonists; however, the role of CRIM1 in controlling cancer cell behavior remains unknown. This study investigated its function in the A549 cell line in vitro. The results show that treating cells with CRIM1 peptide could increase the migration and adhesion of A549. Consistently, silencing the CRIM1 expression decreased the migration and adhesion of A549. Furthermore, the CRIM1 protein expression was increased in A549 which were treated with transforming growth factor beta 1 to induced EMT. However, CRIM1 peptide treatment could increase the expression of N-CAD and E-CAD expression. Finally, overexpression of the oncogene YAP1 resulted in an up-regulation of the CRIM1 expression in A549, suggesting that CRIM1 was a target of the Hippo pathway. These observations provide evidence for the first time that CRIM1 plays a role in cancer cells by enhancing the migration and adhesion and increasing the expression of N-CAD and E-CAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zeng
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
| | - Yi Zhang
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
| | - Qian Yi
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
| | - Yanjiao Wu
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
| | - Rongxue Wan
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
| | - Liling Tang
- a Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University , Chongqing , China
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558
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Kodaka M, Hata Y. The mammalian Hippo pathway: regulation and function of YAP1 and TAZ. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:285-306. [PMID: 25266986 PMCID: PMC11113917 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1742-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Hippo pathway was originally identified as the signaling that controls organ size in Drosophila, with the core architecture conserved in mammals. In the mammalian Hippo pathway, mammalian Ste20-like kinases (MST1/2) and large tumor suppressor kinases (LATS1/2) regulate transcriptional co-activators, Yes-associated protein (YAP1) and Transcriptional co-activator with a PDZ-binding motif (TAZ). The Hippo pathway was initially thought to be quite straightforward; however, the identification of additional components has revealed its inherent complexity. Regulation of YAP1 and TAZ is not always dependent on MST1/2 and LATS1/2. MST1/2 and LATS1/2 play various YAP1/TAZ-independent roles, while YAP1 and TAZ cross-talk with other signaling pathways. In this review we focus on YAP1 and TAZ and discuss their regulation, function, and the consequences of their dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manami Kodaka
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, 113-8519 Japan
| | - Yutaka Hata
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, 113-8519 Japan
- Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, 113-8519 Japan
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559
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Zhu C, Li L, Zhao B. The regulation and function of YAP transcription co-activator. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2015; 47:16-28. [PMID: 25487920 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmu110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Hippo pathway was initially identified in Drosophila by genetic mosaic screens for tumor suppressor genes. Researches indicated that the Hippo pathway is a key regulator of organ size and is conserved during evolution. Furthermore, studies of mouse models and clinical samples demonstrated the importance of Hippo pathway dysregulation in human cancer development. In addition, the Hippo pathway contributes to progenitor cell and stem cell self-renewal and is thus involved in tissue regeneration. In the Hippo pathway, MST1/2 kinases together with the adaptor protein SAV phosphorylate LATS1/2 kinases. Interaction with an adaptor protein MOB is also important for LATS1/2 activation. Activated LATS1/2 in turn phosphorylate and inhibit Yes-associated protein (YAP). YAP is a key downstream effector of the Hippo pathway, and is a transcriptional co-activator that mainly interacts with TEAD family transcription factors to promote gene expression. Alteration of gene expression by YAP leads to cell proliferation, apoptosis evasion, and also stem cell amplification. In this review, we mainly focus on YAP, discussing its regulation and mechanisms of action in the context of organ size control, tissue regeneration and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chu Zhu
- Life Sciences Institute and Innovation Center for Cell Biology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Li Li
- Institute of Aging Research, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Life Sciences Institute and Innovation Center for Cell Biology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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560
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Abstract
Tetraploid cells generated by abnormal cell division are often arrested during the cell cycle or cleared by apoptosis. Evasion of these defense mechanisms leads to genomic instability and tumorigenesis. In this issue, Ganem et al. report that extra centrosome-induced activation of the Hippo pathway kinase LATS2 is a key mechanism of tetraploidy-induced cell-cycle arrest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zhao
- Life Sciences Institute and Innovation Center for Cell Biology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Kun-Liang Guan
- Department of Pharmacology and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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561
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Haley JA, Haughney E, Ullman E, Bean J, Haley JD, Fink MY. Altered Transcriptional Control Networks with Trans-Differentiation of Isogenic Mutant-KRas NSCLC Models. Front Oncol 2014; 4:344. [PMID: 25538889 PMCID: PMC4259114 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The capacity of cancer cells to undergo epithelial mesenchymal trans-differentiation has been implicated as a factor driving metastasis, through the acquisition of enhanced migratory/invasive cell programs and the engagement of anti-apoptotic mechanisms promoting drug and radiation resistance. Our aim was to define molecular signaling changes associated with mesenchymal trans-differentiation in two KRas mutant NSCLC models. We focused on central transcription and epigenetic regulators predicted to be important for mesenchymal cell survival. Experimental design: We have modeled trans-differentiation and cancer stemness in inducible isogenic mutant-KRas H358 and A549 non-small cell lung cell backgrounds. As expected, our models show mesenchymal-like tumor cells acquire novel mechanisms of cellular signaling not apparent in their epithelial counterparts. We employed large-scale quantitative phosphoproteomic, proteomic, protein–protein interaction, RNA-Seq, and network function prediction approaches to dissect the molecular events associated with the establishment and maintenance of the mesenchymal state. Results: Gene-set enrichment and pathway prediction indicated BMI1, KDM5B, RUNX2, MYC/MAX, NFκB, LEF1, and HIF1 target networks were significantly enriched in the trans-differentiation of H358 and A549 NSCLC models. Physical overlaps between multiple networks implicate NR4A1 as an overlapping control between TCF and NFκB pathways. Enrichment correlations also indicated marked decrease in cell cycling, which occurred early in the EMT process. RNA abundance time course studies also indicated early expression of epigenetic and chromatin regulators within 8–24 h, including CITED4, RUNX3, CMBX1, and SIRT4. Conclusion: Multiple transcription and epigenetic pathways where altered between epithelial and mesenchymal tumor cell states, notably the polycomb repressive complex-1, HP1γ, and BAF/Swi-Snf. Network analysis suggests redundancy in the activation and inhibition of pathway regulators, notably factors controlling epithelial cell state. Through large-scale transcriptional and epigenetic cell reprograming, mesenchymal trans-differentiation can promote diversification of signaling networks potentially important in resistance to cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Haley
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, LIU Post , Brookville, NY , USA
| | | | - Erica Ullman
- Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. , Tarrytown, NY , USA
| | - James Bean
- Infectious Disease Division, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center , New York, NY , USA
| | - John D Haley
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center, Stony Brook School of Medicine , Stony Brook, NY , USA
| | - Marc Y Fink
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, LIU Post , Brookville, NY , USA
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562
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Piccolo S, Dupont S, Cordenonsi M. The biology of YAP/TAZ: hippo signaling and beyond. Physiol Rev 2014; 94:1287-312. [PMID: 25287865 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00005.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1173] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The transcriptional regulators YAP and TAZ are the focus of intense interest given their remarkable biological properties in development, tissue homeostasis and cancer. YAP and TAZ activity is key for the growth of whole organs, for amplification of tissue-specific progenitor cells during tissue renewal and regeneration, and for cell proliferation. In tumors, YAP/TAZ can reprogram cancer cells into cancer stem cells and incite tumor initiation, progression and metastasis. As such, YAP/TAZ are appealing therapeutic targets in cancer and regenerative medicine. Just like the function of YAP/TAZ offers a molecular entry point into the mysteries of tissue biology, their regulation by upstream cues is equally captivating. YAP/TAZ are well known for being the effectors of the Hippo signaling cascade, and mouse mutants in Hippo pathway components display remarkable phenotypes of organ overgrowth, enhanced stem cell content and reduced cellular differentiation. YAP/TAZ are primary sensors of the cell's physical nature, as defined by cell structure, shape and polarity. YAP/TAZ activation also reflects the cell "social" behavior, including cell adhesion and the mechanical signals that the cell receives from tissue architecture and surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). At the same time, YAP/TAZ entertain relationships with morphogenetic signals, such as Wnt growth factors, and are also regulated by Rho, GPCRs and mevalonate metabolism. YAP/TAZ thus appear at the centerpiece of a signaling nexus by which cells take control of their behavior according to their own shape, spatial location and growth factor context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Piccolo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine, Padua, Italy
| | - Sirio Dupont
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine, Padua, Italy
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563
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Danielsen SA, Eide PW, Nesbakken A, Guren T, Leithe E, Lothe RA. Portrait of the PI3K/AKT pathway in colorectal cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2014; 1855:104-21. [PMID: 25450577 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PI3K/AKT signaling leads to reduced apoptosis, stimulates cell growth and increases proliferation. Under normal conditions, PI3K/AKT activation is tightly controlled and dependent on both extracellular growth signals and the availability of amino acids and glucose. Genetic aberrations leading to PI3K/AKT hyper-activation are observed at considerable frequency in all major nodes in most tumors. In colorectal cancer the most commonly observed pathway changes are IGF2 overexpression, PIK3CA mutations and PTEN mutations and deletions. Combined, these alterations are found in about 40% of large bowel tumors. In addition, but not mutually exclusive to these, KRAS mutations are observed at a similar frequency. There are however additional, less frequent and more poorly understood events that may also push the PI3K/AKT pathway into overdrive and thus promote malignant growth. Here we discuss aberrations of components at the genetic, epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational and post-translational level where perturbations may drive excessive PI3K/AKT signaling. Integrating multiple molecular levels will advance our understanding of this cancer critical circuit and more importantly, improve our ability to pharmacologically target the pathway in view of clonal development, tumor heterogeneity and drug resistance mechanisms. In this review, we revisit the PI3K/AKT pathway cancer susceptibility syndromes, summarize the known aberrations at the different regulatory levels and the prognostic and predictive values of these alterations in colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Aske Danielsen
- Department of Cancer Prevention, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Peter Wold Eide
- Department of Cancer Prevention, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Arild Nesbakken
- K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tormod Guren
- K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Oncology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Edward Leithe
- Department of Cancer Prevention, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ragnhild A Lothe
- Department of Cancer Prevention, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Colorectal Cancer Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
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564
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Forward genetic screens in mice uncover mediators and suppressors of metastatic reactivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:16532-7. [PMID: 25378704 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1403234111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a screening platform for the isolation of genetic entities involved in metastatic reactivation. Retroviral libraries of cDNAs from fully metastatic breast-cancer cells or pooled microRNAs were transduced into breast-cancer cells that become dormant upon infiltrating the lung. Upon inoculation in the tail vein of mice, the cells that had acquired the ability to undergo reactivation generated metastatic lesions. Integrated retroviral vectors were recovered from these lesions, sequenced, and subjected to a second round of validation. By using this strategy, we isolated canonical genes and microRNAs that mediate metastatic reactivation in the lung. To identify genes that oppose reactivation, we screened an expression library encoding shRNAs, and we identified target genes that encode potential enforcers of dormancy. Our screening strategy enables the identification and rapid biological validation of single genetic entities that are necessary to maintain dormancy or to induce reactivation. This technology should facilitate the elucidation of the molecular underpinnings of these processes.
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565
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Rosell R. Expression Profiles and Clinicopathologic Features in Early Resected Non-small-cell Lung Cancer. EBioMedicine 2014; 1:103-4. [PMID: 26137517 PMCID: PMC4457345 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2014.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Rosell
- Cancer Biology and Precision Medicine Program, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
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566
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Abstract
Despite more than three decades of intensive effort, no effective pharmacological inhibitors of the RAS oncoproteins have reached the clinic, prompting the widely held perception that RAS proteins are 'undruggable'. However, recent data from the laboratory and the clinic have renewed our hope for the development of RAS-inhibitory molecules. In this Review, we summarize the progress and the promise of five key approaches. Firstly, we focus on the prospects of using direct inhibitors of RAS. Secondly, we address the issue of whether blocking RAS membrane association is a viable approach. Thirdly, we assess the status of targeting RAS downstream effector signalling, which is arguably the most favourable current approach. Fourthly, we address whether the search for synthetic lethal interactors of mutant RAS still holds promise. Finally, RAS-mediated changes in cell metabolism have recently been described and we discuss whether these changes could be exploited for new therapeutic directions. We conclude with perspectives on how additional complexities, which are not yet fully understood, may affect each of these approaches.
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567
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Pefani DE, Latusek R, Pires I, Grawenda AM, Yee KS, Hamilton G, van der Weyden L, Esashi F, Hammond EM, O’Neill E. RASSF1A-LATS1 signalling stabilizes replication forks by restricting CDK2-mediated phosphorylation of BRCA2. Nat Cell Biol 2014; 16:962-71, 1-8. [PMID: 25218637 PMCID: PMC4861244 DOI: 10.1038/ncb3035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Genomic instability is a key hallmark of cancer leading to tumour heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. BRCA2 has a fundamental role in error-free DNA repair but also sustains genome integrity by promoting RAD51 nucleofilament formation at stalled replication forks. CDK2 phosphorylates BRCA2 (pS3291-BRCA2) to limit stabilizing contacts with polymerized RAD51; however, how replication stress modulates CDK2 activity and whether loss of pS3291-BRCA2 regulation results in genomic instability of tumours are not known. Here we demonstrate that the Hippo pathway kinase LATS1 interacts with CDK2 in response to genotoxic stress to constrain pS3291-BRCA2 and support RAD51 nucleofilaments, thereby maintaining genomic fidelity during replication stalling. We also show that LATS1 forms part of an ATR-mediated response to replication stress that requires the tumour suppressor RASSF1A. Importantly, perturbation of the ATR-RASSF1A-LATS1 signalling axis leads to genomic defects associated with loss of BRCA2 function and contributes to genomic instability and 'BRCA-ness' in lung cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Latusek
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Isabel Pires
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Anna M. Grawenda
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Karen S. Yee
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Garth Hamilton
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | | | - Fumiko Esashi
- Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Ester M. Hammond
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Eric O’Neill
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute, Dept. of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
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568
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Corbo
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, USA
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569
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Abstract
It is of great therapeutic importance to understand why tumors relapse after the failure of therapies targeting oncogenes to which cancer cells are addicted. In this issue, Kapoor et al. and Shao et al. identify the transcriptional coactivator YAP1 as a central driver of compensation for the loss of K-Ras signaling in K-Ras-dependent cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian R Greten
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42-44, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany.
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570
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Hong X, Nguyen HT, Chen Q, Zhang R, Hagman Z, Voorhoeve PM, Cohen SM. Opposing activities of the Ras and Hippo pathways converge on regulation of YAP protein turnover. EMBO J 2014; 33:2447-57. [PMID: 25180228 PMCID: PMC4283404 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201489385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer genomes accumulate numerous genetic and epigenetic modifications. Yet, human cellular transformation can be accomplished by a few genetically defined elements. These elements activate key pathways required to support replicative immortality and anchorage independent growth, a predictor of tumorigenesis in vivo. Here, we provide evidence that the Hippo tumor suppressor pathway is a key barrier to Ras-mediated cellular transformation. The Hippo pathway targets YAP1 for degradation via the βTrCP-SCF ubiquitin ligase complex. In contrast, the Ras pathway acts oppositely, to promote YAP1 stability through downregulation of the ubiquitin ligase complex substrate recognition factors SOCS5/6. Depletion of SOCS5/6 or upregulation of YAP1 can bypass the requirement for oncogenic Ras in anchorage independent growth in vitro and tumor formation in vivo. Through the YAP1 target, Amphiregulin, Ras activates the endogenous EGFR pathway, which is required for transformation. Thus, the oncogenic activity of RasV12 depends on its ability to counteract Hippo pathway activity, creating a positive feedback loop, which depends on stabilization of YAP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hong
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore City, Singapore Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
| | | | - Qingfeng Chen
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore City, Singapore Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research, and Technology, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Zandra Hagman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Stephen M Cohen
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore City, Singapore Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
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571
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Polyomavirus small T antigen interacts with yes-associated protein to regulate cell survival and differentiation. J Virol 2014; 88:12055-64. [PMID: 25122798 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01399-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine polyomavirus small t antigen (PyST) regulates cell cycle, cell survival, apoptosis, and differentiation and cooperates with middle T antigen (MT) to transform primary cells in vitro and in vivo. Like all polyomavirus T antigens, PyST functions largely via its interactions with host cell proteins. Here, we show that PyST binds both Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) and YAP2, integral parts of the Hippo signaling pathway, which is a subject of increasing interest in human cancer. The transcription factor TEAD, which is a known target of YAP, is also found in PyST complexes. PyST enhanced YAP association with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), leading to decreased YAP phosphorylation. PyST increased YAP levels by decreasing its degradation. This effect was mediated by a reduction in YAP association with β-transducin repeat protein (βTRCP), which is known to regulate YAP turnover in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Genetic analysis has identified PyST mutants defective in YAP binding. These mutants demonstrated that YAP binding is important for PyST to block myoblast differentiation and to synergize with the phosphodiesterase inhibitor isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) to promote cell death in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes placed under differentiation conditions. In addition to YAP binding, both of these phenotypes require PyST binding to PP2A. Importance: The Hippo/YAP pathway is a highly conserved cascade important for tissue development and homeostasis. Defects in this pathway are increasingly being associated with cancer. Polyomavirus small t antigen is a viral oncogene that cooperates with middle T antigen in transformation. On its own, small t antigen controls cell survival and differentiation. By binding YAP, small t antigen brings it together with protein phosphatase 2A. This work shows how this association of small t antigen with YAP is important for its effects on cell phenotype. It also suggests that PyST can be used to characterize cellular processes that are regulated by YAP.
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572
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573
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Organ size control is dominant over Rb family inactivation to restrict proliferation in vivo. Cell Rep 2014; 8:371-81. [PMID: 25017070 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, a cell's decision to divide is thought to be under the control of the Rb/E2F pathway. We previously found that inactivation of the Rb family of cell cycle inhibitors (Rb, p107, and p130) in quiescent liver progenitors leads to uncontrolled division and cancer initiation. Here, we show that, in contrast, deletion of the entire Rb gene family in mature hepatocytes is not sufficient for their long-term proliferation. The cell cycle block in Rb family mutant hepatocytes is independent of the Arf/p53/p21 checkpoint but can be abrogated upon decreasing liver size. At the molecular level, we identify YAP, a transcriptional regulator involved in organ size control, as a factor required for the sustained expression of cell cycle genes in hepatocytes. These experiments identify a higher level of regulation of the cell cycle in vivo in which signals regulating organ size are dominant regulators of the core cell cycle machinery.
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574
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Kapoor A, Yao W, Ying H, Hua S, Liewen A, Wang Q, Zhong Y, Wu CJ, Sadanandam A, Hu B, Chang Q, Chu GC, Al-Khalil R, Jiang S, Xia H, Fletcher-Sananikone E, Lim C, Horwitz GI, Viale A, Pettazzoni P, Sanchez N, Wang H, Protopopov A, Zhang J, Heffernan T, Johnson RL, Chin L, Wang YA, Draetta G, DePinho RA. Yap1 activation enables bypass of oncogenic Kras addiction in pancreatic cancer. Cell 2014; 158:185-197. [PMID: 24954535 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 514] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Activating mutations in KRAS are among the most frequent events in diverse human carcinomas and are particularly prominent in human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). An inducible Kras(G12D)-driven mouse model of PDAC has established a critical role for sustained Kras(G12D) expression in tumor maintenance, providing a model to determine the potential for and the underlying mechanisms of Kras(G12D)-independent PDAC recurrence. Here, we show that some tumors undergo spontaneous relapse and are devoid of Kras(G12D) expression and downstream canonical MAPK signaling and instead acquire amplification and overexpression of the transcriptional coactivator Yap1. Functional studies established the role of Yap1 and the transcriptional factor Tead2 in driving Kras(G12D)-independent tumor maintenance. The Yap1/Tead2 complex acts cooperatively with E2F transcription factors to activate a cell cycle and DNA replication program. Our studies, along with corroborating evidence from human PDAC models, portend a novel mechanism of escape from oncogenic Kras addiction in PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avnish Kapoor
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Wantong Yao
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Haoqiang Ying
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Sujun Hua
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Alison Liewen
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Qiuyun Wang
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yi Zhong
- Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Chang-Jiun Wu
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Anguraj Sadanandam
- The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, Belmont, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, U.K.,Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Station 19, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Baoli Hu
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Qing Chang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Gerald C Chu
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ramsey Al-Khalil
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Shan Jiang
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hongai Xia
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Eliot Fletcher-Sananikone
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Carol Lim
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Gillian I Horwitz
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Andrea Viale
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Piergiorgio Pettazzoni
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Nora Sanchez
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Huamin Wang
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Alexei Protopopov
- Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Timothy Heffernan
- Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Randy L Johnson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lynda Chin
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Y Alan Wang
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Giulio Draetta
- Department of Genomic Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Institute for Applied Cancer Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Ronald A DePinho
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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