Evaluating summer camps 1979 - problems of measuring behaviour change in children

To develop experience in assessing behaviour change in children, sixteen children attending week-long summer camps run by the Department of Psychiatry, Adelaide Children's Hospital in January 1979, were assessed every two months for six months. Target complaints, symptom checklists and measures of social behaviour were chosen as being most likely to be sensitive to behaviour change. Hypotheses about the summer camp experience having an influence on severity of target behaviour problems, symptoms indicating child psychiatric disorder, peer group participation, mastery of aggression and development of conscience and social values were not convincingly supported. Agreement between camp staff and parents rating the children's social behaviour using the same instrument a week apart was poor. Simple ranked adjective scales have advantages over goal attainment scaling for rating target complaints, Implications for treatment evaluation in child psychiatry are discussed.

Treatment alternatives for hyperactive children - a comment on "problem children" and stimulant drug treatment

Drug treatment of hyperactivity is palliative not curative, is often a response to adult complaint rather than child disorder, and is unlikely to prove, in the long run, to be the best approach to the treatment of hyperactivity. Concern about the overprescription of stimulants needs to be based on accurate data, and little is known of prescription practices in Australia, which must be estimated from general data on prescription of stimulants. Behavioural approaches to treatment require a much greater effort in promulgation and development, and are almost certainly under-used at present, but like drug treatments, have not been shown to have effects which outlast treatment and are not free from hazard. The difficulties of distinguishing hyperactive from conduct-disordered children appear to be procedural, rather than fundamental, and can be resolved partly by conceptualizing hyperactivity within a trait rather than a disease model.

First grade norms, factor analysis and cross correlation for Conners, Davids, and Quay-Peterson behavior rating scales

Three behavior rating scales were filled out by teachers for the entire first grades of three public schools, totalling 225 children. Factor analyses on this nonclinical sample yielded different factors from those found previously on clinical samples. The Conners scale showed four factors: hyperkinetic, shy-inept, rebellious-unsocialized, and antisocial-immature. The Quay-Peterson checklist also showed four factors: hyperkinetic, shy-inept, depressed, and dyssocial. The “inattentive” items, which formed a separate factor on older clinical samples, blended into the hyperkinetic factor on this younger normal sample. The whole Davids scale was one clean factor with all loadings above .6 and “impulsiveness” the highest loading. The hyperkinetic factors of both scales correlated highly with each other and with the Davids whole scale. The two shy-inept factors correlated at .82 with each other. Factor analysis of all the items from the 3 scales as if they were one large scale yielded seven factors: hyperkinetic-inattentive, shy, rebellious-unsocialized, antisocial, oversensitive, depressed, and dyssocial. Nonclinical first-grade norms by sex and parent occupational status were derived for all three scales and eight factor sub-scales. These consistently showed advantage for girls and for children of higher occupation parents. Many of these trends were significant at .05. Inspection of the Davids ratings raises questions about the meaning of “average” and suggests that teachers very early dichotomize students into good and poor.

A review of some alternative approaches to drug management of hyperactivity in children

Numerous theories concerning the etiology of hyperkinesis have been proposed in recent years, adding to the mystery of this syndrome. But, regardless of causation, the most outstanding symptom of hyperkinesis-hyperactivity-remains a problem for educators and parents.

The most common treatment for hyperactivity has been the use of psychotropic drugs, and is seen by many as a panacea for resolving hyperactive behavior problems. The rationale for their use is that if drugs can help decrease the symptoms of hyperactivity and increase the benefits of educational exposure, then drug therapy has served a useful purpose.

Since some children experience negative side effects, and the long-term consequences of chemical management have not been thoroughly investigated, drug therapy should be considered a more extreme alternative to nonmedical management. Available intervention techniques for treating the hyperactive child include a wide range of alternatives to chemical management and should be used whenever possible prior to the initiation of chemical intervention.

Social perspective-taking and adjustment in emotionally disturbed, learning-disabled, and normal children

Preadolescent emotionally disturbed, learning-disabled, and normal boys were compared on social perspective-taking and behavioral measures to examine possible contributions of social cognitive deficits to children's adjustment problems. Antisocial-prosocial and withdrawn-gregarious behavior dimensions were studied through subscales derived from teacher ratings. Results indicated that across all groups, high perspective-taking was associated with significantly less withdrawal than was low perspective-taking; within groups, this finding was significant only for the emotionally disturbed boys. Contrary to theoretical assumptions, antisocial behavior was not significantly related to perspective-taking across the sample. Among emotionally disturbed boys, relatively higher affective perspective-taking was significantly correlated with higher antisocial behavior. This positive correlation for the emotionally disturbed group was significantly different from the nonsignificant negative correlation between antisocial behavior and perspective-taking among normals. Findings for learning-disabled boys were intermediate between results for emotionally disturbed and normal boys on both perspective-taking and behavioral measures, and the learning-disabled group generally did not differ significantly from either other group. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

ties"ties"

The diagnostic category of learning disabilities is a heterogeneous one, but few empirical attempts have been made to distinguish subgroups. Recent research, however, suggests that it may be meaningful to discriminate between "hyperactive" and "nonhyperactive" learning-disabled children. In the present study, 21 learning-disabled children identified as "hyperactive" through teacher nominations and ratings were compared to 15 learning-disabled children identified as "nonhyperactive" in the same manner. The two groups differed on rated behavior, birth order, amount of prescribed stimulant medication, amount of psychosocial stress, and Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale WISC-R IQ scores. They did not differ, however, on several demographic variables, the number of perinatal complications, reading achievement, and a number of tonic and phasic measures of autonomic activity. These findings support the distinction between "hyperactive" and "nonhyperactive" subgroups of learning-disabled children, but suggest that the two subgroups may have a similar biological substrate.

Parental control of nocturnal thumbsucking

This study evaluates two procedures for the elimination of nocturnal thumbsucking in a 10-yr-old boy. The subject's mother recorded the occurrence of thumbsucking four times each night. Reliability checks were done twice a week by another family member. A plastic splint, usually employed to protect a damaged thumb, was placed on the subject's thumb at bedtime. The results showed that when the splint was used, the incidence of thumbsucking decreased from 100% of the checks made during baseline to 0% during intervention. Several naturally occurring and one planned reversal demonstrated the effectiveness of the splint in controlling thumbsucking.

Hyperactivity and pediatrician diagnoses, parental ratings, specific cognitive abilities, and laboratory measures

Children diagnosed as hyperactive and treated for hyperactivity by private pediatricians were compared to a large unselected sample of children on parental ratings of behavioral problems (Conners Symptoms Rating Questionnaire), laboratory measures (a week-long assessment of locomotion as measured by pedometers, sustained attention, selective attention, fidgeting, and aggressiveness), and 10 tests of specific cognitive abilities (verbal reasoning, spatial reasoning, memory, and perceptual speed). Test-retest reliability was obtained for all measures. The results indicated that pediatrician diagnoses of hyperactivity are related to parental ratings but not to laboratory assessments. Diagnoses by private pediatricians may include more heterogeneous and nonspecific behavioral problems than diagnoses made in most research contexts. Pediatrician diagnoses were related to deficits in specific cognitive abilities, most notably perceptual speed and verbal ability. Hyperactivity as diagnosed by private pediatricians may reflect deficits in skills necessary to pace oneself appropriately in school-related tasks. In general, these results suggest that the criteria and methods used to diagnose hyperactivity deserve greater attention.

Developmental patterns of aggressive and withdrawn behavior in childhood: a possible method for identifying preschizophrenics

The generality of results from high-risk studies of the children of schizophrenics may be limited. Studies of preschizophrenics suggest that an alternative approach to the identification of populations at risk involves the selection of children high on aggression and withdrawal. Aggressive children, withdrawn children, aggressive-withdrawn children, and nondeviant controls were identified by peer ratings of 4,110 children in grades 1, 4, and 7. The probability of identifying aggressive withdrawn subjects decreased as grade level increased, while the probability of identifying aggressive subjects and withdrawn subjects increased with age. Peer-rated likability of the aggressive-withdrawn group decreased systematically as grade level increased, in contrast to likability scores for other groups. Teachers rated the aggressive-withdrawn group as more deviant on scales of external reliance, inattention-withdrawal, unable to change tasks easily, and slow to complete work. Mothers described this group as more deviant on scales of distractibility, pathological use of senses, and need for adult contact. These results suggest that especially at older ages, children who are both aggressive and withdrawn represent a less mature, less socially skilled group that is potentially at risk for poor adjustment later in life.

Autonomic effects of dextroamphetamine in normal men: implications for hyperactivity and schizophrenia

This study test the effects on autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity of two doses (0.25 mg/kg and 0.50 mg/kg) of dextroamphetamine in normal men. Skin conductance and heart rate were recorded during rest, tone presentation, and a reaction time task. Compared to placebo, dextroamphetamine increased both skin conductance and heart rate indices of arousal, slowed habituation, and reduced ANS responsivity selectively to more important vs. less important stimuli. The last result differs from previous findings on hyperactive and normal boys. The pattern of ANS effects closely resembles findings on drug-free schizophrenics, suggesting that it may be a matter for biologic changes occurring in amphetamine psychosis and spontaneous psychotic episodes.

A token system for a class of underachieving hyperactive children

Using a BAB design, a token system requiring cooperative interaction was used to change the reading and vocabulary performance of an 18-member class of third-grade hyperactive boys. Four different colored tokens, which could be exchanged for 15 minutes of play on electrovideo games, were earned by successful completion of two tasks that involved learning to read and to use new vocabulary words in sentences, and two tasks in which the student served as a proctor to a student who had not yet completed those tasks. The mean number of tasks completed during the intervention periods rose to over nine times the number completed during reversal. Additionally, the average completion rate for the school district's standardized weekly reading level examinations rose from four to eight fold during the token conditions. All 18 students responded to the token program by increasing their academic performance.

Stimulus overselectivity in learning disabled children

Stimulus overselectivity, a phenomenon exhibited by autistic and institutionalized retarded individuals, was examined in mildly handicapped and nonhandicapped public school children. Subjects were 16 young, educable mentally retarded, 16 learning disabled, 15 nonhandicapped first- and second-graders, and 16 older, educable retarded students. The children were trained on a 3-component visual discrimination task and then tested on individual elements to determine which element or elements were controlling subject responses. Nine of the young educable mentally retarded children and eight of the learning disabled students showed some overselectivity. The majority of overselective retarded children were controlled by only one of the three components of the training cue, whereas the majority of the overselective learning disabled children responded to the discrimination task on the basis of two of the three components. No overselectivity was exhibited by the nonhandicapped students. All three cue components were also functional in controlling the responding of 14 of the 16 older retarded students, but two children were under the control of only one cue. The research indicated that in terms of overselectivity, learning disabled children respond more like young, mildly retarded children than they do like nonhandicapped ones. The demonstration of stimulus overselectivity in a sizable portion of a learning disabled sample may have implications for a more empirically based approach to this handicapped population.

Cognitive development and cerebral lateralization in children with learning disabilities

Basic assumptions related to research with learning disabled children are critically examined as they pertain to conceptual models of the relationship between cerebral lateralization and cognitive development. Based on this review, it seems that some assumptions regarding the relationship between cerebral lateralization and cognitive development among learning disabled children are without strong empirical support. Consequently, researchers in this area need to be particularly aware of underlying assumptions related to their research and may need to discuss their results from a more current perspective.

Continuities in the structural expression of affectivity: a developmental comparison

Developmental trends in children's verbalization of affective distress is examined using the Structured Pediatric Psychosocial Interview. Scale scores for two independent samples of younger (7-10 yrs) and older (11-14 yrs) public school children were factor analyzed. Results show high degree of congruency between the two developmental groups in their verbalization of affectivity. Factors associated with effective hostility (Resentment and Detachment) and with goal-directed investment (Emulation and Apathy) show marked continuity across developmental stages. However, a factor related to description of internal arousal (Tension, Restlessness, Sensitivity) showed increased complexity with age.

Child temperament and adult behavior: an exploration of "goodness of fit"

This research investigated the relationship between children's temperamental characteristics and adult behavior. Children were selected for four sex-by-temperament groups on the basis of parent report of temperament and were observed interacting with either a highly controlling or a very permissive adult. The results indicated that the degree of adult control or demands is an important component in understanding the "goodness of fit" between parent behavior and child characteristics and that a child's temperament and its relationship to adult behavior cannot be considered in isolation from other child characteristics, particularly the child's sex. Children's sex and temperament were found to interact in relationship with adult controlling behavior while no child behaviors varied as a function of sex or temperament alone. Adults were found to adjust their controlling behavior as a function of the child's sex and temperament. The results are discussed in light of the cross-sex effects of social reinforcement.

Reinforcer variation: implications for motivating developmentally disabled children

Motivating developmentally disabled children to participate in educational activities can be very difficult. This is especially true for children diagnosed autistic. Because there is some evidence to suggest that stimulus variation may influence motivation, the present study investigated the effects of constant vs. varied reinforcer presentation on correct responding and on-task behavior. Results from a reversal design showed declining trends in both correct responding and on-task behavior when the same reinforcer was consistently presented, whereas, varying the reinforcers produced significantly improved and stable responding. the results are discussed in relation to the literature on stimulus variation and its effects on responsiveness.

Biological factors in childhood hyperkinesis: a review of genetic and biochemical hypotheses

Reviewed research related to prevailing hypotheses with regard to the influence of genetic and biochemical factors in childhood hyperkinesis. Studies focused on establishing the influence of genetic factors are methodologically weak but consistently suggest that genetic transmission is a plausible, if incomplete, explanation in some cases. Studies that involve attempts to understand the underlying biochemical mechanisms of hyperactivity by studying the relationships among behavior patterns, psychophysiological measures, and variations in monamine levels have been disappointing.

Documentation of change in problem behaviors among anxious and hostile-aggressive children enrolled in a therapeutic preschool program

A relatively simple, straightforward procedure is utilized to identify and document changes in problem behaviors among children enrolled in a therapeutic preschool program. Results of two outcome measures indicated a significant overall reduction in problem behaviors for the total group. When subgroups of anxious and hostile/aggressive children were considered, however, there was a significantly greater probability that anxious children would benefit more from the program than hostile/aggressive children. The need to consider subgroups of patients when documented treatment effectiveness is emphasized, and the advantage of building documentation techniques into the record-keeping system is discussed.

Adult perception of infant appearance: a review

Recent research is reviewed which deals with adult perception of variations in specific features of infant appearance. While there is relative consensus as to the general features which compose the "babyishness" ideal type, there is less work examining the representative variation of these specific features as a function of gestational age or infant population. An important distinction is made between behavioral expressivity and morphological appearance. Research on infant behavioral assessment and social expressiveness is assessed with regard to how well different studies account for the distinct influence of behavioral expressivity and morphological appearance. Several ways of accounting for the functional significance of infant appearance are presented and speculation is given as to the effect of infant appearance on the developing adult-infant relationship.

Compliance training and behavioral covariation in the treatment of multiple behavior problems

The present study investigated the use of a compliance-training procedure and its effect on untreated deviant child behaviors. Three children, each generally noncompliant to adult requests and with several additional problems, such as crying, aggression, and self-injurious behavior, were trained in the compliance procedure under a multiple-baseline design across therapists. Compliance was defined as the correct response to prespecified requests. Other classes of deviant child behavior were measured continuously throughout the study but not directly reinforced. The results of the study showed that (a) increases in compliance to requests were directly related to the contingencies employed; (b) decreases in untreated deviant behaviors occurred when compliance increased, even though no direct contingencies had been placed on these behaviors; and (c) the relationship between untreated deviant behaviors and compliance appeared to be maintained by a different set of events in each of the three children. The results are discussed in terms of behavioral covariation and generalization.

Issues in the implementation of extended school year programs for handicapped students

For some severely and profoundly handicapped children who have a regression-recoupment disability, the lengthy interruption in school programing during the summer months poses serious obstacles to learning. As a result of court decisions in Armstrong v. Kline and Battle v. Commonwealth, the public schools now have an obligation to identify these children and to provide programs suited to their needs. School personnel are urged to take the initiative in developing quality extended school year programs that accommodate the need for clear eligibility criteria based on valid and reliable student performance data, reducing the number of students in need through effective instruction and parent/home involvement; exploring the use of alternative service models; identifying funding mechanisms for extended year programs; and operating programs cost effectively.

Normal peer models and autistic children's learning

Present research and legislation regarding mainstreaming autistic children into normal classrooms have raised the importance of studying whether autistic children can benefit from observing normal peer models. The present investigation systematically assessed whether autistic children's learning of discrimination tasks could be improved if they observed normal children perform the tasks correctly. In the context of a multiple baseline design, four autistic children worked on five discrimination tasks that their teachers reported were posing difficulty. Throughout the baseline condition the children evidenced very low levels of correct responding on all five tasks. In the subsequent treatment condition, when normal peers modeled correct responses, the autistic children's correct responding increased dramatically. In each case, the peer modeling procedure produced rapid achievement of the acquisition which was maintained after the peer models were removed. These results are discussed in relation to issues concerning observational learning and in relation to the implications for mainstreaming autistic children into normal classrooms.