Triterpene antioxidants from ganoderma lucidum

Pharmacokinetics of ganoderic acids a and f after oral administration of ling zhi preparation in healthy male volunteers

The objectives of this paper were to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of ganoderic acids A and F after a single oral dose of the water extract of MG2-strain Ling Zhi (MG2FB-WE) and to assess the influence of food on the pharmacokinetics in 12 healthy male volunteers. This study was a single-dose, open-label, randomized, two-phase crossover study with at least 2 wk washout period. Each subject was randomly assigned to receive a single oral dose of 3,000 mg of MG2FB-WE in granular formulation dissolved in 200 mL of warm water, either under a fasting condition, or immediately after a standard breakfast (fed condition). Blood samples were collected immediately before and at specific time points until 8 h after MG2FB-WE administration. Plasma ganoderic acids A and F concentrations were determined by using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) technique. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetic profile of both ganoderic acids under a fasting condition was characterized by rapid absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (T_max at approximately 30 min) and a short elimination half-life (<40 min). Food significantly decreased C_max and delayed T_max, but did not affect the extent of ganoderic acid A absorption. However, concomitant food intake markedly impeded both rate and extent of ganoderic acid F absorption.

Apoptotic and Immune Restoration Effects of Ganoderic Acids Define a New Prospective for Complementary Treatment of Cancer

Considering the fact that a key factor in tumor development is the evasion of immune detection, the search for natural products, which have reduced toxicity towards normal tissues as well as immunostimulatory capabilities has received growing interest. One attractive source of antitumor products is the Ganoderma lucidum mushroom, which has been used for centuries as an herbal medicine for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, and has been shown to improve immune function. Interestingly, its methanol soluble triterpenoid extracts, namely Ganoderic Acids (GAs), have been the subject of several recent investigations on their chemotherapeutic effects. While current research has revealed GAs' role in inducing apoptosis of cancer cells with a much lower toxicity to healthy cells, little information is available on their in vitro and/or in vivo immune activities. In this review, we aim to discuss the current knowledge on GAs, and their potential as apoptosis inducing as well as immune activating molecules that could be a potential alternative approach for designing novel chemoimmunotherapeutics against malignant diseases. We also discuss other new approaches for exploiting the advantages of using a nanoparticle polymer-GA conjugate as a tool for a sustained and targeted delivery of drug in vivo.

Semisynthesis and biological evaluation of ganodermanontriol and its stereoisomeric triols

The first synthesis of ganodermanontriol, a bioactive lanostane triterpene from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum, has been achieved in 15.3% yield over nine steps, along with its three stereoisomeric triols and ganoderol A. The key steps leading to this family of isomers involve the reconstruction of the trisubstituted alkene by stereoselective and chemoselective phosphonate reactions and the formation of the unusual Δ7,9(11)-diene core by the mild acidic opening of a lanosterone-derived epoxide. Ganodermanontriol showed promising activity on the inhibition and proliferation of breast cancer cells. The effect of ganodermanontriol and its isomers on cell proliferation was assayed; IC50 values of 5.8 and 9.7 μM on breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively, were found for ganodermanontriol.

Study of potential cardioprotective effects ofGanoderma lucidum(Lingzhi): results of a controlled human intervention trial

Previous studies have suggested that Lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum) has antioxidant effects and possibly beneficial effects on blood pressure, plasma lipids and glucose, but these have not been confirmed in subjects with mild hypertension or hyperlipidaemia. The objective of the present study was to assess the cardiovascular, metabolic, antioxidant and immunomodulatory responses to therapy with Lingzhi in patients with borderline elevations of blood pressure and/or cholesterol in a controlled cross-over trial. A total of twenty-six patients received 1·44 g Lingzhi daily or matching placebo for 12 weeks in a randomised, double-blind, cross-over study with placebo-controlled run-in and cross-over periods. Body weight, blood pressure, metabolic parameters, urine catecholamines and cortisol, antioxidant status and lymphocyte subsets were measured after each period. Lingzhi was well tolerated and data from twenty-three evaluable subjects showed no changes in BMI or blood pressure when treated with Lingzhi or placebo. Plasma insulin and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance were lower after treatment with Lingzhi than after placebo. TAG decreased and HDL-cholesterol increased with Lingzhi but not with placebo in the first treatment period, but significant carry-over effects prevented complete analysis of these parameters. Urine catecholamines and cortisol, plasma antioxidant status and blood lymphocyte subsets showed no significant differences across treatments. Results indicate that Lingzhi might have mild antidiabetic effects and potentially improve the dyslipidaemia of diabetes, as shown previously in some animal studies. Further studies are desirable in patients with hyperglycaemia.

Induction of apoptosis in the SW620 colon carcinoma cell line by triterpene-enriched extracts from Ganoderma lucidum through activation of caspase-3

The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been used for the treatment of various diseases, and is known for the immune-enhancing activity of its polysaccharide. However, little is known about another of its major constituents, triterpene. This study investigated the anticancer mechanism of a triterpene-enriched extract from G. lucidum. The triterpene-enriched extract, GLAI, was prepared from fruiting bodies of G. lucidum by sequential hot water extraction, removal of ethanol-insoluble polysaccharides and gel-filtration chromatography. The mechanisms of GLAI-induced apoptosis on SW620 human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells were investigated. Tumor cell lines in vitro were treated with different concentrations of GLAI. Cell proliferation was measured by the Alamar blue assay, morphology of cell apoptosis was observed, cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry (FCM) and caspase-3 activity was detected by Caspase-3 cellular activity assay. The results showed that GLAI inhibited the growth of different tumor cells and caused significant apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. Marked morphological changes of cell apoptosis were observed after the cells had been exposed to GLAI for 24 h. The Caspase-3 assay results showed that the activity of the caspase-3 enzyme increased in both a time- and dose-dependent manner, whereas GLAI resulted in the down-regulation of Bcl-2 gene expression at the mRNA level and XIAP protein production at the protein level. Conversely, GLAI up-regulates the expression of the apoptosis enhancer Bax gene and p53 protein. These findings suggest that the triterpenes contained in G. lucidum are potential anticancer agents.

Isolation and Identification of Mushroom Pathogens from Agrocybe aegerita

Agrocybe aegerita is an important mushroom cultivated in Korea, with good feel and a peculiar fragrance. A. aegerita can be cultivated throughout the year using culture bottles but is more susceptible to contamination than other mushrooms. Twenty-two pathogens were isolated from the fruiting bodies and compost of A. aegerita, and seven isolates were isolated from Pleurotus ostreatus to compare with the A. aegerita isolates, collected from Gimje, Iksan, Gunsan of Chonbuk, and Chilgok of Gyeongbuk Province in 2009. These isolates were identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics. Of the 29 isolates, 26 were identified as Trichoderma spp. and the remaining three were Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp., and Penicillium spp. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the 26 isolates of Trichoderma were divided into four taxa, namely T. harzianum, T. pleuroticola, T. longibrachiatum, and T. atroviride. Among the Trichoderma spp., 16 isolates (55.2%) were identified as T. harzianum, six as T. pleuroticola (20.7%), two as T. longibrachiatum, and the remaining two were T. atroviride.

Triterpenes from Ganoderma Lucidum induce autophagy in colon cancer through the inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated kinase (p38 MAPK)

Medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most esteemed natural products that have been used in the traditional Chinese medicine. In this article, we demonstrate that G. lucidum triterpene extract (GLT) suppresses proliferation of human colon cancer cells HT-29 and inhibits tumor growth in a xenograft model of colon cancer. These effects of GLT are associated with the cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 and the induction of the programmed cell death Type II-autophagy in colon cancer cells. Here, we show that GLT induces formation of autophagic vacuoles and upregulates expression of Beclin-1 (1.3-fold increase) and LC-3 (7.3-fold increase) proteins in colon cancer cells and in tumors in a xenograft model (Beclin-1, 3.9-fold increase; LC-3, 1.9-fold increase). Autophagy is mediated through the inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) because p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB202190, induces autophagy and expression of Beclin-1 (1.2-fold increase) and LC-3 (7.4-fold increase), and GLT suppresses phosphorylation of p38 MAPK ( approximately 60% inhibition) in colon cancer cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate a novel mechanism responsible for the inhibition of colon cancer cells by G. lucidum and suggest GLT as natural product for the treatment of colon cancer.

Anticancer properties of Ganoderma lucidum methanol extracts in vitro and in vivo

Anticancer activities of various extracts of the medicinal mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum, have been widely demonstrated and are mainly associated with the presence of different bioactive polysaccharides and triterpenoids. We have evaluated and compared in vitro and in vivo the antitumor effects of two preparations from Ganoderma lucidum: a methanol extract containing total terpenoids (GLme) and a purified methanol extract containing mainly acidic terpenoids (GLpme). Both extracts inhibited tumor growth of B16 mouse melanoma cells inoculated subcutaneously into syngeneic C57BL/6 mice and reduced viability of B16 cells in vitro, whereby GLme exhibited stronger effect. Furthermore, anticancer activity of GLme was demonstrated for the first time against two other rodent tumor cell lines, L929-mouse fibrosarcoma and C6-rat astrocytoma. The mechanism of antitumor activity of GLme comprised inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death mediated by upregulated p53 and inhibited Bcl-2 expression. Moreover, the antitumor effect of the GLme was associated with intensified production of reactive oxygen species, whereas their neutralization by the antioxidant, N-acetyl cysteine, resulted in partial recovery of cell viability. Thus, our results suggest that GLme might be a good candidate for treatment of diverse forms of cancers.

The dual roles of Ganoderma antioxidants on urothelial cell DNA under carcinogenic attack

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Ganoderma lucidum possesses significant antioxidant and anti-cancer properties. The effects of Lingzhi antioxidants on oxidative DNA damage and oxidative stress were investigated, in order to understand their roles in bladder chemoprevention.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antioxidant-enhanced extracts were tested, in terms of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH.) inhibition, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) concentrations, and cytotoxicity, using an in vitro pre-cancerous human uroepithelial cell (HUC-PC) tumorigenic model.

RESULTS

Water-soluble extract (GLw) possesses relatively higher antioxidant capacities than the water-insoluble counterpart (GLe); however, under the challenge of carcinogenic 4-aminobiphenyl (ABP), GLw reduced the 8-OHdG concentration in HUC-PC culture, while GLe induced the formation of H(2)O(2) and 8-OHdG in a dose-dependent manner. The modern theory of antioxidant-oxidant balance seems to obey the theory of Yin-Yang in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

CONCLUSIONS

Water-soluble and water-insoluble components of Ganoderma lucidum exhibited dual roles in oxidative DNA damage. Oxidative DNA damage may be an underlying mechanism of Lingzhi-induced apoptosis in bladder chemoprevention.

Lucidenic acid B induces apoptosis in human leukemia cells via a mitochondria-mediated pathway

Ganoderma lucidum is known as a medicinal mushroom used in traditional Chinese medicine. In the present study, the effect of lucidenic acids (A, B, C, and N) isolated from a new G. lucidum (YK-02) on induction of cell apoptosis and the apoptotic pathway in HL-60 cells were investigated. The results demonstrated that lucidenic acids decreased cell population growth of HL-60 cells, assessed with the MTT assay. The cell cycle assay indicated that treatment of HL-60 cells with lucidenic acid A, C, and N caused cell cycle arrest in the G 1 phase. Lucidenic acid B (LAB) did not affect the cell cycle profile; however, it increased the number of early and late apoptotic cells but not necrotic cells. Treatment of HL-60 cells with LAB caused loss of mitochondria membrane potential. Moreover, the ratio of expression levels of pro- and antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members was changed by LAB treatment. LAB-induced apoptosis involved release of mitochondria cytochrome c and subsequently induced the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, which were followed by cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Pretreatment with a general caspase-9 inhibitor (Z-LEHD-FMK) and caspase-3 inhibitor (Z-DEVD-FMK) prevented LAB from inhibiting cell viability in HL-60 cells. Our finding may be critical to the chemopreventive potential of lucidenic acid B.

Safety and efficacy of Ganoderma lucidum (lingzhi) and San Miao San supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot trial

OBJECTIVE

To examine the efficacy of popular Chinese herbs used in a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) combination of Ganoderma lucidum and San Miao San (SMS), with purported diverse health benefits including antioxidant properties in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

We randomly assigned 32 patients with active RA, despite disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, to TCM and 33 to placebo in addition to their current medications for 24 weeks. The TCM group received G lucidum (4 gm) and SMS (2.4 gm) daily. The primary outcome was the number of patients achieving American College of Rheumatology (ACR) 20% response and secondary outcomes included changes in the ACR components, plasma levels, and ex vivo-induced cytokines and chemokines and oxidative stress markers.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine percent completed the 24-week study. Fifteen percent in the TCM group compared with 9.1% in the placebo group achieved ACR20 (P > 0.05). Pain score and patient's global score improved significantly only in the TCM group. The percentage, absolute counts, and CD4+/CD8+/natural killer/B lymphocytes ratio were unchanged between groups. CD3, CD4, and CD8 lymphocyte counts and markers of inflammation including plasma interleukin-18 (IL-18), interferon-gamma (IFNgamma)-inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, monokine induced by IFNgamma, and RANTES were unchanged. However, in an ex vivo experiment, the percentage change of IL-18 was significantly lower in the TCM group. Thirteen patients reported 22 episodes (14 in placebo group and 8 in TCM group) of mild adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

G lucidum and San Miao San may have analgesic effects for patients with active RA, and were generally safe and well tolerated. However, no significant antioxidant, antiinflammatory, or immunomodulating effects could be demonstrated.

Unique formosan mushroom Antrodia camphorata differentially inhibits androgen-responsive LNCaP and -independent PC-3 prostate cancer cells

Antrodia camphorata (AC), a precious and unique folkloric medicinal mushroom enriched in polyphenolics, isoflavonoids, triterpenoids, and polysaccharides, has been diversely used in Formosa (Taiwan) since the 18th century. In this study, prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines PC-3 (androgen independent) and LNCaP (androgen responsive) were treated with AC crude extract (ACCE) at 50-200 microg/mL, respectively, for 48 h. At the minimum effective dose 150 microg/mL, LNCaP showed a G1/S phase arrest with significant apoptosis. Such dose-dependent behavior of LNCaP cells in response to ACCE was confirmed to proceed as Akt-->p53-->p21-->CDK4/cyclin D1-->G1/S-phase arrest-->apoptosis, which involved inhibiting cyclin D1 activity and preventing pRb phosphorylation. In contrast, being without p53, PC-3 cells showed a G2/M-phase arrest mediated through pathway p21-->cyclin B1/Cdc2-->G2/M-phase arrest, however, with limited degree of apoptosis, implicating that ACCE is able to differentially inhibit the growth of different PCa cells by modulating different cell cycle signaling pathways. We conclude that this unique Formosan mushroom, A. camphorata, due to its nontoxicity, might be used as a good adjuvant anticancer therapy for prostate cancers despite its androgen-responsive behaviors, which has long been a serious drawback often encountered clinically in hormonal refractory cases treated by antihormonal therapies and chemotherapeutics.

Analysis of triterpenoids in ganoderma lucidum using liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Triterpenoids extracted from Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst were separated and characterized using optimized reversed-phase liquid chromatography with diode array detection and electrospray ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS(n)). They could be classified into five types depending on the fragmentation behavior. All triterpenoids gave [M - H](-) and [2M - H](-) ions by electrospray ionization monitored in the negative ion mode; in addition, compounds of types III and IV gave prominent [M - H - H(2)O](-) ions and the unsaturated bond at C-20, 22 would reduce the abundance of [M - H - H(2)O](-) ion. The key fragmentation information was cleavage at C- and D-rings despite the predominant losses of H(2)O and CO(2). Compounds with hydroxyls at C-7 and C-15 would produce a list of b, b - 1, b - 2, and b - 16 ions attributed to cleavage of D-ring; if the second alcohol at C-15 were oxidized to ketone, the prominent cleavage would occur at C-ring and produce a group of ions of a; if C-7 were oxidized to ketone, transference of two hydrogen atoms would occur during the cleavage of rings and a list of ions about a + 2 and/or b + 2 would appear instead. The above fragmentations and regularities in fragmentation pathways were reported for the first time, and were implemented for the analysis of triterpenoids in G. lucidum. The chloroform extract was separated on a Zorbax SB-C(18) column, eluting with an acetonitrile-0.2% acetic acid gradient. A total of 32 triterpenoids, including six new ones, were identified or tentatively characterized based on the tandem mass spectra of the HPLC peaks.

HPLC determination of four triterpenoids in rat urine after oral administration of total triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum

A sensitive and simple high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was applied for the quantitative determination of four major triterpenoids (ganoderic acids C(2), B, K and H) in rat urine after oral administration of total triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum. The urine sample was extracted with dichloromethane-ethyl acetate (90:10) after acidification by hydrochloric acid (0.2 mol/ml). Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Zorbax SB-C(18) column (250 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 microm) at 35 degrees C, with a linear gradient of acetonitrile and 0.03% aqueous phosphoric acid (v/v), at a flow rate of 1.2 ml/min. The four triterpenoids and internal standard (hydrocortisone) were detected at a wavelength 252 nm. The within- and between-day assay coefficients of variation for the four triterpenoids in urine were less than 9% and the extraction recovery of this method was higher than 90%. Using this method, the excretion profile of the triterpenoids in rat urine after oral administration of total triterpenoids of G. lucidum was revealed for the first time.

Ganoderma - a therapeutic fungal biofactory

Ganoderma is a basidiomycete white rot fungus which has been used for medicinal purposes for centuries particularly in China, Japan and Korea. A great deal of work has been carried out on Ganoderma lucidum. The common names for preparations include Lingzhi, Munnertake, Sachitake, Reishi and Youngzhi. This review collates the publications detailing activities and compounds by representative species whilst considering the most valid claims of effectiveness. The biological activities reported of preparations from Ganoderma are remarkable and given most emphasis herein as distinct from structure/activity information. The metabolites consist of mainly polysaccharides and terpenoids. Many are activities against the major diseases of our time and so the present review is of great importance. The list of effects is huge ranging from anti-cancer to relieving blockages of the bladder. However, the reports have not all been tested scientifically with the convincing evidence is reserved for assays of pure compounds. It is a prime example of an ancient remedy being of great relevance to the modern era. There does appear to be an assumption that the therapeutic effects attributed to the fungus have been proven. The next step is to produce some effective medicines which may be hampered by problems of mass production.

Ganoderma lucidum causes apoptosis in leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma cells

Over many centuries, herbal remedies have treated a variety of ailments. This empiric observational approach has produced a number of leads for formulated medicines. Ganoderma lucidum extract was screened for its anti-proliferative activity using a panel of 26 human cancer cell lines. The six most sensitive hematologic cell lines were: HL-60 (ED50 26 microg/ml), U937 (63 microg/ml), K562 (50 microg/ml), Blin-1 (38 microg/ml), Nalm-6 (30 microg/ml) and RPMI8226 (40 microg/ml). Cell cycle analyses revealed a G2/M arrest, most prominently in HL-60 cells. Four hematopoietic cell lines (HL-60, Blin-1, U937, RPMI8226) were examined for apoptosis, which ranged between 21 and 92%. After exposure to G. lucidum extract, HL-60 cells became multinucleated with an increased DNA content. These results indicate that G. lucidum extract has a profound activity against leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma cells and may be a novel adjunctive therapy for the treatment of hematologic malignancies.

Transcriptionally mediated inhibition of telomerase of fungal immunomodulatory protein from Ganoderma tsugae in A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cell line

Telomerase expression is the hallmark of tumor cells, and activation of this ribonucleoprotein complex may be a rate-limiting or critical step in cellular immortalization and oncogenesis. Fungal immunomodulatory protein, FIP-gts, has been isolated from Ganoderma tsugae. In the present study, we expressed and purified the recombinant fungal immunomodulatory protein reFIP-gts in E. coli. We found that reFIP-gts significantly and selectively inhibits the growth of A549 cancer cells while not affecting the growth of normal MRC-5 fibroblasts. The reFIP-gts suppression of telomerase activity is concentration-dependent, due to the downregulation of the telomerase catalytic subunit (hTERT). It also happens at the mRNA level. These results were confirmed by transient transfections of A549 cells with pGL3-Basic plasmid constructs containing the functional hTERT promoter and its E-box-deleted sequences cloned upstream of a luciferase reporter gene. With electrophoretic mobility shift assays and Western blotting, we demonstrated that in response to reFIP-gts, binding of c-myc transcriptional factor to the E-box sequence on the hTERT promoter is inhibited. These results show that reFIP-gts suppresses telomerase activity and inhibits transcriptional regulation of hTERT via a c-myc-responsive element-dependent mechanism. Our findings provide new insight into both the anticancer function of reFIP-gts and the regulation of hTERT/telomerase expression, which may be valuable in the development of a promising chemopreventive agent.

Enhanced induction of mitochondrial damage and apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells by the Ganoderma lucidum and Duchesnea chrysantha extracts

Combined treatment with the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum and the herb Duchesnea chrysantha extracts (GDE) causes a synergistic induction of mitochondrial damage and apoptosis in HL-60 cells. GDE treatment is selectively toxic to HL-60 leukemia cells whereas no cytotoxic effect is observed in normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. GDE-induced apoptosis is associated with Bcl-2 down-regulation, Bax translocation, mitochondrial cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation, suggesting that apoptosis by this combination occurs through the mitochondria-dependent pathway. The present findings suggest that this combination merits further investigation as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer.

Ameliorative effect of Ganoderma lucidum on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in rats

AIM: To investigate the effects of Reishi mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum extract (GLE), on liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in rats.

METHODS: Rat hepatic fibrosis was induced by CCl₄. Forty Wistar rats were divided randomly into 4 groups: control, CCl₄, and two GLE groups. Except for rats in control group, all rats were administered orally with CCl₄ (20%, 0.2 mL/100 g body weight) twice a week for 8 weeks. Rats in GLE groups were treated daily with GLE (1 600 or 600 mg/kg) via gastrogavage throughout the whole experimental period. Liver function parameters, such as ALT, AST, albumin, and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio, spleen weight and hepatic amounts of protein, malondiladehyde (MDA) and hydroxyproline (HP) were determined. Histochemical staining of Sirius red was performed. Expression of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT1) 1A and MAT2A mRNA were detected by using RT-PCR.

RESULTS: CCl₄ caused liver fibrosis, featuring increase in plasma transaminases, hepatic MDA and HP contents, and spleen weight; and decrease in plasma albumin, A/G ratio and hepatic protein level. Compared with CCl₄ group, GLE (600, 1 600 mg/kg) treatment significantly increased plasma albumin level and A/G ratio (P  < 0.05) and reduced the hepatic HP content (P < 0.01). GLE (1 600 mg/kg) treatment markedly decreased the activities of transaminases (P  < 0.05), spleen weight (P  < 0.05) and hepatic MDA content (P  < 0.05); but increased hepatic protein level (P  < 0.05). Liver histology in the GLE (1 600 mg/kg)-treated rats was also improved (P  < 0.01). RT-PCR analysis showed that GLE treatment decreased the expression of TGF-β1 (P  < 0.05-0.001) and changed the expression of MAT1A (P  < 0.05-0.01) and MAT2A (P  < 0.05-0.001).

CONCLUSION: Oral administration of GLE significantly reduces CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats, probably by exerting a protective effect against hepatocellular necrosis by its free-radical scavenging ability.

Anticancer Effects of Ganoderma lucidum: A Review of Scientific Evidence

"Lingzhi" (Ganoderma lucidum), a popular medicinal mushroom, has been used in China for longevity and health promotion since ancient times. Investigations into the anticancer activity of lingzhi have been performed in both in vitro and in vivo studies, supporting its application for cancer treatment and prevention. The proposed anticancer activity of lingzhi has prompted its usage by cancer patients. It remains debatable as to whether lingzhi is a food supplement for health maintenance or actually a therapeutic "drug" for medical proposes. Thus far there has been no report of human trials using lingzhi as a direct anticancer agent, despite some evidence showing the usage of lingzhi as a potential supplement to cancer patients. Cellular immune responses and mitogenic reactivity of cancer patients have been enhanced by lingzhi, as reported in two randomized and one nonrandomized trials, and the quality of life of 65% of lung cancer patients improved in one study. The direct cytotoxic and anti-angiogenesis mechanisms of lingzhi have been established by in vitro studies; however, clinical studies should not be neglected to define the applicable dosage in vivo. At present, lingzhi is a health food supplement to support cancer patients, yet the evidence supporting the potential of direct in vivo anticancer effects should not be underestimated. Lingzhi or its products can be classified as an anticancer agent when current and more direct scientific evidence becomes available.

A Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study of the Platelet and Global Hemostatic Effects of Ganoderma Lucidum (Ling-Zhi) in Healthy Volunteers

Ganoderma lucidum is a Chinese herbal medicine popular with cancer patients. Previous in vitro studies suggested that Ganoderma lucidum might impair hemostasis. In this prospective, randomized double-blind study, healthy volunteers received orally Ganoderma lucidum capsules 1.5 g (n = 20) or placebo (n = 20) daily for 4 wk. We monitored subjects before drug administration and at 4 and 8 wk thereafter by routine coagulation screen, fibrinogen concentration, von Willebrand ristocetin cofactor activity, platelet function analyzer PFA-100, and thrombelastography. There were no significant between-group differences and all measurements remained within the normal range. Ganoderma lucidum ingestion over 4 wk was not associated with impairment of hemostasis.

IMPLICATIONS

Ingestion of Ganoderma lucidum does not cause impairment of hemostatic function in healthy volunteers, despite earlier in vitro reports that it may cause platelet inhibition and may have other antithrombotic and fibrinolytic activity. The use of Ganoderma lucidum preoperatively is unlikely to increase the risk of surgical bleeding in otherwise healthy patients.

Ganoderma lucidum inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in macrophages

Nitric oxide (NO) is a principal mediator in many physiological and pathological processes. Overproduction of NO via the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) has cytotoxic effect through the formation of peroxynitrite with superoxide anion. The iNOS is mainly expressed in macrophages and is able to produce large amount of NO. The expression of iNOS is mainly regulated at the transcriptional level. The iNOS-mediated NO production plays a role in the development of atherosclerosis. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum, Linzhi or Reishi) is a traditional herbal medicine which is commonly used as health supplement. Several studies have demonstrated its effectiveness against cancer, immunological disorders and cardiovascular diseases. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of G. lucidum on iNOS-mediated NO production in macrophages. Human monocytic cell (THP-1) derived macrophages were incubated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 24 h. Such treatment significantly stimulated NO production (253% versus the control). Such a stimulatory effect was resulted from increased iNOS mRNA expression (270% versus the control) and iNOS activity (169.5% versus the control) in macrophages. The superoxide anion level was also elevated (150% versus the control) in LPS-treated macrophages. Treatment of macrophages with G. lucidum extract (100 microg/ml) completely abolished LPS-induced iNOS mRNA expression and NO production. Such an inhibitory effect of G. lucidum was mediated via its antioxidant action against LPS-induced superoxide anion generation in macrophages. These results suggest that G. lucidum may exert a therapeutic effect against atherosclerosis via ameliorating iNOS-mediated NO overproduction in macrophages.

Ganoderma lucidum ('Lingzhi'); acute and short-term biomarker response to supplementation

Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi) is a popular Chinese herb with an impressive array of reputed health benefits, including antioxidant properties. However, these require scientific validation. The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro antioxidant capacity of Lingzhi, absorption and systemic distribution of Lingzhi antioxidants, and effects of short-term (10 days) supplementation on biomarkers of antioxidant status, coronary heart disease (CHD) risk and DNA damage. In this double-blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over intervention study, blood and urine samples were collected from 10 healthy volunteers at 0 (fasting) and 45, 90, 135 and 180 min post-ingestion of a single dose (1.1g) of Lingzhi. Repeat fasting samples were collected after 10 days' supplementation with 0.72 g/d Lingzhi. The acute response (up to 3 hours) was also investigated with a larger dose (3.3 g) of Lingzhi (n=7). Results showed that the total antioxidant capacity (as the FRAP value) of an aqueous suspension of Lingzhi was 360 micromol/g. Ingestion of Lingzhi caused a significant post-ingestion increase (mean+/-SEM 23+/-3 micromol/L; P<0.05) in plasma antioxidant capacity, with peak response at 90 min. Average increase of 29+/-11% (P<0.05) in urine antioxidant capacity was seen within 3 hours of ingestion. After 10 days' supplementation with 0.72 g per day of Lingzhi, fasting plasma lipid standardised alpha-tocopherol concentration and urine antioxidant capacity increased (P<0.05). Fasting plasma ascorbic acid and total alpha-tocopherol concentrations and erythrocyte SOD and GPx activities increased slightly but non-significantly with supplementation. Plasma lipids and uric acid tended to decrease, but changes were not statistically significant. No discernable differences were seen in other variables measured. Results indicate that Lingzhi intake causes an acute increase in plasma antioxidant capacity. No deleterious effects on measured variables were seen. The pattern of biomarker response after supplementation indicated possible benefit in terms of antioxidant status and CHD risk, but further study is needed to elucidate the nature and longer-term effects of the absorbable antioxidants from Lingzhi.

Cholesterol-lowering properties of Ganoderma lucidum in vitro, ex vivo, and in hamsters and minipigs

INTRODUCTION

There has been renewed interest in mushroom medicinal properties. We studied cholesterol lowering properties of Ganoderma lucidum (Gl), a renowned medicinal species.

RESULTS

Organic fractions containing oxygenated lanosterol derivatives inhibited cholesterol synthesis in T9A4 hepatocytes. In hamsters, 5% Gl did not effect LDL; but decreased total cholesterol (TC) 9.8%, and HDL 11.2%. Gl (2.5 and 5%) had effects on several fecal neutral sterols and bile acids. Both Gl doses reduced hepatic microsomal ex-vivo HMG-CoA reductase activity. In minipigs, 2.5 Gl decreased TC, LDL- and HDL cholesterol 20, 27, and 18%, respectively (P < 0.05); increased fecal cholestanol and coprostanol; and decreased cholate.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, Gl has potential to reduce LDL cholesterol in vivo through various mechanisms. Next steps are to: fully characterize bioactive components in lipid soluble/insoluble fractions; evaluate bioactivity of isolated fractions; and examine human cholesterol lowering properties. Innovative new cholesterol-lowering foods and medicines containing Gl are envisioned.

Triterpene-enriched extracts from Ganoderma lucidum inhibit growth of hepatoma cells via suppressing protein kinase C, activating mitogen-activated protein kinases and G2-phase cell cycle arrest

The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been used in the Orient for the prevention and treatment of various diseases including cancer. Except for the immune enhancing properties of its polysaccharide constituent, very little is known about the anticancer activity of another major constituent, triterpenes. In this report, we studied the anticancer mechanism of triterpene-enriched extracts from G. lucidum. The triterpene-enriched fraction, WEES-G6, was prepared from mycelia of G. lucidum by sequential hot water extraction, removal of ethanol-insoluble polysaccharides and then gel-filtration chromatography. We found that WEES-G6 inhibited growth of human hepatoma Huh-7 cells, but not Chang liver cells, a normal human liver cell line. Treatment with WEES-G6 caused a rapid decrease in the activity of cell growth regulative protein, PKC, and the activation of JNK and p38 MAP kinases. The changes in these molecules resulted in a prolonged G2 cell cycle phase and strong growth inhibition. None of these effects were seen in the normal liver cells. Our findings suggest that the triterpenes contained in G. lucidum are potential anticancer agents.

Antitumor activity of the sporoderm-broken germinating spores of Ganoderma lucidum

The inhibitory effects of the dormant spores, the germinating spores, the sporoderm-broken germinating spores (SBGS), and the lipids extracted from the germinating spores of Ganoderma lucidum on the growth of mouse hepatoma, sarcoma S-180, and reticulocyte sarcoma L-II cells were investigated, respectively. The dormant spores could be activated by germination, and thus the bioactivities of the spores might be enhanced. The sporoderm-broken spores could show much higher bioactivities than the whole spores. Both the lipids extracted from the germinating spores and the SBGS of G. lucidum had remarkable antitumor effects in a dose-dependent manner, and could significantly inhibit three tumors with an inhibition of 80-90%.

Evaluation of the hepatic and renal-protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum in mice

The antioxidative effect of hot water extract of the mushroom Ganoderma lucidum on ethanol-induced free radical generation had been studied. In order to further investigate the hepatic and renal protective mechanism of Ganoderma lucidum, rates of lipid peroxidation were determined. The hot water extract of Ganoderma lucidum dose-dependently exhibited antioxidative effect on mouse liver and kidney lipid peroxidation; our results indicated that hepatic and renal homogenates have a higher malonic dialdehyde level in an ethanol administered group than in the Ganoderma lucidum treated group. It was concluded that the hepatic and renal protective mechanism of Ganoderma lucidum, might be due at least in part to its prominent superoxide scavenging effect. Ganoderma extract could protect the liver and kidney from superoxide induced hepatic and renal damages.